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122-567: In spite of the initial total dependence of this client state on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions in the aftermath of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 as the cornerstone proto-state of the nascent Second Polish Republic , the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland, and therefore played a crucial role in the resurrection of Polish statehood. The decision to propose

244-675: A Provisional Council of State ( Polish : Tymczasowa Rada Stanu ) was established as a provisional government, consisting of 15 members chosen by the German and ten by the Austrian authorities. The magnate Waclaw Niemojowski was appointed Crown Marshal , with Józef Mikułowski-Pomorski acting as his deputy. Franciszek Pius Radziwiłł and Józef Piłsudski were put in charge of the Military Commission. The Council's first proclamation espoused monarchical government , Poland's expansion towards

366-491: A client state are satellite state , associated state , and dominion , condominium , self-governing colony , and neo-colony , protectorate , vassal state , puppet state , and tributary state . Ancient states such as Persia and Parthia , Greek city-states , Ancient China and Ancient Rome sometimes created client states by making the leaders of that state subservient, having to provide tribute and soldiers. Classical Athens , for example, forced weaker states into

488-571: A " border strip " to Germany, a policy earlier suggested by a letter to the German government by members of Poland's German minority, settled around Łódź . Such plans were agreed to in principle by the German government in March 1918 and in April gained support in the Prussian House of Lords , but were strongly opposed by General Beseler in a report to Emperor Wilhelm. In July, Ludendorff specified his plans in

610-715: A "political general strike " in Warsaw on 14 February and the resignation of the Jan Kucharzewski administration later that month. Parts of the Polish auxiliary corps under Józef Haller protested by breaking through the Austro-Russian front line to Ukraine , where they united with Polish detachments which had left the Tsarist army. After a fierce battle with the German army at Kaniów in May,

732-565: A German Governor General in Warsaw and an Austrian counterpart in Lublin . During the German military campaign in the ethnically Polish territory, Poles were subjected to forced labour and confiscation of food and private property. After the German offensive failed in the Battle of Verdun and Austria suffered military setbacks against Italy, Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff , now supreme commanders of

854-485: A German prince and have its military, transportation, and economy controlled by Germany. Its army and railway network would be placed under Prussian command. In several memoranda sent during 1915 and 1916, Hans Hartwig von Beseler , the Governor-General of the Polish areas under German control, proposed the establishment of an independent Polish state. Under the influence of General Erich Ludendorff , then in effect

976-502: A German protectorate. The borders of this "autonomous" Poland were to be changed in favour of Germany with the annexation of the so-called " Polish Border Strip " which would lead to the annexation of considerable parts of Polish territory that had been part of the Russian partition of Poland. By the end of 1916, Germany wanted to annex almost 30,000 square kilometres of Polish territory. These lands were to be settled by ethnic Germans , while

1098-571: A Polish quasi-government, the Supreme National Committee , and had three different ideas regarding Poland. One, the "Austro-Polish Solution", involved the creation of a Polish kingdom under the Emperor of Austria , who, among his other titles, was already King of Galicia and Lodomeria . German and Magyar (Hungarian) elements within the Habsburg monarchy opposed such a move for fear of creating

1220-466: A Polish state along the lines intended by Germany would result in the loss of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, they similarly proposed to award only its western part to Poland, while East Galicia and the whole of Volhynia were to be separated in order to create a Ukrainian client state. The German representative Max Hoffmann expressed a belief that "independent Poland was always considered by me to be

1342-494: A Polish state would be created, without specifying any future Polish ruler, Polish borders or system of governance and, for the first time since 1831, had the Warsaw Royal Castle decorated with Polish flags. The Austrian Governor-General Kuk issued a similar proclamation at Lublin. A pro-German faction led by Władysław Studnicki existed but didn't gain any significant backing among the Polish population. Immediately after

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1464-525: A client state. In the early 20th century, this was converted to direct rule . Manchukuo , in contrast, remained a puppet state throughout World War II. Soviet proxy, "satellite" , or client states included much of the Warsaw Pact member states whose policies were heavily influenced by Soviet military power and economic aid. Other nations with Marxist–Leninist governments were routinely criticised as being Soviet proxies as well, among them Cuba following

1586-630: A distinct German ethnic identity began to emerge among at least some them living within the Holy Roman Empire. However, variants of the same term were also used in the Low Countries , for the related dialects of what is still called Dutch in English, which is now a national language of the Netherlands and Belgium . The first information about the peoples living in what is now Germany was provided by

1708-583: A diverse group, dominating a much larger area than Germany, stretching to the Vistula in the east, and Scandinavia in the north. German ethnicity began to emerge in medieval times among the descendants of those Germanic peoples who had lived under heavy Roman influence between the Rhine and Elbe rivers. This included Franks , Frisians , Saxons , Thuringii , Alemanni and Baiuvarii - all of whom spoke related dialects of West Germanic . These peoples had come under

1830-513: A great landowner and formerly the leading Polish politician in the Russian Duma . The Regency Council was ceremonially installed on 15 October, the anniversary of Tadeusz Kościuszko 's death, and on 26 November, appointed Jan Kucharzewski , a lawyer who had been working in the government since June, as Prime Minister. Administration, however, strictly remained in the hands of German authorities, now headed by Otto von Steinmeister . In March 1918,

1952-457: A memorandum, proposing annexing a greatly enlarged "border strip" of 20,000 square kilometers. In August, Emperor Charles of Austria insisted on the Austro-Polish option, forbidding Archduke Charles Stephen from accepting the crown and declaring his opposition to any German plans for annexation, but General Ludendorff reaffirmed the "border strip" plan, while Poles refused to yield any part of

