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59-600: They were named after their burials, which used large quantities of ochre , normally red, to cover both the bodies of the dead and grave goods. Sometimes they are known as the Moorehead Phase of the Laurentian Tradition or the Moorehead burial tradition after Warren K. Moorehead who brought them widely to the attention of scientists. They flourished between 3000 BCE and 1000 BCE. Alternatively, they can be called by

118-652: A colouring agent in Africa for over 200,000 years. Women of the Himba ethnic group in Namibia use a mix of ochre and animal fat for body decoration, to achieve a reddish skin colour. The ochre mixture is also applied to their hair after braiding. Men and women of the Maasai people in Kenya and Tanzania have also used ochre in the same way. In Ancient Egypt , yellow was associated with gold, which

177-483: A large collection of ochre samples from many sites across Australia. There are many words for ochre in Australian Aboriginal languages throughout Australia, including: The Māori people of New Zealand were found to be making extensive use of mineral ochre mixed with fish oil. Ochre was the predominant colouring agent used by Maori, and was used to paint their large waka taua (war canoe). Ochre prevented

236-433: A more lovely and perfect ochre pigment...And know that this ochre is a common pigment, particularly when working in fresco; that with other mixtures that, as i will explain to you, it is used for flesh colours, for drapery, for coloured mountains and buildings and hair and in general for many things. In early modern Malta, red ochre paint was commonly used on public buildings. The industrial process for making ochre pigment

295-582: A mouldable putty that hardened into handles. Earlier excavations at Le Moustier prevent conclusive identification of the archaeological culture and age, but the European Mousterian style of these tools suggests they are associated with Neanderthals during the late Middle Paleolithic , between 60,000 and 35,000 years before present. It is the earliest evidence of compound adhesive use in Europe. Pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs have been found at

354-502: A practice was common to the Celts of the British Isles , bog iron being particularly abundant in the midlands of Ireland . Ochre has uses other than as paint: "tribal peoples alive today . . . use either as a way to treat animal skins or else as an insect repellent, to staunch bleeding, or as protection from the sun. Ochre may have been the first medicament." Red ochre has been used as

413-518: A safe level. In Europe, the European Food Safety Authority produced risk assessments for more than 4,000 substances in over 1,600 scientific opinions and they provide open access summaries of human health, animal health and ecological hazard assessments in their OpenFoodTox database. The OpenFoodTox database can be used to screen potential new foods for toxicity. The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP) at

472-518: A specific archaeological period in the Woodlands c.  1000 –400 BC. California Native Americans such as the Tongva and Chumash were also known to use red ochre as body paint. Researchers diving into dark submerged caves on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula have found evidence of an ambitious mining operation starting 12,000 years ago and lasting two millennia for red ochre. In Newfoundland , red ochre

531-425: A toxin delivered via a bite, sting, etc.). Poison is a related but broader term that encompasses both toxins and toxicants; poisons may enter the body through any means - typically inhalation , ingestion , or skin absorption . Toxin, toxicant, and poison are often used interchangeably despite these subtle differences in definition. The term toxungen has also been proposed to refer to toxins that are delivered onto

590-513: A waxy waterproof coating on structures. The reddle was sold as a ready-made mixture to farmers and herders by travelling workers called reddlemen. In Classical antiquity , the finest red ochre came from a Greek colony on the Black Sea where the modern city of Sinop in Turkey is located. It was carefully regulated, expensive and marked by a special seal, and this colour was called sealed Sinope. Later

649-495: Is a natural clay earth pigment , a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced by this pigment, especially a light brownish-yellow. A variant of ochre containing a large amount of hematite , or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as red ochre (or, in some dialects, ruddle ). The word ochre also describes clays coloured with iron oxide derived during

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708-592: Is difficult to pinpoint an exact shade or hue of red that would be considered the traditional " fishing stage red". In the Bonavista Bay area one man maintained that seal oil mixed with the ochre gave the sails a purer red colour, while cod liver oil would give a "foxy" colour, browner in hue. During the Renaissance, yellow and red ochre pigments were widely used in painting panels and frescoes. The colours vary greatly from region to region, depending upon whether

