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97-553: The site of Rajgadhi Timbo was 50 feet high and spread in an area of 3000 square metre surrounded by village. The place was a site of massive Jain temple. It was possibly attacked by Alauddin Khalji 's generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan during the 1299 invasion of Gujarat . After the first attack in which the upper portion of temple was destroyed, the lower portion was buried in layers of lime under mound to protect it from invaders. After 250 years, Darbar Ummatsinh Rana said to have built

194-557: A noyan of the Chagatai Khanate raided Punjab, advancing as far as Kasur . Alauddin's forces, led by Ulugh Khan, defeated the Mongols on 6 February 1298. According to Amir Khusrow , 20,000 Mongols were killed in the battle, and many more were killed in Delhi after being brought there as prisoners. In 1298–99, another Mongol army (possibly Neguderi fugitives) invaded Sindh , and occupied

291-508: A basis of the agrarian reforms introduced by the later rulers such as Sher Shah Suri and Akbar . However, his other regulations, including price control, were revoked by his son Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah a few months after his death. The countryside and agricultural production during Alauddin's time was controlled by the village headmen, the traditional Hindu authorities. He viewed their haughtiness and their direct and indirect resistance as

388-525: A decisive victory. The invaders ransacked Delhi and its neighbourhoods, but ultimately decided to retreat after being unable to breach Siri. The Mongol invasion of 1303 was one of the most serious invasions of India, and prompted Alauddin to take several steps to prevent its repeat. He strengthened the forts and the military presence along the Mongol routes to India. He also implemented a series of economic reforms to ensure sufficient revenue inflows for maintaining

485-517: A large tract of fertile land under the directly governed crown territory, by eliminating iqta's , land grants and vassals in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. He imposed a 50% kharaj tax on the agricultural produce in a substantial part of northern India: this was the maximum amount allowed by the Hanafi school of Islam, which was dominant in Delhi at that time. Alauddin Khalji's taxation system

582-474: A letter of pardon signed by the Sultan, which the Sultan immediately despatched through messengers. At Kara, Jalaluddin's messengers learned of Alauddin's military strength and of his plans to dethrone the Sultan. However, Alauddin detained them and prevented them from communicating with the Sultan. Meanwhile, Alauddin's younger brother Almas Beg (later Ulugh Khan), who was married to a daughter of Jalaluddin, assured

679-659: A lifelong vassal of Alauddin. Meanwhile, a section of Alauddin's army had been besieging the fort of Siwana in Marwar region unsuccessfully for several years. In August–September 1308, Alauddin personally took charge of the siege operations in Siwana. The Delhi army conquered the fort in the Siege of Siwana , and the defending ruler Sitaladeva was killed in November 1308. The plunder obtained from Devagiri prompted Alauddin to plan an invasion of

776-450: A lot of money to raise a large army and stage a successful coup: Malik Chajju's revolt had failed for want of resources. To finance his plan to dethrone Jalaluddin, Alauddin decided to raid the neighboring Hindu kingdoms. In 1293, he raided Bhilsa , a wealthy town in the Paramara kingdom of Malwa , which had been weakened by multiple invasions. At Bhilsa, he learned of the immense wealth of

873-689: A march to Delhi, and ordered his officers to recruit as many soldiers as possible, without fitness tests or background checks . His objective was to cause a change in the general political opinion, by portraying himself as someone with huge public support. To portray himself as a generous king, he ordered 5 manns of gold pieces to be shot from a manjaniq ( catapult ) at a crowd in Kara. One section of his army, led by himself and Nusrat Khan , marched to Delhi via Badaun and Baran (modern Bulandshahr ). The other section, led by Zafar Khan , marched to Delhi via Koil (modern Aligarh ). As Alauddin marched to Delhi,

970-553: A smaller body of around 1,000 soldiers. On 20 July 1296, Alauddin had Jalaluddin killed, after pretending to greet the Sultan, and declaring himself the new king. Jalaluddin's companions were also killed, while Ahmad Chap's army retreated to Delhi. Alauddin, known as Ali Gurshasp until his ascension in July 1296, was formally proclaimed as the new king with the title Alauddunya wad Din Muhammad Shah-us Sultan at Kara . Meanwhile,