2074-617: A policy would secure an "anti-Russian inclination [toward] the new Poland". Similar plans were advanced by influential German intellectuals in the early years of the war. Among them were Hans Delbrück , Friedrich Naumann , and Paul Rohrbach . They generally argued that because Polish nationalism and Polish society were so highly developed, Germany would encounter severe resistance if they attempted to annex large territories in Poland. They concluded that Germany could only effectively project power into Poland by establishing an autonomous Polish state as

2196-456: A predominantly Slavic area. Unlike Emperor Francis Joseph , however, Charles I of Austria , who had acceded to the Habsburg thrones in 1916, promoted the idea. The other two ideas involved the division of former Congress Poland between Germany and Austria-Hungary, or between Austria-Hungary and a state built from Lithuania, Belarus and the remnants of Congress Poland to create a new version of

2318-924: A radio telegram to "Mr President of the United States, the Royal English Government, the Government of the French Republic, the Royal Italian Government, the Imperial Japanese Government, the Government of the German Republic, as well as the governments of all the warring or neutral states”, notifying them about the establishment of an independent Polish State, named in the telegram as the Polish Republic. On 17th November, both

2440-534: A resolution of the German Reichstag called for the establishment of a native civil administration in Poland, Kurland and Lithuania . However, the German authorities refused to transfer administration to Polish authorities and merely considered Poles as candidates to be trained under German supervision. In August 1918, Achille Ratti arrived in Warsaw as an apostolic visitor to adjust the Catholic Church to

2562-505: A shared descent, culture, and history. Völkisch elements identified Germanness with "a shared Christian heritage" and "biological essence", to the exclusion of the notable Jewish minority. After the Holocaust and the downfall of Nazism, "any confident sense of Germanness had become suspect, if not impossible". East Germany and West Germany both sought to build up an identity on historical or ideological lines, distancing themselves both from

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2684-522: A unified and independent Poland (on 22 January 1917) and the downfall of the Emperor of Russia in the February Revolution strengthened the Polish forces favoring a neutral or pro- Entente stance. On 21 April, the Council of State had passed a proclamation in favor of the Polish army ( German : Polnische Wehrmacht ) and appointed Colonel Sikorski to oversee recruitment. The relationship between

2806-440: A utopia, and I have no doubts regarding my support for Ukrainian claims." This approach resulted in the signing on 9 February of the initially secret First Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Central Powers and the new state of Ukraine , which ceded to the latter the province of Chełm separated from Congress Poland by Russia in 1913. When it became public, many in Poland regarded this as a " Fourth partition of Poland ", prompting

2928-605: Is an important part of German culture, particularly in Southern Germany and the Rhineland . An important German festival is the Oktoberfest . A steadily shrinking majority of Germans are Christians . About a third are Roman Catholics , while one third adheres to Protestantism . Another third does not profess any religion. Christian holidays such as Christmas and Easter are celebrated by many Germans. The number of Muslims

3050-579: Is based on High German and Central German , and is the first or second language of most Germans, but notably not the Volga Germans . Low German , which is often considered to be a distinct language from both German and Dutch, was the historical language of most of northern Germany, and is still spoken by many Germans, often as a second language. It is estimated that there are over 100 million Germans today, most of whom live in Germany, where they constitute

3172-505: Is growing. There is also a notable Jewish community, which was decimated in the Holocaust . Remembering the Holocaust is an important part of German culture. A German ethnic identity began to emerge during the early medieval period . These peoples came to be referred to by the High German term diutisc , which means "ethnic" or "relating to the people". The German endonym Deutsche is derived from this word. In subsequent centuries,

3294-611: Is ranked third among countries of the world in the number of total recipients. The English term Germans is derived from the ethnonym Germani , which was used for Germanic peoples in ancient times. Since the early modern period, it has been the most common name for the Germans in English. The term Germans may also be applied to any citizens, natives or inhabitants of Germany, regardless of whether they are considered to have German ethnicity. In some contexts, people of German descent are also called Germans. In historical discussions

3416-643: Is sometimes used pejoratively, to characterise the relationship with France as neocolonial. The former colonies provide oil and minerals important to the French economy , and in some, French companies have commercial interests. The Indian princely states were nominally sovereign entities in the British Empire and in 1947, were given a choice to either accede to independent India or Pakistan or get independence (the Nizam of Hyderabad did opt for independence but his kingdom

3538-558: The Act of 5th November , and in a letter to the German government demanded the annexation of western Poland by Germany and settlement of ethnic Germans in those areas. German candidates for the throne were disputed between the royal houses of Saxony , Württemberg and Bavaria . Bavaria demanded that their Prince Leopold , the Supreme Commander of the German forces on the Eastern front, become

3660-616: The Cold War , but were reunified in 1990. Although there were fears that the reunified Germany might resume nationalist politics, the country is today widely regarded as a "stablizing actor in the heart of Europe" and a "promoter of democratic integration". German is the native language of most Germans. It is the key marker of German ethnic identity. German is a West Germanic language closely related to Frisian (in particular North Frisian and Saterland Frisian ), Luxembourgish , English , Dutch , and Low German . Modern Standard German

3782-725: The Congress of Vienna (1815), and left most of the German states loosely united under the German Confederation . The confederation came to be dominated by the Catholic Austrian Empire , to the dismay of many German nationalists, who saw the German Confederation as an inadequate answer to the German Question . Throughout the 19th century, Prussia continued to grow in power. In 1848 , German revolutionaries set up