767-458: Is highlighted by the great number of powders of this color found in the containers. The powders were probably used to give a hue to cheeks or to lips. Besides these uses as make-up powders, we can also assume a ritual use of ointments and powders containing cinnabar or ochre, applied to the face and the forehead during preparation rituals of the bodies. The discovery of red paint traces on bones and skulls suggests that these practices were common among

826-461: Is important to confirm usage if a common understanding is critical. Toxins are a subset of toxicants . The term toxicant is preferred when the poison is man-made and therefore artificial. The human and scientific genetic assembly of a natural-based toxin should be considered a toxin as it is identical to its natural counterpart. The debate is one of linguistic semantics . The word toxin does not specify method of delivery (as opposed to venom ,

885-488: Is particularly intensive: it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a problem not yet solved. The colouring is so intense that practically all the loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that the Aurignacians regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled

944-535: The Colour Index International system. Over recent decades, red ochre has played a pivotal role in discussions about the cognitive and cultural evolution of early modern humans during the African Middle Stone Age. In Africa, evidence for the processing and use of red ochre pigments has been dated by archaeologists to around 300,000 years ago, the climax of the practice coinciding broadly with

1003-774: The Russian Revolution and the Spanish Civil War . Ochre also began to face growing competition from newly synthetic pigment industry. The quarries in Roussillon, Rustrel, the Mines of Bruoux closed one by one. Today, the last quarry in activity is in Gargas (Vaucluse) and belongs to the Société des Ocres de France. Ochre, both red and yellow, appear as tinctures in South African heraldry ;

1062-471: The United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to toxins-related resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for

1121-546: The Vaucluse department of Provence , in France. Thanks to the process invented by Astier and refined by his successors, ochre pigments from Vaucluse were exported across Europe and around the world. It was not only used for artists paints and house paints; it also became an important ingredient for the early rubber industry. Ochre from Vaucluse was an important French export until the mid-20th century, when major markets were lost due to

1180-591: The Western Desert , Kimberley and Arnhem Land regions, and occur in many archaeological sites. The practice of ochre painting has been prevalent among Aboriginal Australians for over 40,000 years. Pleistocene burials with red ochre date as early as 40,000 BP and ochre plays a role in expressing symbolic ideologies of the earliest arrivals to the continent. Ochre has been used for millennia by Aboriginal people for body decoration, sun protection , mortuary practices, cave painting, bark painting and other artwork, and

1239-465: The cave of Altamira in Spain ( c.  16,500 –15,000 BC). The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse coloured with yellow ochre estimated to be 17,300 years old. Neolithic burials may have used red ochre pigments symbolically, either to represent a return to the earth or possibly as a form of ritual rebirth, in which the colour may symbolize blood and a hypothesized Great Goddess . The use of ochre

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1298-698: The national coat of arms , adopted in 2000, includes red ochre , while (yellow) ochre appears in the arms of the University of Transkei . Ochre is also used as a symbol of Indigenous Australians , and appears on the Flag of the Northern Territory and on the flags of the Taungurung and Aṉangu people. A reddleman named Diggory Venn was prominently described in Thomas Hardy 's 1878 novel entitled The Return of

1357-569: The 1840s, but the first scientific examination was undertaken in 1892 by Charles Willoughby of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University . Willoughby exhibited a scale model of the dig at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. It caught the attention of Moorehead, who carried out more excavations and published their site reports from 1912 to the 1920s. He described

1416-475: The British fishing industry, where it was combined with oil and used to coat sails to protect them from seawater, giving them a reddish colour. The ochre was boiled in great caldrons, together with tar , tallow and oak bark , the last ingredient giving the name of barking yards to the places where the hot mixture was painted on to the sails, which were then hung up to dry. In 1894, a theft case provided insights into

1475-522: The Latin and Italian name sinopia was given to wide range of dark red ochre pigments. Roman triumphators painted their faces red, perhaps to imitate the red-painted flesh of statues of the Gods. The Romans used yellow ochre in their paintings to represent gold and skin tones, and as a background colour. It is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii . Ochre pigments are plentiful across Australia, especially