1067-571: A strong army. In 1304, Alauddin appears to have ordered a second invasion of Gujarat , which resulted in the annexation of the Vaghela kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate. In 1305, he launched an invasion of Malwa in central India, which resulted in the defeat and death of the Paramara king Mahalakadeva . The Yajvapala dynasty , which ruled the region to the north-east of Malwa, also appears to have fallen to Alauddin's invasion. In December 1305,

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1164-530: A tributary of Alauddin. From Dwarasamudra, Malik Kafur marched to the Pandya kingdom, where he raided several towns reaching as far as Madurai . Both Vira and Sundara fled their headquarters, and thus, Kafur was unable to make them Alauddin's tributaries. Nevertheless, the Delhi army looted many treasures, elephants and horses. The Delhi chronicler Ziauddin Barani described this seizure of wealth from Dwarasamudra and

1261-756: The Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura and Jalore , the Rawal branch of the Guhilas , and possibly the Yajvapalas . His slave-general Malik Kafur led multiple campaigns to the south of the Vindhyas , obtaining a considerable amount of wealth from Devagiri (1308), Warangal (1310) and Dwarasamudra (1311). These victories forced the Yadava king Ramachandra , the Kakatiya king Prataparudra , and

1358-632: The Hoysala king Ballala III to become Alauddin's tributaries . Kafur also raided the Pandya kingdom (1311), obtaining much treasure, elephants, and horses. During the last years of his life, Alauddin had an illness and relied on Malik Kafur to handle the administration. After his death in 1316, Malik Kafur appointed Shihabuddin , son of Alauddin and his Hindu wife Jhatyapali, as a puppet monarch . Alauddin's elder son Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah seized power shortly after his death. Contemporary chroniclers did not write much about Alauddin's childhood. According to

1455-516: The Kakatiya (a Telugu dynasty) capital Warangal , and himself marched to Chittor . Finding Delhi unprotected, the Mongols launched another invasion around August 1303. Alauddin managed to reach Delhi before the invaders, but did not have enough time to prepare for a strong defence. He took shelter in a heavily guarded camp at the under construction Siri Fort . The Mongols ransacked Delhi and its neighbourhoods, but ultimately retreated after being unable to breach Siri. This close encounter with

1552-478: The Khalji revolution of 1290. The marriage, however, was not a happy one. Having suddenly become a princess after Jalaluddin's rise as a monarch, she was very arrogant and tried to dominate Alauddin. According to Haji-ud-Dabir, Alauddin married a second woman, named Mahru, who was the sister of Malik Sanjar alias Alp Khan . Malika-i-Jahan was greatly infuriated by her husband taking a second wife. According to Dabir, this

1649-825: The Khaljis had been replaced by the Tughlaq dynasty in the Sultanate. In 1327 the Chagatai Mongols under Tarmashirin , who had sent envoys to Delhi to negotiate peace the previous year, sacked the frontier towns of Lamghan and Multan and besieged Delhi . The Tughlaq rulers of the Sultanate tried to save it from further ravages. Muhammad bin Tughluq asked the Ilkhan Abu Sa'id to form an alliance against Tarmashirin, who had invaded Khorasan , but an attack didn't materialize. Tarmashirin

1746-608: The Lahore region and attacked outlying province Multan , and even sacked the outskirts of Lahore . Jalal ad-Din regrouped, forming a small army from survivors of the battle and sought an alliance, or even an asylum, with the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate , Iltutmish , but was turned down. While fighting against the local governor of Sindh , Jalal ad-Din heard of an uprising in the Kirman province of southern Iran and he immediately set out for that place, passing through southern Baluchistan on

1843-502: The 16th/17th-century chronicler Haji-ud-Dabir, Alauddin was 34 years old when he started his march to Ranthambore (1300–1301). Assuming this is correct, Alauddin's birth can be dated to 1266–1267. His original name was Ali Gurshasp. He was the eldest son of Shihabuddin Mas'ud, who was the elder brother of the Khalji dynasty 's founder Sultan Jalaluddin . He had three brothers: Almas Beg (later Ulugh Khan), Qutlugh Tigin, and Muhammad. Alauddin