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3904-1041: The Cuban Revolution , the Chinese Soviet Republic , North Korea , North Vietnam , the Socialist Republic of Vietnam , South Yemen , the People's Republic of Angola , the People's Republic of Mozambique , and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan . Within the Soviet Union itself, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR , had seats at the United Nations , but were actually proper Soviet territory. Germans Germans ( German : Deutsche , pronounced [ˈdɔʏtʃə] ) are

4026-510: The Delian League and in some cases imposed democratic governments on them. Later, Philip II of Macedon similarly imposed the League of Corinth . One of the most prolific users of client states was Republican Rome which, instead of conquering and then absorbing into an empire, chose to make client states out of those it defeated (e.g. Demetrius of Pharos ), a policy which was continued up until

4148-577: The French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula , Napoleon attempted to subjugate Portugal and Spain into a client Kingdom of Spain , but the French were eventually driven out of Iberia in a costly war. In the 20th century, France exercised a sphere of influence, or Françafrique over its former African colonies , and to some degree former Belgian colonies in Africa (which were also French-speaking). The term

4270-742: The Holy Roman Empire to create the Confederation of the Rhine , a client state created to provide a buffer between France and its two largest enemies to the east, Prussia and Austria . Two of those states were Napoleonic creations: the Kingdom of Westphalia , which was controlled by Jérôme Bonaparte , the Emperor's youngest brother; and the Grand Duchy of Würzburg as was Poland, then the Duchy of Warsaw . During

4392-511: The Kingdom of Italy under Napoleon's direct rule in the north, and the Kingdom of Naples in the south, first under Joseph Bonaparte and later under Marshal Joachim Murat . A third state was created in the Italian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Etruria . The Batavian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland , ruled by Napoleon's third brother, Louis Bonaparte . A total of 35 German states, all of them allies of France, seceded from

4514-553: The Kingdom of Poland , where they came to constitute a significant proportion of the population in many urban centers such as Gdańsk . During the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights began conquering the Old Prussians , and established what would eventually become the powerful German state of Prussia . Further south, Bohemia and Hungary developed as kingdoms with their own non-German speaking elites. The Austrian March on

4636-690: The Middle Danube stopped expanding eastwards towards Hungary in the 11th century. Under Ottokar II , Bohemia (corresponding roughly to modern Czechia) became a kingdom within the empire, and even managed to take control of Austria, which was German-speaking. However, the late 13th century saw the election of Rudolf I of the House of Habsburg to the imperial throne, and he was able to acquire Austria for his own family. The Habsburgs would continue to play an important role in European history for centuries afterwards. Under

4758-810: The Parthenopean Republic in Southern Italy ), Greece ( Îles Ioniennes ), Switzerland (the Helvetic Republic and the Rhodanic Republic ), and Belgium and the Netherlands ( Batavian Republic ). During the First French Empire , while Napoleon I and the French Army occupied much of Europe , such states changed, and several new states were formed. The Italian republics were transformed into

4880-445: The Polish Border Strip . In order to avoid adding the Polish population there to the population of imperial Germany, it was proposed that the Poles would be ethnically cleansed to a proposed new Polish state further east, while the strip would be resettled with Germans. German Emperor Wilhelm II conceived of creating a dependent Polish state from territory conquered from Russia. This new autonomous Kingdom of Poland would be ruled by

5002-471: The Polska Siła Zbrojna — Hans Hartwig von Beseler (1 October 1915 – 11 November 1918); as well as the Austro-Hungarian Governors-General at Lublin: including Major General Erich Freiherr von Diller (1 October 1915 – 20 April 1916), Feldzeugmeister Karl Kuk (21 April 1916 – April 1917); as well as Major General Stanislaus Graf Szeptycki (April 1917 – 28 February 1918); and the Infantry General Anton Lipošćak (1 March – 11 November 1918). On 14 January 1917,

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5124-568: The Provisional Council of State (14 January – 15 August 1917) included Waclaw Niemojowski, Crown Marshall (14 January – 6 August 1917); Deputy Marshall Józef Mikułowski-Pomorski. Meanwhile, the Supreme National Committee continued since 1914 as the limited Polish authority in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . Both abovementioned bodies were dissolved after creation of the Regency Council (15 October 1917 – 14 November 1918), consisting of Archbishop Aleksander Kakowski , Prince Zdzisław Lubomirski , and Józef Ostrowski. A draft constitution

5246-412: The Romantic era saw a notable flourishing of German culture. Germans of this period who contributed significantly to the arts and sciences include the writers Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Friedrich Schiller , Johann Gottfried Herder , Friedrich Hölderlin , E. T. A. Hoffmann , Heinrich Heine , Novalis and the Brothers Grimm , the philosopher Immanuel Kant , the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel ,

5368-578: The Sharifate of Mecca , and the Sultanate of Aceh . Austria-Hungary tried to make Serbia a client state in order to form a Christian opposition to the Ottoman Empire , but after the 1903 May Coup , Serbia came under the influence of Russia , which was forming a pan- Eastern Orthodox opposition to the Latin Christianity represented by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1914, Russia repeatedly warned Austria-Hungary against attacking Serbia. When it did attack, Russia mobilised its army. Russia also wanted Bulgaria and Montenegro as client states. At

