57-458: Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي , Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī ), c. 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE , often known as (al-)Razi or by his Latin name Rhazes , also rendered Rhasis , was a Persian physician , philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age . He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in
114-465: A Muslim mathematician, philosopher, and natural scientist . This is al-Razi's most famous book. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy. In this book al-Razi divides the subject of " matter ' into three categories, as in his previous book Al-Asrar . Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Jabir ibn Hayyan , al-Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring
171-484: A Wise and Perfect Creator ), listed under his works on the "divine sciences". None of his works on religion are now extant in full. Sarah Stroumsa has argued that al-Razi was a freethinker who rejected all revealed religions. However, Peter Adamson , Marwan Rashed and others hold that al-Razi did not reject revealed religion, on the basis of more recent evidence found in the writings of the theologian and philosopher Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (died 1210). Adamson states: It
228-407: A bimaristan's head. He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, The Spiritual Physic and Al-Mansūrī on Medicine . Because of his newly acquired popularity as physician, al-Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in a new hospital named after its founder al-Muʿtaḍid (d. 902 CE). Under the reign of Al-Mutadid's son, Al-Muktafi (r. 902–908) al-Razi
285-564: A degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. ( Cf. I. E. Goodman) This line of criticism essentially had the potential to completely refute Galen's theory of humors, as well as Aristotle's theory of the four elements , on which it was grounded. Al-Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity , which were not readily explained by
342-573: A famous Persian scholar. In 910 or 911, he was appointed as governor of Sistan by Ahmad Samani. However, Abu Salih's oppressive taxation policies sparked a revolt in Sistan in 912, led by the Khariji Muhammad ibn Hurmuz , who was a supporter of the Saffarid Amr ibn Ya'qub . Abu Salih was taken prisoner until the rebellion was crushed by a Samanid army under Husain ibn 'Ali Marvarrudhi in 913. 'Amr
399-420: A general attack on prophecy or religion as Abū Ḥātim would have us think. Latinization (literature) Latinisation (or Latinization ) of names , also known as onomastic Latinisation , is the practice of rendering a non - Latin name in a modern Latin style. It is commonly found with historical proper names , including personal names and toponyms , and in the standard binomial nomenclature of
456-441: A market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results. Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose , to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which
513-581: A piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative , " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate , 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice ( opium ), Cuscuta epithymum (clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh , saffron , and frankincense , 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets . Each tablet
570-741: A playful element of punning. Such names could be a cover for humble social origins. The title of the " Wilhelmus ", national anthem of the Netherlands , preserves a Latinised form of the name of William the Silent . In English, place names often appear in Latinised form. This is a result of many early text books mentioning the places being written in Latin. Because of this, the English language often uses Latinised forms of foreign place names instead of anglicised forms or
627-632: A series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi 's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mun founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom ' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar (الاسرار "The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar (سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of
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#1732851912480684-792: A silver object to imitate gold ( gold leafing ) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals ( alum , calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty ) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Al-Razi classified minerals into six divisions: Al-Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes: Although al-Razi wrote extensively on philosophy, most of his works on this subject are now lost. Most of his religio-philosophical ideas, including his belief in five "eternal principles", are only known from fragments and testimonies found in other authors, who were often strongly opposed to his thought. Al-Razi's metaphysical doctrine derives from
741-463: A treatise Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb , or Who Has No Physician to Attend Him , with medical advice. One former pupil from Tabaristan came to look after him, but as al-Biruni wrote, al-Razi rewarded him for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching. According to Biruni, al-Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age. Biruni, who considered al-Razi his mentor, among
798-508: A very pronounced redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Encyclopaedia of Medicine) Al-Razi compared the outcome of patients with meningitis treated with blood-letting with the outcome of those treated without it to see if blood-letting could help. Al-Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of " mercurial ointments" and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until
855-513: Is evident from the title of one of his works, Doubts About Galen . A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to al-Razi. Many sources claim that al-Razi viewed prophecy and revealed religion as unnecessary and delusional, claiming that all humans have the ability to access and discover truth (including the existence of God) through God-given reason. According to these sources, his skepticism of prophecy and view that no one group or religion has privileged access to
912-431: Is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his observations and discoveries. An early proponent of experimental medicine , he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of Baghdad and Ray hospitals. As a teacher of medicine , he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. He
969-451: Is possible... Al-Razi's works present the first systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. 'The Secrets' ( al-Asrar , Kitāb al-Asrār , 'Book of Secrets' ) was written in response to a request from al-Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Muhammad ibn Yunis al-Bukhari ,