1534-630: The Native . Significance for the Development of Ritual Behavior During the Middle Stone Age. Journal of World Prehistory The Emergence of Habitual Ochre Use in Africa and its Significance for The Development of Ritual Behavior During The Middle Stone Age Toxin A toxin is a naturally occurring poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms . They occur especially as proteins , often conjugated . The term

1593-553: The Phoenicians as for other populations.” Greater-quality pigments and more intricate applications would typically indicate people of greater rank or particular significance within the community. Moreover, the presence and quality of pigments in a burial site may indicate the identity or social standing of the deceased. In addition to acting as offerings to the gods and protective symbols, pigments were employed to adorn grave goods including pottery, amulets, and other objects, so elevating

1652-404: The afterlife, and social hierarchy, thus providing a richer understanding of Phoenician customs and values. Ochre was the most commonly used pigment for painting walls in the ancient Mediterranean world . In Ancient Greece , red ochre was called μίλτος, míltos (hence Miltiades : "red-haired" or "ruddy"). In ancient Athens when Assembly was called, a contingent of public slaves would sweep

1711-689: The biological origin as opposed to environmental or anthropogenic origins. Biotoxins can be classified by their mechanism of delivery as poisons (passively transferred via ingestion, inhalation, or absorption across the skin), toxungens (actively transferred to the target's surface by spitting, spraying, or smearing), or venoms (delivered through a wound generated by a bite, sting, or other such action). They can also be classified by their source, such as fungal biotoxins , microbial toxins , plant biotoxins , or animal biotoxins. Toxins produced by microorganisms are important virulence determinants responsible for microbial pathogenicity and/or evasion of

1770-428: The body surface of another organism without an accompanying wound . A rather informal terminology of individual toxins relates them to the anatomical location where their effects are most notable: On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either exotoxins , excreted by an organism, or endotoxins , which are released mainly when bacteria are lysed . The term "biotoxin" is sometimes used to explicitly confirm

1829-559: The digestive system while others, which are rich in iron, can assist with lethargy and fatigue. Ochre is also often mixed with plant oils and animal fats to create other medicines. This ochre was mined by Aboriginal people in pits and quarries across Australia; there are over 400 recorded sites, and many of these (including the Ochre Pits in the Tjoritja / West MacDonnell National Park ) are still in use. The National Museum of Australia has

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1888-503: The drying out of the wood in canoes and the carvings of meeting houses; later missionaries estimated that it would last for 30 years. It was also roughly smeared over the face, especially by women, to keep off insects. Solid chunks of ochre were ground on a flat but rough surfaced rock to produce the powder. In Newfoundland its use is most often associated with the Beothuk , whose use of red ochre led them to be referred to as "Red Indians" by

1947-415: The earth of mountains, where particular seams like sulphur are found. And there, where these seams are, sinopia, green earth and other types of pigment are found...And the abovementioned pigments running through this landscape looked as a scar on the face of a man or of a woman looks...I went in behind with my little knife, prospecting at the scar of this pigment; and in this way, I promise you, I never sampled

2006-586: The emergence of Homo sapiens. Evidence of ochre's use in Australia is more recent, dated to 50,000 years ago, while new research has uncovered evidence in Asia that is dated to 40,000 years ago. A re-examination of artifacts uncovered in 1908 at Le Moustier rock shelters in France has identified Mousterian stone tools that were attached to grips made of ochre and bitumen . The grips were formulated with 55% ground goethite ochre and 45% cooked liquid bitumen to create

2065-426: The extraction of tin and copper . Ochre is a family of earth pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple ochre, sienna, and umber. The major ingredient of all the ochres is iron(III) oxide-hydroxide , known as limonite , which gives them a yellow colour. A range of other minerals may also be included in the mixture: When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of

2124-620: The first Europeans to Newfoundland. The Beothuk may have also used yellow ochre to colour their hair. It was also used by the Maritime Archaic as evidenced by its discovery in the graves of over 100 individuals during an archaeological excavation at Port au Choix . Its use was widespread at times in the Eastern Woodlands cultural area of Canada and the US; the Red Ocher people complex refers to