5490-401: The celtic La Tène culture . However, the Germanic languages associated with later Germanic peoples were approaching the Rhine area since at least the 2nd century BC. The resulting demographic situation reported by Caesar was that migrating Celts and Germanic peoples were moving into areas which threatened the Alpine regions and the Romans. The modern German language is a descendant of

5612-409: The "humiliation of Versailles", continuing traditions of authoritarian and antisemitic ideologies, and the Great Depression all contributed to the rise of Austrian-born Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, who after coming to power democratically in the early 1930s, abolished the Weimar Republic and formed the totalitarian Third Reich . In his quest to subjugate Europe, six million Jews were murdered in

5734-402: The 10th century, forming the core of the Holy Roman Empire . In subsequent centuries the political power and population of this empire grew considerably. It expanded eastwards, and eventually a substantial number of Germans migrated further eastwards into Eastern Europe . The empire itself was politically divided between many small princedoms, cities and bishoprics. Following the Reformation in

5856-446: The 16th century, many of these states found themselves in bitter conflict concerning the rise of Protestantism . In the 19th century, the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, and German nationalism began to grow. At the same time however, the concept of German nationality became more complex. The multiethnic Kingdom of Prussia incorporated most Germans into its German Empire in 1871, and a substantial additional number of Germans were in

5978-406: The 1795 dissolved Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . According to Polish historian Janusz Pajewski "the Austrians had underestimated Germany's desire to determine Poland's fate". They did recognise, according to Prime Minister Karl von Stürgkh , that " Poles will remain Poles [...] even 150 years after Galicia was joined to Austria , Poles still didn't become Austrians ". Of the candidates for

6100-433: The 1st century BCE when it became the Roman Empire . Sometimes the client was not a former enemy but a pretender whom Rome helped, Herod the Great being a well-known example. The use of client states continued through the Middle Ages as the feudal system began to take hold. The number of tributary or vassal states varied over time but most notable were the Khanate of Crimea , Wallachia , Moldavia , Transylvania ,

6222-511: The Central Powers and the Polish legions became increasingly difficult, especially after the powers barred Austrian subjects from the Legions (now called the Polish auxiliary corps, Polski Korpus Posilkowy ), aiming to divert them into the regular Austrian army. Piłsudski agreed to serve in the government, and acted as minister of war . Piłsudski had abstained from the vote on the Polish army's oath, and on 2 July resigned together with two left-wing State Councillors. The new army's oath drafted by

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6344-411: The Elbe river. It is likely that first Germanic consonant shift , which defines the Germanic language family, occurred during this period. The earlier Nordic Bronze Age of southern Scandinavia also shows definite population and material continuities with the Jastorf Culture, but it is unclear whether these indicate ethnic continuity. Under Caesar's successors, the Romans began to conquer and control

6466-462: The German Chief of the General Staff, had rejected the idea in January, followed by Bethmann Hollweg in February. Bethmann Hollweg had been willing to see an Austrian candidate on the new Polish throne, so long as Germany retained control over the Polish economy, resources and army. During the first year of the war, German and Austrian troops quickly conquered Russian Vistula Land , former Congress Poland , and in 1915 divided its administration between

6588-442: The German and Austrian leadership agreed to accelerate the proclamation promising the creation of a Polish state in the future. Although early plans called for an Austro-Polish solution, they were abandoned by the German Chancellor in February 1916 in the face of growing dependence of Austria-Hungary on Germany. Both control over Polish economy and raw resources was to be in Germany's hands and Germany would also be in total control over

6710-415: The German inventor Johannes Gutenberg contributed to the formation of a new understanding of faith and reason. At this time, the German monk Martin Luther pushed for reforms within the Catholic Church. Luther's efforts culminated in the Protestant Reformation . Religious schism was a leading cause of the Thirty Years' War , a conflict that tore apart the Holy Roman Empire and its neighbours, leading to

6832-456: The German lands were relatively decentralized, leading to the maintenance of a number of strong regional identities. The German nationalist movement emerged among German intellectuals in the late 18th century. They saw the Germans as a people united by language and advocated the unification of all Germans into a single nation state, which was partially achieved in 1871. By the late 19th and early 20th century, German identity came to be defined by

6954-415: The German lands. The Habsburg dynasty managed to maintain their grip upon the imperial throne in the early modern period . While the empire itself continued to be largely de-centralized, the Habsburgs own personal power increased outside of the core German lands. Charles V personally inherited control of the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the wealthy low countries (roughly modern Belgium, Luxembourg and

7076-407: The German language is widely seen as the primary, though not exclusive, criterion of German identity. Estimates on the total number of Germans in the world range from 100 to 150 million, most of whom live in Germany. The history of Germans as an ethnic group began with the separation of a distinct Kingdom of Germany from the eastern part of the Frankish Empire under the Ottonian dynasty in

7198-444: The German military and increasingly the dominant force over the politics of both Germany and Austria, changed their positions on Poland: having previously considered Poland as a bargaining card in the event of a separate peace with Russia, they now postulated the establishment of a German dependency, hoping that the creation of a Polish army could replace the Central Powers ' losses. In October 1916, at joint deliberations at Pszczyna ,

7320-414: The German minority was given a separate school system. Pending the election of a King of Poland, a Regency Council ( Polish : Rada Regencyjna ) was installed as a provisional government. On 18 September, the following members of the Council were named: Aleksander Kakowski , Archbishop of Warsaw ; aristocrat Prince Zdzisław Lubomirski who had served as mayor of Warsaw in 1916/17; and Józef Ostrowski ,