1026-701: Is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim , a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou , and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe. The al-Hawi also criticized the views of Galen , after al-Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of urinary ailments were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while al-Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in hospitals of Baghdad and Rey. Al-Razi
1083-559: Is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies. This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynaecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery. This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber ( جامع الكبير )—contains considerations and criticism on
1140-426: Is uncertain. One account mentioned by Ibn Juljul attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron, Mansur ibn Ishaq , for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories; while Abulfaraj and Casiri claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only. Allegedly, he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the eye contain and when he
1197-501: Is worth noting that Stroumsa’s work predates Rashed’s discovery of this evidence in Fakhr al-Dīn, so that she did not have the benefit of being able to consider how this new information could be reconciled with the Proofs. That is the goal I will set for myself in this chapter. I should lay my cards on the table and say that I am persuaded by Rashed’s account, and do not believe that Razi was staging
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#17328519124801254-573: The Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato , and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider al-Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages . The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of al-Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It
1311-495: The Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's. He criticized Galen's theory that
1368-634: The Tricks of False Prophets ). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions" and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets." However, Biruni also listed some other works of al-Razi on religion, including Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat ( Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies ) and Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman ( That Man has
1425-401: The body possessed four separate " humors " (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to
1482-642: The early 19th century, Europe had largely abandoned Latin as a scholarly language (most scientific studies and scholarly publications are printed in English), but a variety of fields still use Latin terminology as the norm. By tradition, it is still common in some fields to name new discoveries in Latin. And because Western science became dominant during the 18th and 19th centuries, the use of Latin names in many scholarly fields has gained worldwide acceptance, at least when European languages are being used for communication. Mansur ibn Ishaq Abu Salih Mansur (died 915)
1539-428: The early twentieth century. On a professional level, al-Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which
1596-558: The first penned a short biography of al-Razi including a bibliography of his numerous works. Ibn al-Nadim recorded an account by al-Razi of a Chinese student who copied down all of Galen 's works in Chinese as al-Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5 months and attended al-Razi's lectures. After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In an undated catalog of
1653-449: The greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author". Additionally, he has been described as the father of pediatrics , and a pioneer of obstetrics and ophthalmology . Al-Razi was born in the city of Ray (modern Rey, also the origin of his name "al-Razi"), into a family of Persian stock and was a native speaker of Persian language . Ray
1710-541: The history of medicine, and also wrote on logic , astronomy and grammar . He is also known for his criticism of religion , especially with regard to the concepts of prophethood and revelation . However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which also included a belief in five "eternal principles", are fragmentary and only reported by authors who were often hostile to him. A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and
1767-428: The library at Peterborough Abbey , most likely from the 14th century, al-Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine. Al-Razi was one of the world's first great medical experts. He is considered the father of psychology and psychotherapy. Al-Razi wrote: Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on
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1824-757: The life sciences. It goes further than romanisation , which is the transliteration of a word to the Latin alphabet from another script (e.g. Cyrillic ). For authors writing in Latin, this change allows the name to function grammatically in a sentence through declension . In a scientific context, the main purpose of Latinisation may be to produce a name which is internationally consistent. Latinisation may be carried out by: Humanist names, assumed by Renaissance humanists , were largely Latinised names, though in some cases (e.g. Melanchthon ) they invoked Ancient Greek . Latinisation in humanist names may consist of translation from vernacular European languages, sometimes involving
1881-482: The man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim
1938-677: The original names. Examples of Latinised names for countries or regions are: Latinisation is a common practice for scientific names . For example, Livistona , the name of a genus of palm trees, is a Latinisation of Livingstone . During the age of the Roman Empire , translation of names into Latin (in the West) or Greek (in the East) was common. Additionally, Latinised versions of Greek substantives , particularly proper nouns , could easily be declined by Latin speakers with minimal modification of
1995-627: The original word. During the medieval period , after the Empire collapsed in Western Europe , the main bastion of scholarship was the Roman Catholic Church , for which Latin was the primary written language. In the early medieval period, most European scholars were priests and most educated people spoke Latin, and as a result, Latin became firmly established as the scholarly language for the West. By
2052-489: The patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of
2109-410: The physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, al-Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician. He also wrote the following on medical ethics : The doctor's aim