2183-425: The grains of sand from the particles of ochre. The remaining mixture was then decanted in large basins, to further separate the ochre from the sand. The water was then drained, and the ochre was dried, cut into bricks, crushed, sifted, and then classified by colour and quality. The best quality was reserved for artists' pigments. In Britain , ochre was mined at Brixham , England . It became an important product for

2242-537: The ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of them lived... The Ancient Picts were said to paint themselves "Iron Red" according to the Gothic historian Jordanes . Frequent references in Irish myth to "red men" ( Gaelic : Fer Dearg) make it likely that such

2301-459: The host immune response . Biotoxins vary greatly in purpose and mechanism, and can be highly complex (the venom of the cone snail can contain over 100 unique peptides , which target specific nerve channels or receptors). Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions: Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include: Many living organisms employ toxins offensively or defensively. A relatively small number of toxins are known to have

2360-407: The limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colours, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres are non-toxic and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly and covers surfaces thoroughly. Modern ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 (Pigment yellow 43) on the label, following

2419-408: The local clay was richer in yellowish limonite or reddish hematite. The red earth from Pozzuoli near Naples was a salmon pink, while the pigment from Tuscany contained manganese, making it a darker reddish brown called terra di siena, or sienna earth. The 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described the uses of ochre pigments in his famous treatise on painting. This pigment is found in

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2478-581: The open space of the Agora with ropes dipped in miltos : those citizens that loitered there instead of moving to the Assembly area would risk having their clothes stained with the paint. This prevented them from wearing these clothes in public again, as failure to attend the Assembly incurred a fine. In England, red ochre was also known as "raddle", "reddle", or "ruddle" and was used to mark sheep and can also be used as

2537-627: The people as older than other cultures of the area. This was disputed until radiometric dating proved Moorehead correct . In the 1930s, one theory for their disappearance was that the Red Paint People had been killed by tsunamis caused by coastal subsidence. This is no longer believed . Ochre Ochre ( / ˈ oʊ k ər / OH -kər ; from Ancient Greek ὤχρα ( ṓkhra ) , from ὠχρός ( ōkhrós )  'pale'), iron ochre , or ocher in American English ,

2596-465: The period in which they lived, either the " Maritime Archaic " (emphasizing a coastal and seafaring culture) or "Late Archaic" (emphasizing time and leaving open the possibility of living inland seasonally), although these terms often cover the longer period from 7000 BCE to 1000 CE. Multiple hypotheses exist as to which if any later peoples might be their descendants and there is little archaeological evidence to support any hypothesis. Their burial culture

2655-714: The potential to cause widespread sickness or casualties. They are often inexpensive and easily available, and in some cases it is possible to refine them outside the laboratory. As biotoxins act quickly, and are highly toxic even at low doses, they can be more efficient than chemical agents. Due to these factors, it is vital to raise awareness of the clinical symptoms of biotoxin poisoning, and to develop effective countermeasures including rapid investigation, response, and treatment. The term "environmental toxin" can sometimes explicitly include synthetic contaminants such as industrial pollutants and other artificially made toxic substances. As this contradicts most formal definitions of

2714-518: The preservation of animal skins, among other uses. At Lake Mungo , in Western New South Wales , burial sites have been excavated and burial materials, including ochre-painted bones, have been dated to the arrival of people in Australia; " Mungo Man " (LM3) was buried sprinkled with red ochre at least 30,000 BP, and possibly as early as 60,000 BP. Ochre was also widely used as medicine and, when ingested, some ochres have an antacid effect on

2773-642: The site of the Blombos Cave in South Africa, dated to around 75,000 years ago. " Mungo Man " (LM3) in Australia was buried sprinkled with red ochre around 40,000 years ago. In Wales, the paleolithic burial called the Red Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in paleolithic sites at Pech Merle in France (ca. 25,000 years old), and

2832-565: The spiritual purity of the interment. The visual impact of red ochre could also have been intended to preserve the appearance of the body or make it presentable for mourning ceremonies, ensuring that the deceased was honored appropriately. This vivid color would enhance the overall visual and emotional impact of funerary displays. In essence, the use of red ochre and other pigments in Phoenician funerary contexts highlights their cultural and symbolic importance, reflecting deep-seated beliefs about death,