1940-735: The Delhi sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq in suppressing the rebellion in his country in 1350. The Delhi sultans had developed cordial relations with the Yuan dynasty in Mongolia and China and the Ilkhanate in Persia and the Middle East. Around 1338, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate appointed Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta an ambassador to the Yuan court under Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong). The gifts he

2037-559: The Jain temple was unearthed. The temple complex was spread in area of 100 square metre. The sandstone temple is in Solanki style . The upper part including Shikhar and Mandapa found in rubble the lower part is almost intact. Jain as well as some Hindu idols were found. The date of construction is not certain but the Prakrit inscriptions found on the pedestal of idols describes the idols were carved on

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2134-501: The Jalore fort after defeating and killing Kanhadadeva. During the siege of Warangal, Malik Kafur had learned about the wealth of the Hoysala and Pandya kingdoms located further south. After returning to Delhi, he took Alauddin's permission to lead an expedition there. Kafur started his march from Delhi in November 1310, and crossed Deccan in early 1311, supported by Alauddin's tributaries Ramachandra and Prataparudra. At this time,

2231-746: The Kakatiya king Prataparudra agreed to become a tributary of Alauddin, and surrendered a large amount of wealth (possibly including the Koh-i-Noor diamond) to the invaders. Meanwhile, after conquering Siwana, Alauddin had ordered his generals to subjugate other parts of Marwar, before returning to Delhi. The raids of his generals in Marwar led to their confrontations with Kanhadadeva , the Chahamana ruler of Jalore . In 1311, Alauddin's general Malik Kamaluddin Gurg captured

2328-582: The Mongol Empire. A Mongol general named Chormaqan sent by the Khan attacked and defeated Jalal ad-Din, thus ending the Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty . Some time after 1235 another Mongol force invaded Kashmir , stationing a darughachi (administrative governor) there for several years, and Kashmir became a Mongolian dependency. Around the same time, a Kashmiri Buddhist master, Otochi, and his brother Namo arrived at

2425-418: The Mongol army without his permission. The Mongols feigned a retreat, and tricked Zafar Khan's contingent into following them. Zafar Khan and his men were killed after inflicting heavy casualties on the invaders. The Mongols retreated a couple of days later: their leader Qutlugh Khwaja was seriously wounded, and died during the return journey. In the winter of 1302–1303, Alauddin dispatched an army to ransack

2522-402: The Mongol commanders named in the sources as participating in the various invasions might give a better indication of the numbers involved, as these commanders probably led tumens , units nominally of 10,000 men. These invasions were led by either various descendants of Genghis Khan or by Mongol divisional commanders; the size of such armies was always between 10,000 and 30,000 cavalry although

2619-525: The Mongol territories located in present-day Afghanistan . In 1320 the Qara'unas under Zulju (Dulucha) entered Kashmir by the Jehlam Valley without meeting any serious resistance. The Kashmiri king, Suhadeva, tried to persuade Zulju to withdraw by paying a large ransom. After he failed to organize resistance, Suhadeva fled to Kishtwar , leaving the people of Kashmir to the mercy of Zulju. The Mongols burned

2716-527: The Mongol territories located in present-day Afghanistan. Around 1308, Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to invade Devagiri , whose king Ramachandra had discontinued the tribute payments promised in 1296, and had granted asylum to the Vaghela king Karna at Baglana . Kafur was supported by Alauddin's Gujarat governor Alp Khan, whose forces invaded Baglana, and captured Karna's daughter Devaladevi (later married to Alauddin's son Khizr Khan). At Devagiri, Kafur achieved an easy victory, and Ramachandra agreed to become

2813-668: The Mongols at the Battle of Amroha . A large number of Mongols were taken captive and killed. In 1306, another Mongol army sent by Duwa advanced up to the Ravi River , ransacking the territories along the way. This army included three contingents, led by Kopek, Iqbalmand, and Tai-Bu. Alauddin's forces, led by Malik Kafur , decisively defeated the invaders . In 1307 Duwa died and in the dispute over his succession this spate of Mongol raids into India already ended. Taking advantage of this situation, Alauddin's general Malik Tughluq regularly raided

2910-500: The Mongols include Zafar Khan , Ulugh Khan , and Alauddin's slave-general Malik Kafur . Alauddin conquered the kingdoms of Gujarat (raided in 1299 and annexed in 1304), Jaisalmer (1299), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308), and Jalore (1311). These victories ended several Rajput and other Hindu dynasties, including the Paramaras , the Vaghelas ,