7442-431: The German states, including the German emperor Wilhelm II , were overthrown in the November Revolution which led to the establishment of the Weimar Republic . The Germans of the Austrian side of the Dual Monarchy proclaimed the Republic of German-Austria , and sought to be incorporated into the German state, but this was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and Treaty of Saint-Germain . What many Germans saw as

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7564-402: The Germanic languages which spread during the Iron Age and Roman era. Scholars generally agree that it is possible to speak of Germanic languages existing as early as 500 BCE. These Germanic languages are believed to have dispersed towards the Rhine from the direction of the Jastorf culture , which was itself a Celtic influenced culture that existed in the Pre-Roman Iron Age , in the region near

7686-424: The Germans in exchange for entry to Poland. Parallel efforts were made to remove Poles from Polish territories of the Prussian Partition . With the onset of the war in 1914, for the purposes of securing Germany's eastern border against the Russian imperial army , Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg , the German chancellor , decided on the annexation of a specific strip of land from Congress Poland , known later on as

7808-428: The Germans. By the late 18th century, German intellectuals such as Johann Gottfried Herder articulated the concept of a German identity rooted in language, and this notion helped spark the German nationalist movement, which sought to unify the Germans into a single nation state . Eventually, shared ancestry, culture and language (though not religion) came to define German nationalism. The Napoleonic Wars ended with

7930-439: The Holocaust led to World War II in which the Nazi regime was defeated by allied powers , led by the United States , the United Kingdom , and the former Soviet Union . In the aftermath of Germany's defeat in the war, the country was occupied and once again partitioned. Millions of Germans were expelled from Central and Eastern Europe. In 1990, West Germany and East Germany were reunified . In modern times, remembrance of

8052-449: The Holocaust . WWII resulted in widespread destruction and the deaths of tens of millions of soldiers and civilians, while the German state was partitioned. About 12 million Germans had to flee or were expelled from Eastern Europe. Significant damage was also done to the German reputation and identity, which became far less nationalistic than it previously was. The German states of West Germany and East Germany became focal points of

8174-474: The Holocaust, known as Erinnerungskultur ("culture of remembrance"), has become an integral part of German identity. Owing to their long history of political fragmentation, Germans are culturally diverse and often have strong regional identities. Arts and sciences are an integral part of German culture , and the Germans have been represented by many prominent personalities in a significant number of disciplines, including Nobel prize laureates where Germany

8296-400: The Nazi past and each other. After German reunification in 1990, the political discourse was characterized by the idea of a "shared, ethnoculturally defined Germanness", and the general climate became increasingly xenophobic during the 1990s. Today, discussion on Germanness may stress various aspects, such as commitment to pluralism and the German constitution ( constitutional patriotism ), or

8418-419: The Netherlands), the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia, and the Dukedom of Milan. Of these, the Bohemian and Hungarian titles remained connected to the imperial throne for centuries, making Austria a powerful multilingual empire in its own right. On the other hand, the low countries went to the Spanish crown and continued to evolve separately from Germany. The introduction of printing by

8540-452: The Polish Republic"), with Daszyński himself (a Socialist politician and formerly a member of the Austrian parliament) as Prime Minister and Colonel Edward Rydz-Śmigły as a military commander. Moderates in Warsaw, who now hoped for a return of General Piłsudski, who was still held in custody at Magdeburg , repudiated Lublin's declaration of the deposition of the Regency to be deposed and its plans for radical social reforms. Already in October,

8662-409: The Polish and Jewish population was to be removed. After the expected victory the Polish economy was to be dominated by Germany and preparations were made for German control over the Polish railway system, shipping in the Vistula and industrial areas in Dąbrowa basin , Radom and Kielce . Such plans were also proposed by members of the German minority in Poland in the Łódź area, who protested

8784-596: The Polish army. In the meantime, General Beseler had managed to gain support among pro-Austrian Poles and the followers of Józef Piłsudski . The Narodowa Demokracja party (centred in Paris ), however, rejected any cooperation with the Central Powers. After the German Emperor and Chancellor met with a Polish delegation led by Józef Brudziński , the final details were arranged. On 5 November 1916, Governor Beseler at Warsaw issued an Act of 5th November , in which he promised that

8906-519: The Regency Council had requested Piłsudski's release, and after negotiations through Harry Graf Kessler the General was allowed to return to Warsaw, where he arrived on 10 November. The following day Germany signed the armistice and German troops in Warsaw were disarmed as they refused to fire on Polish insurgents. On the same day Daszyński government ceded all authority to Piłsudski and resigned, while

9028-435: The Regency Council transferred to him its military authority. On 14 November the Council ceded also the remainder of its authority to Józef Piłsudski and voted itself out of existence. Already on the same day, Piłsudski issued in turn decree reappointing the [Daszyński] Government of the Polish Republic, in spite of the continued existence of Wróblewski provisional government of the Kingdom. On 16th November 1918, Piłsudski sent

9150-517: The Regency Council. On 4 November, the government was dismissed after an attempted coup d’état to depose the Regency Council, and was replaced by the provisional government of Władysław Wróblewski . However, another Polish government based in Lublin arose to challenge the Regency's authority: on 6 November Ignacy Daszyński proclaimed the "Polish People's Republic" ( Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej - literally: "Temporary People's Government of