2891-536: The summers on the coast and the winters inland. Their diet included sea and migratory fish , shellfish , meat, berries , acorns , nuts, and roots. The Red Paint People had stone and bone tools, as well as boats capable of catching swordfish . No pottery or metal tools have been found in sites associated with this culture. Their trading range is known to have extended from Labrador to the New York side of Lake Champlain . The graves with red paint were known as early as

2950-449: The term "toxin", it is important to confirm what the researcher means when encountering the term outside of microbiological contexts. Environmental toxins from food chains that may be dangerous to human health include: In general, when scientists determine the amount of a substance that may be hazardous for humans, animals and/or the environment they determine the amount of the substance likely to trigger effects and if possible establish

3009-545: The use of the pigment as a food adulterant in sausage roll production whereby the accused apprentice was taught to soak brown bread in red ochre, salt , and pepper to give the appearance of beef sausage for the filling. As noted above, the industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s, using the ochre mines and quarries in Roussillon , Rustrel, or Gargas in

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3068-488: Was considered to be eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow ochre extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they used orpiment , which made a brilliant colour, but was highly toxic, since it was made with arsenic . In tomb paintings, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. Red ochre in Ancient Egypt

3127-417: Was developed by the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s. He was from Roussillon in the Vaucluse department of Provence , and he was fascinated by the cliffs of red and yellow clay in the region. He invented a process to make the pigment on a large scale. First the clay was extracted from open pits or mines. The raw clay contained about 10 to 20 percent ochre. Then he washed the clay to separate

3186-403: Was evocative of blood and energy, red ochre represented life, death, and rebirth. It also represented the desire for resurrection and the belief in an afterlife. In order to honor the deceased and get them ready for their passage to the afterlife, these pigments, particularly red ochre, were most likely applied to their body or other grave goods as part of the burial rites. “Phoenicians' love of red

3245-869: Was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919), derived from toxic . Toxins can be small molecules , peptides , or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors . They vary greatly in their toxicity , ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting ) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses (such as botulinum toxin ). Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents strictly based on their biological origin. Less strict understandings embrace naturally occurring inorganic toxins, such as arsenic . Other understandings embrace synthetic analogs of naturally occurring organic poisons as toxins, and may or may not embrace naturally occurring inorganic poisons. It

3304-563: Was mixed with some type of liquid raw material to create a rough paint. The liquid material was usually seal oil or cod liver oil in Newfoundland and Labrador, while Scandinavian recipes sometimes called for linseed oil . Red ochre paint was sometimes prepared months in advance and allowed to sit, and the smell of ochre paint being prepared is still remembered today. Variations in local recipes, shades of ore, and type of oil used resulted in regional variations in colour. Because of this, it

3363-506: Was more elaborate than any subsequent culture in the area. In the southern portion of their range, they were succeeded by the Susquehana culture which used pottery, and no evidence of their stoneworking techniques is found in that culture. The Red Paint People lived, fished, and hunted along the coasts and rivers. Some coastal sites show evidence of year-round occupation, discrediting an older theory that these people were seasonal nomads, living

3422-423: Was the pigment of choice for use in vernacular outbuildings and work buildings associated with the cod fishery. Deposits of ochre are found throughout Newfoundland, notably near Fortune Harbour and at Ochre Pit Cove. While earliest settlers may have used locally collected ochre, people were later able to purchase pre-ground ochre through local merchants, largely imported from England . The dry ingredient, ochre,

3481-777: Was used as a rouge, or lip gloss for women. Ochre-coloured lines were also discovered on the Unfinished obelisk at the northern region of the Aswan Stone Quarry , marking work sites. Ochre clays were also used medicinally in Ancient Egypt: such use is described in the Ebers Papyrus from Egypt, dating to about 1550 BC. Pigments, particularly red ochre, were essential to grave rituals in ancient Phoenician society. They were more than just cosmetics; they also had important symbolic and ritualistic connotations. With its vivid color that

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