3007-533: The Mongols invaded India again. Instead of attacking the heavily guarded city of Delhi, the invaders proceeded south-east to the Gangetic plains along the Himalayan foothills . Alauddin's 30,000-strong cavalry, led by Malik Nayak, defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Amroha . Many Mongols were taken captive and killed; the 16th-century historian Firishta claims that the heads ( sir ) of 8,000 Mongols were used to build

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3104-486: The Mongols prompted Alauddin to strengthen the forts and the military presence along their routes to India. He also implemented a series of economic reforms to ensure sufficient revenue inflows for maintaining a strong army. Shortly afterward, Duwa Khan sought to end the ongoing conflict with the Yuan Khan Temür Öljeyitü , and around 1304 a general peace among the Mongol khanates was declared, bringing an end to

3201-579: The Pandya kingdom as the greatest one since the Muslim capture of Delhi. During this campaign, the Mongol general Abachi had conspired to ally with the Pandyas, and as a result, Alauddin ordered him to be executed in Delhi. This, combined with their general grievances against Alauddin, led to resentment among Mongols who had settled in India after converting to Islam. A section of Mongol leaders plotted to kill Alauddin, but

3298-521: The Pandya kingdom was reeling under a war of succession between the two brothers Vira and Sundara, and taking advantage of this, the Hoysala king Ballala had invaded the Pandyan territory. When Ballala learned about Kafur's march, he hurried back to his capital Dwarasamudra . However, he could not put up a strong resistance, and negotiated a truce after a short siege , agreeing to surrender his wealth and become

3395-921: The Rajgadhi (royal house) on the mound. In 1726, the Rajgadhi was destroyed in fire when the Marathas led by Kuntaji Bande burned down the village. In 1890, Sayajirao Gaekwad of Baroda State built a school on the mound. In 1985, the back portion of the temple was discovered while demolishing the dilapidated school building for new construction.. In 1903, three Jain idols were discovered near Rajgadhi Timba. A farmer again discovered two more idols in 1963 which are now in Kunthunath Jain temple in village. The Gujarat State Archeology Department (GSAD) conducted preliminary excavation in 1984–85. The excavation in 1988-89 revealed structural remains of temple, bastion of bricks and few brick walls. GSAD collected some artifacts but it stopped

3492-490: The Siri Fort commissioned by Alauddin. In 1306, another Mongol army sent by Duwa advanced up to the Ravi River , ransacking the territories along the way. Alauddin's forces, led by Malik Kafur , decisively defeated the Mongols . Duwa died next year, and after that the Mongols did not launch any further expeditions to India during Alauddin's reign. On the contrary, Alauddin's Dipalpur governor Malik Tughluq regularly raided

3589-437: The Sultan granted Alauddin's request to use the revenue surplus for hiring additional troops. After years of planning and preparation, Alauddin successfully raided Devagiri in 1296. He left Devagiri with a huge amount of wealth, including precious metals, jewels, silk products, elephants, horses, and slaves. When the news of Alauddin's success reached Jalaluddin, the Sultan came to Gwalior , hoping that Alauddin would present

3686-448: The Sultan of Alauddin's loyalty. He convinced Jalaluddin to visit Kara and meet Alauddin, saying that Alauddin would commit suicide out of guilt if the Sultan did not pardon him personally. A gullible Jalaluddin set out for Kara with his army. After reaching close to Kara, he directed Ahmad Chap to take his main army to Kara by land route, while he himself decided to cross the Ganges river with

3783-645: The Sultan of Delhi after deposing the Mamluks , Alauddin was given the position of Amir-i-Tuzuk (equivalent to master of ceremonies ). After suppressing a revolt against Jalaluddin, Alauddin obtained the governorship of Kara in 1291, and the governorship of Awadh in 1296, after a profitable raid on Bhilsa . In 1296, Alauddin raided Devagiri , and used the acquired loot to stage a successful revolt against Jalaluddin. After killing Jalaluddin, he consolidated his power in Delhi, and subjugated Jalaluddin's sons in Multan . Over