9272-566: The Roman general and dictator Julius Caesar , who gave an account of his conquest of neighbouring Gaul in the 1st century BC. Gaul included parts of what is now Germany, west of the Rhine river. He specifically noted the potential future threat which could come from the related Germanic peoples ( Germani ) east of the river. Archaeological evidence shows that at the time of Caesar's invasion, both Gaul and Germanic regions had long been strongly influenced by

9394-654: The Russian Empire. However, the German High Command under Erich Ludendorff also wanted to annex around 30,000 square kilometers of the territory of former Congress Poland , and planned to evict up to 3 million Poles and Jews to make room for German colonists in the so-called Polish Border Strip plan. The German government used punitive threats to force Polish landowners living in the German-occupied Baltic states to relocate and sell their Baltic property to

9516-518: The altered political circumstances. This appointment was mainly due to the influence of German Chancellor Georg von Hertling and Eugenio Pacelli , since 1917 Nuncio to Bavaria in Munich. Ratti gained fame in 1920 for being the only diplomat to stay in Warsaw during the Polish–Soviet War and was elected as Pope Pius XI in 1922. Meanwhile, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson 's proclamation in favor of

9638-646: The arts and crafts. In the late Middle Ages the German economy grew under the influence of urban centers, which increased in size and wealth and formed powerful leagues, such as the Hanseatic League and the Swabian League , in order to protect their interests, often through supporting the German kings in their struggles with the nobility. These urban leagues significantly contributed to the development of German commerce and banking. German merchants of Hanseatic cities settled in cities throughout Northern Europe beyond

9760-523: The death of millions of Germans. The terms of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ending the war, included a major reduction in the central authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. Among the most powerful German states to emerge in the aftermath was Protestant Prussia , under the rule of the House of Hohenzollern . Charles V and his Habsburg dynasty defended Roman Catholicism. In the 18th century, German culture

9882-440: The director of Germany's eastern European operations, this proposal included the annexation of considerable amounts of land by Germany, Lithuania, and Austria-Hungary. Gerhard von Mutius , the cousin of Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg and the foreign office's representative at Beseler's headquarters, disputed the use of annexation, insisting that "if the military interests allow for it, divisions and secessions should be avoided", as such

10004-451: The dominance of the western Franks starting with Clovis I , who established control of the Romanized and Frankish population of Gaul in the 5th century, and began a process of conquering the peoples east of the Rhine. The regions long continued to be divided into " Stem duchies ", corresponding to the old ethnic designations. By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Europe were united under

10126-420: The east and supported an army of volunteers. A National Council served as a provisional parliament. The Councillors insisted on actual Polish autonomy and, on 21 April, were given authority over education, law courts, and propaganda . Still, students were dissatisfied with the extent of autonomy and organised a strike on 3 May, resulting in the temporary closing of all universities. The state authorities within

10248-845: The end of World War I , Austria-Hungary and the German Empire were partitioned, resulting in many Germans becoming ethnic minorities in newly established countries. In the chaotic years that followed, Adolf Hitler became the dictator of Nazi Germany and embarked on a genocidal campaign to unify all Germans under his leadership. His Nazi movement defined Germans in a very specific way which included Austrians , Luxembourgers , eastern Belgians , and so-called Volksdeutsche , who were ethnic Germans elsewhere in Europe and globally. However, this Nazi conception expressly excluded German citizens of Jewish or Roma background. Nazi policies of military aggression and its persecution of those deemed non-Germans in

10370-585: The entire region between the Rhine and the Elbe which centuries later constituted the largest part of medieval Germany. These efforts were significantly hampered by the victory of a local alliance led by Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, which is considered a defining moment in German history. While the Romans were nevertheless victorious, rather than installing a Roman administration they controlled

10492-454: The formation of a united German Empire . In the years following unification, German society was radically changed by numerous processes, including industrialization, rationalization, secularization and the rise of capitalism. German power increased considerably and numerous overseas colonies were established. During this time, the German population grew considerably, and many emigrated to other countries (mainly North America), contributing to

10614-459: The former Kingdom of Poland . Ludendorff agreed in turn to leave Wilno (and possibly Minsk ) to Poland, but this did little to soothe Polish sentiment, which regarded the return of Wilno as self-evident. Moreover, Germany's policy later shifted in favour of creating several smaller client states east of Poland, supported especially by the supreme command under Ludendorff, further heightening resistance to German presence on Polish territories. With

10736-507: The former Tsarist army — to Poland. In August, the legionaries arrested for refusing the oath were released and some again volunteered for the Polish army. In their proclamation of 5 November 1916, the Central Powers refused to determine the Polish borders. However, Poland's unspecified borders were threatened in the West as well: Late in 1917, the German supreme command had proposed annexing

10858-479: The gloomy military situation, had returned to Warsaw ill and dispirited. On 6 October, he handed over the administration to Polish civil servants. The Regency Council declared independence on 7 October 1918. On 23 October, the Regency Council installed the Świeżyński government, whom Beseler transferred the command over Polish forces (which by then included the Polish regiments of the Austro-Hungarian Army ) to

10980-404: The governors-general and passed by the Council of State resulted in a political crisis , especially since it was directed to an unspecified "future king" and emphasized the alliance with Germany and Austria. Several legionaries refused to take the oath and were arrested, prompting General Beseler to arrest Piłsudski, his associate Kazimierz Sosnkowski , and have them confined in Germany. In August,

11102-719: The growth of the German diaspora . Competition for colonies between the Great Powers contributed to the outbreak of World War I , in which the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires formed the Central Powers , an alliance that was ultimately defeated, with none of the empires comprising it surviving the aftermath of the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires were both dissolved and partitioned, resulting in millions of Germans becoming ethnic minorities in other countries. The monarchical rulers of