2166-523: The previous work. Apparently al-Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted al-Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that al-Razi
2223-498: The request of one of the Byzantine emperors. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation show al-Razi's medical methods. For example, he wrote: The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by
2280-443: The skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as "bubbles found in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can also occur at other times (meaning: not only during childhood). The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic. Al-Razi's book al-Judari wa al-Hasbah ( On Smallpox and Measles )
2337-474: The theory of the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles ( soul , matter , time, and place ). He accepted a pre-socratic type of atomism of the bodies, and for that he differed from both the falasifa and the mutakallimun . While he was influenced by Plato and the medical writers, mainly Galen , he rejected taqlid and thus expressed criticism about some of their views. This
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2394-429: The traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements. Al-Razi's challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory was quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labours, saying: I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize
2451-593: The truth is driven by his view that all people have an equal basic capacity for rationality and discovery of truth, and that apparent differences in this capacity are simply a feature of interest, opportunity, and effort. Because of his supposed rejection of prophecy and acceptance of reason as the primary method for accessing the truth, al-Razi came to be admired as a freethinker by some. According to al-Biruni's Bibliography of al-Razi ( Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī ), al-Razi wrote two "heretical books": " Fī al-Nubuwwāt ( On Prophecies ) and " Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn ( On
2508-401: The voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with "measles" than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with
2565-598: Was a Samanid prince, who served as governor during the reign of his uncle Isma'il ibn Ahmad , his cousin Ahmad Samani , and Nasr II . Abu Salih governed several provinces during the reign of Isma'il ibn Ahmad and Ahmad Samani. The first time he is mentioned as a governor is in 902 when he was appointed as governor of Ray by Isma'il ibn Ahmad who had conquered territory as far as Qazvin in Iran. During his governorship of Ray, he became friends with Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi ,
2622-579: Was commissioned to build a new hospital, which should be the largest of the Abbasid Caliphate . To pick the future hospital's location, al-Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an evidence-based approach suggesting having fresh meat hung in various places throughout the city and to build the hospital where meat took longest to rot. He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from glaucoma . His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The cause of his blindness
2679-406: Was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, al-Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy
2736-407: Was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all students would fail to answer, al-Razi himself would consider the query. Al-Razi was a generous person by nature, with a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them
2793-511: Was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual ( remedial ) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveller, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Al-Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary,
2850-410: Was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied": I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it
2907-514: Was sent to Samarkand , while the other rebel leaders were killed. Simjur al-Dawati then replaced Mansur as governor of Sistan. In 914, Mansur was appointed governor of Khorasan, but anarchy was unleashed by the death of Ahmad ibn Ismail and the ascent to the throne of the 8-year-old child Nasr II . Mansur's father, Ishaq ibn Ahmad , revolted in Samarkand , while Mansur proclaimed himself as Emir of Nishapur , and several other cities. Mansur died
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#17328519124802964-529: Was situated on the Great Silk Road that for centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. It is located on the southern slopes of the Alborz mountain range situated near Tehran , Iran. In his youth, al-Razi moved to Baghdad where he studied and practiced at the local bimaristan (hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by Mansur ibn Ishaq , then the governor of Ray, and became
3021-457: Was the first book describing smallpox and measles as distinct diseases. The work was translated into Syriac, then into Greek. It became known in Europe through this Greek translation, as well as Latin translations based on the Greek text, and was later translated into several European languages. Neither the date nor the author of the Syriac and Greek versions is known; but the Greek was created at
3078-593: Was the first to clinically distinguish between smallpox and measles , and suggest sound treatment for the former. Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West. Some volumes of his work Al-Mansuri , namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities. Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably
3135-537: Was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops. Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr , the Samanid governor of Ray. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona around 1180. A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius . In his book Doubts about Galen , al-Razi rejects several claims made by
3192-568: Was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published. Al-Razi's The Diseases of Children was the first monograph to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine. Al-Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim 's book, The Philosopher's Stone ( Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed
3249-457: Was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy". The lectures of al-Razi attracted many students. As Ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist , al-Razi was considered a shaikh , an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several circles of students. When someone raised a question, it
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