3880-527: The Sultan's desire to subjugate the Hindus by "depriving them of that wealth and property which fosters rebellion". According to historian Satish Chandra , Alauddin's reforms were based on his conception of fear and control as the basis of good government as well as his military ambitions: the bulk of the measures were designed to centralise power in his hands and to support a large military. Some of Alauddin's land reforms were continued by his successors, and formed

3977-426: The Sultan. According to the 16th-century historian Firishta , she warned Jalaluddin that Alauddin was planning to set up an independent kingdom in a remote part of the country. She closely monitored Alauddin and encouraged her daughter's arrogant behavior toward him. In 1291, Alauddin played an important role in crushing a revolt by the governor of Kara Malik Chajju. Jalaluddin rewarded Alauddin by appointing him as

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4074-484: The Vaghela queen Kamala Devi and slave Malik Kafur , who later led Alauddin's southern campaigns. During the army's return journey to Delhi, some of its Mongol soldiers staged an unsuccessful mutiny near Jalore , after the generals forcibly tried to extract a share of loot ( khums ) from them. Alauddin's administration meted out brutal punishments to the mutineers' families in Delhi, including killings of children in front of their mothers. According to Ziauddin Barani ,

4171-477: The areas east of the Ravi river . The region beyond Lahore suffered from Mongol raids and Khokhar rebellions. Multan was controlled by Jalaluddin's son Arkali, who harbored the fugitives from Delhi. In November 1296, Alauddin sent an army led by Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan to conquer Multan . On his orders, Nusrat Khan arrested, blinded, and/or killed the surviving members of Jalaluddin's family. Shortly after

4268-405: The army had lost several men and its baggage. Neither this army, nor the reinforcements sent by Alauddin's provincial governors could enter the city because of the blockades set up by the Mongols. Under these difficult circumstances, Alauddin took shelter in a heavily guarded camp at the under-construction Siri Fort . The Mongols engaged his forces in some minor conflicts, but neither army achieved

4365-507: The authenticity of these legends. While the imperial armies were busy in Chittor and Warangal campaigns, the Mongols launched another invasion of Delhi around August 1303. Alauddin managed to reach Delhi before the invaders, but did not have enough time to prepare for a strong defence. Meanwhile, the Warangal campaign was unsuccessful (because of heavy rains according to Ziauddin Barani ), and

4462-434: The central authorities. Henceforth, "everybody was busy with earning a living so that nobody could even think of rebellion". He also ordered "to supply some rules and regulations for grinding down the Hindus, and for depriving them of that wealth and property which fosters rebellion. The Hindu was to be so reduced as to be unable to keep a horse to ride on, wear fine clothes, or to enjoy any luxuries of life." Alauddin brought

4559-519: The chroniclers of Delhi exaggerated the number to 100,000-200,000 cavalry. The 4,000 Mongol captives of the advance guard converted to Islam and came to live in Delhi as "new Muslims". The suburb they lived in was appropriately named Mughalpura . Chagatai tumens were defeated by the Delhi Sultanate several times in 1296–1297. Unlike the previous invasions, the invasions during the reign of Jalaluddin 's successor Alauddin were major Mongol conquests. In

4656-508: The client malik (ruling prince) of Herat , accompanied the Mongols. Jalal al-Din Masud was installed as client ruler of Lahore , Kunjah and Sodhra . In 1257 the governor of Sindh offered his entire province to Hulagu Khan , Möngke's brother, and sought Mongol protection from his overlord in Delhi . Hulagu led a strong force under Sali Noyan into Sindh. In the winter of 1257 - beginning of 1258, Sali Noyan entered Sind in strength and dismantled

4753-465: The conflict between the Yuan dynasty and western khanates that had lasted for the better part of a half century. Soon after, he proposed a joint attack on India, but the campaign did not materialize. In December 1305, Duwa sent another 30,000 to 50,000 strong army that bypassed the heavily guarded city of Delhi , and proceeded southeast to the Gangetic plains along the Himalayan foothills . Alauddin's 30,000-strong cavalry, led by Malik Nayak , defeated

4850-468: The conquest of Multan, Alauddin appointed Nusrat Khan as his wazir (prime minister). Having strengthened his control over Delhi, the Sultan started eliminating the officers that were not his own appointees. In 1297, the aristocrats ( maliks ), who had deserted Jalaluddin's family to join Alauddin, were arrested, blinded or killed. All their property, including the money earlier given to them by Alauddin,