11224-499: The later control of powerful German dynasties it became an important region within modern Germany, and home to its modern capital, Berlin. German population also moved eastwards from the 11th century, in what is known as the Ostsiedlung . Over time, Slavic and German-speaking populations assimilated, meaning that many modern Germans have substantial Slavic ancestry. From the 12th century, many Germans settled as merchants and craftsmen in

11346-868: The leadership of Otto von Bismarck , Prussia expanded its sphere of influence and together with its German allies defeated Denmark in the Second Schleswig War and soon after Austria in the Austro-Prussian War , subsequently establishing the North German Confederation . In 1871, the Prussian coalition decisively defeated the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War , annexing the German speaking region of Alsace-Lorraine . After taking Paris, Prussia and their allies proclaimed

11468-458: The leadership of the Habsburgs the Holy Roman Empire itself remained weak, and by the late Middle Ages much of Lotharingia and Burgundy had come under the control of French dynasts, the House of Valois-Burgundy and House of Valois-Anjou . Step by step, Italy, Switzerland, Lorraine , and Savoy were no longer subject to effective imperial control. Trade increased and there was a specialization of

11590-503: The long-term separation between the states of West Francia , Middle Francia and East Francia . Beginning with Henry the Fowler , non-Frankish dynasties also ruled the eastern kingdom, and under his son Otto I , East Francia, which was mostly German, constituted the core of the Holy Roman Empire . Also under control of this loosely controlled empire were the previously independent kingdoms of Italy , Burgundy , and Lotharingia . The latter

11712-545: The majority of the population. There are also sizable populations of Germans in Austria, Switzerland, the United States, Brazil, France, Kazakhstan, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Poland, Italy, Hungary, Australia, South Africa, Chile, Paraguay, and Namibia. The Germans are marked by great regional diversity, which makes identifying a single German culture quite difficult. The arts and sciences have for centuries been an important part of German identity. The Age of Enlightenment and

11834-572: The multiethnic kingdom of Austria-Hungary . During this time, a large number of Germans also emigrated to the New World , particularly to the United States , especially to present-day Pennsylvania . Large numbers also emigrated to Canada and Brazil , and they established sizable communities in New Zealand and Australia . The Russian Empire also included a substantial German population. Following

11956-444: The natives or inhabitants of Germany , or sometimes more broadly any people who are of German descent or native speakers of the German language . The constitution of Germany , implemented in 1949 following the end of World War II , defines a German as a German citizen . During the 19th and much of the 20th century, discussions on German identity were dominated by concepts of a common language, culture, descent, and history. Today,

12078-483: The new Polish throne, Archduke Charles Stephen of Austria ( Polish : Karol Stefan ) and his son Charles Albert were early contenders. Both resided in the Galician town of Saybusch (now Żywiec) and spoke Polish fluently. Charles Stephen's daughters were married to the Polish aristocrats Princes Czartoryski and Radziwiłł . By early 1916, the "Austro-Polish Solution" had become hypothetical. Erich von Falkenhayn ,

12200-526: The new monarch. Württemberg's candidate Duke Albrecht was considered suitable for the throne because he belonged to the Catholic line of the house. The Saxon House of Wettin 's claim to the Polish throne was based on three previous Saxon rulers - Electors Augustus the Strong and Frederick Augustus II and King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony - having ruled over Poland before. Austria-Hungary allowed formation of

12322-400: The newly designated prime minister Daszyński and the provisional government of Wróblewski resigned in favour of the new Moraczewski government, finally ending the governmental diarchy. Therefore, either 14th November or 17th November may both be considered the final day of kingdom’s existence. The transition to republican government was formally completed through the decree of 22 November 1918 on

12444-573: The nobility for power. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, Germans actively participated in five Crusades to "liberate" the Holy Land . From the beginnings of the kingdom, its dynasties also participated in a push eastwards into Slavic-speaking regions. At the Saxon Eastern March in the north, the Polabian Slavs east of the Elbe were conquered over generations of often brutal conflict. Under

12566-469: The noble families, who often sought to have weak kings elected in order to preserve their own independence. This prevented an early unification of the Germans. A warrior nobility dominated the feudal German society of the Middle Ages, while most of the German population consisted of peasants with few political rights. The church played an important role among Germans in the Middle Ages, and competed with

12688-493: The painter Caspar David Friedrich , and the composers Johann Sebastian Bach , Ludwig van Beethoven , Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , Joseph Haydn , Johannes Brahms , Franz Schubert , Richard Strauss and Richard Wagner . Popular German dishes include brown bread and stew . Germans consume a high amount of alcohol , particularly beer, compared to other European peoples. Obesity is relatively widespread among Germans. Carnival (German: Karneval , Fasching , or Fastnacht )

12810-680: The policy of indirect rule . The term has also been applied to states which are extremely economically dependent on a more powerful nation. The three Pacific Ocean countries associated with the United States under the Compact of Free Association (the Federated States of Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau ) have been called client states. In the late 19th century, the Empire of Japan gradually reduced Joseon Korea 's status to that of

12932-442: The proclamation, the German governor-general in Warsaw issued an advertisement for military recruitment , resulting in Polish protests which especially decried the absence of a Polish government. In December 1916, a brigade of Polish legions under Stanisław Szeptycki moved into Warsaw to form the officer corps of the new Polish army. The occupation authorities included German Governor-General at Warsaw, commander-in-chief of

13054-595: The region indirectly for centuries, recruiting soldiers there, and playing the tribes off against each other. The early Germanic peoples were later famously described in more detail in Germania by the 1st century Roman historian Tacitus . At this time, the Germanic peoples, or Germani , were fragmented into a large number of peoples who were frequently in conflict with both the Roman Empire and one another. He described them as

13176-502: The remains of the Legions, roughly ten thousand soldiers, were transferred to the Eastern front. Crown Marshall Niemojowski resigned on 6 August and the Council disbanded on 25 August. After the oath crisis of 1917, recruitment to the Polish army had received scant support and achieved negligible results, reaching merely 5,000 men. In May 1918, the force was strengthened by General Józef Dowbór-Muśnicki moving his Polish corps — assembled from

13298-452: The remnants were interned, though Haller managed to escape to Moscow. The Regency Council sought admission to the negotiation regarding the future (Second) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Bolshevik government during travels to Berlin and Vienna early in 1918 but only gained German Chancellor Georg von Hertling 's promise to admit the Polish government in an advisory capacity. This, however,

13420-485: The restoration of Poland after a century of partitions was taken up by the German policymakers in an attempt to legitimize further imperial presence in the occupied territories and create a buffer state to prevent future wars with Russia. The plan was followed by the German propaganda pamphlet campaign delivered to the Poles in 1915, claiming that the German soldiers were arriving as liberators to free Poland from subjugation by

13542-667: The rule of the Frankish leader Charlemagne , who expanded the Frankish empire in several directions including east of the Rhine, consolidating power over the Saxons and Frisians , and establishing the Carolingian Empire . Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo I in 800. In the generations after Charlemagne the empire was partitioned at the Treaty of Verdun (843), eventually resulting in

13664-424: The sea". On 3 October the new German Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden , announced Germany's acceptance of Wilson's plan and immediate disestablishment of military administration in the countries occupied by Germany. Three days later the Regency Council in Warsaw also adopted Wilson's proposals as the basis for creating a Polish state. On 1 October, General Beseler had conferred with Hindenburg at Berlin and, informed of

13786-458: The support of the German military, the Council of Lithuania proclaimed an independent Lithuanian state on 11 December. Polish sentiment reacted strongly, as it considered Poland and Lithuania to be a historical union and especially since it regarded Wilno (Vilnius), the proposed new Lithuanian capital, as a Polish city. Meanwhile, as it was becoming clear to Austrian politicians that the creation of

13908-466: The supreme representational authority of the Polish Republic , which stipulated assumption by Piłsudski of the interim office of chief of state . Client state List of forms of government In the field of international relations , a client state , is a state that is economically, politically, and militarily subordinated to a more powerful controlling state . Alternative terms for

14030-564: The temporary Frankfurt Parliament , but failed in their aim of forming a united German homeland. The Prussians proposed an Erfurt Union of the German states, but this effort was torpedoed by the Austrians through the Punctation of Olmütz (1850), recreating the German Confederation. In response, Prussia sought to use the Zollverein customs union to increase its power among the German states. Under

14152-575: The term "Germans" is also occasionally used as a way to refer to members of the Germanic peoples during the time of the Roman Empire . The German endonym Deutsche is derived from the Old High German term diutisc , which means "ethnic" or "relating to the people". This term was used for speakers of West-Germanic languages in Central Europe since at least the 8th century, after which time

14274-749: The time, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary both considered Serbia as a client state controlled by Russia. During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras (1789–1815), France conquered most of western Europe and established several client states. At first, during the French Revolutionary Wars , these states were erected as " Républiques soeurs " (" sister republics "). They were established in Italy (the Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy and

14396-486: Was annexed by Indian forces in 1948). Egyptian independence in 1922 ended its brief status as a British protectorate and Iraq was made a kingdom in 1932. But in both cases, the economic and military reality did not amount to full independence, but a status where the local rulers were British clients. Other instances include Africa (e.g. Northern Nigeria under Lord Lugard ), and the Unfederated Malay States ;

14518-404: Was a Roman and Frankish area which contained some of the oldest and most important old German cities including Aachen , Cologne and Trier , all west of the Rhine. Leaders of the stem duchies which constituted this eastern kingdom — Bavaria , Franconia , Swabia , Thuringia , and Saxony ― continued to wield considerable power independently of the king. German kings were elected by members of

14640-598: Was proposed in 1917. After the intermission of the Temporary Committee of the Provisional Council of State ( Polish : Komisja Przejściowa Tymczasowej Rady Stanu ), the Central Powers introduced a provisional constitution, the patent , on 12 September 1917. The patent devised a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament but without ministerial responsibility . Only schools and courts were transferred to Polish authorities, but — under Polish protests —

14762-639: Was refused by the Bolshevik representatives, who denied the Polish government any legitimacy. After Germany's 1918 Spring Offensive had failed to win the war on the Western front, General Ludendorff in September proposed seeking peace based on the plan outlined by U.S. President Wilson in January 1918 in his Fourteen Points , which in regard to Poland demanded the creation of an "independent Polish state ... guaranteed by international covenant" with "free and secure access to

14884-509: Was significantly influenced by the Enlightenment . After centuries of political fragmentation, a sense of German unity began to emerge in the 18th century. The Holy Roman Empire continued to decline until being dissolved altogether by Napoleon in 1806. In central Europe, the Napoleonic wars ushered in great social, political and economic changes, and catalyzed a national awakening among

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