4947-457: The conspiracy was discovered by Alauddin's agents. Alauddin then ordered a mass massacre of Mongols in his empire, which according to Barani, resulted in the death of 20,000 or 30,000 Mongols. Meanwhile, in Devagiri , after Ramachandra's death, his son tried to overthrow Alauddin's suzerainty. Malik Kafur invaded Devagiri again in 1313, defeated him, and became the governor of Devagiri. Alauddin

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5044-535: The court of Ögedei. Another Mongol general named Pakchak attacked Peshawar and defeated the army of tribes who had deserted Jalal ad-Din but were still a threat to the Mongols. These men, mostly Khaljis, escaped to Multan and were recruited into the army of the Delhi Sultanate . In winter 1241 the Mongol force invaded the Indus valley and besieged Lahore . However, on December 30, 1241, the Mongols under Munggetu butchered

5141-486: The cut that the intermediaries received for collecting revenue. Alauddin's demand for tax proportional to land area meant that the rich and powerful villages with more land had to pay more taxes. He forced the rural chiefs to pay same taxes as the others, and banned them from imposing illegal taxes on the peasants. To prevent any rebellions, his administration deprived the rural chiefs of their wealth, horses and arms. By suppressing these chiefs, Alauddin projected himself as

5238-476: The dwellings, massacred the men and made women and children slaves . Only refugees under Ramacandra, commander in chief of the king, in the fort of Lar remained safe. The invaders continued to pillage for eight months until the commencement of winter. When Zulju was departing via Brinal, he lost most of his men and prisoners due to a severe snowfall in Divasar district. The next major Mongol invasion took place after

5335-402: The excavation few days later due to lack of funds. As GSAD stopped, with permission of district collector, the Śvetāmbara and Digambara sects of Jains joined the hands and started independent excavation in 1993 which was stopped due to disputes between sects regarding who will own idols. The dispute was resolved in 1999 and excavation was restarted in 2001. After 30 feet height of excavation,

5432-493: The fact that a large number of the sultanate's elites and monarchs were of Turkic / Mongol ethnicity or had previously served in their armed contingents. After pursuing Jalal ad-Din into India from Samarkand and defeating him at the battle of Indus in 1221, Genghis Khan sent two tumens (20,000 soldiers) under commanders Dorbei the Fierce and Bala to continue the chase. The Mongol commander Bala chased Jalal ad-Din throughout

5529-410: The fort of Shivistan . These Mongols were defeated by Zafar Khan : a number of them were arrested and brought to Delhi as captives. At this time, the main branch of Alauddin's army, led by Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan was busy raiding Gujarat . When this army was returning from Gujarat to Delhi, some of its Mongol soldiers (former captives) staged a mutiny over payment of khums (one-fifth of

5626-464: The fort of Sivistan . This time, Alauddin's general Zafar Khan defeated the invaders and recaptured the fort. In early 1299, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to invade Gujarat , where the Vaghela king Karna offered a weak resistance. Alauddin's army plundered several towns including Somnath , where it desecrated the famous Hindu temple. The Delhi army also captured several people, including

5723-519: The fortifications of Multan ; his forces may also have infested the island fortress of Bukkur on the Indus . But Hulagu refused to sanction a grand invasion of the Delhi Sultanate and a few years later diplomatic correspondence between the two rulers confirmed the growing desire for peace. Ghiyas ud din Balban's (reigned: 1266–1287) one absorbing preoccupation was the danger of a Mongol invasion. For this cause he organized and disciplined his army to

5820-609: The general public. In the winter of 1302–1303, Alauddin dispatched an army to ransack the Kakatiya capital Warangal . Meanwhile, he himself led another army to conquer Chittor , the capital of the Guhila kingdom ruled by Ratnasimha . Alauddin captured Chittor after an eight-month long siege . According to his courtier Amir Khusrau, he ordered a massacre of 30,000 local Hindus after this conquest. Some later legends state that Alauddin invaded Chittor to capture Ratnasimha's beautiful queen Padmini , but most modern historians have rejected

5917-501: The head of Jalaluddin was paraded on a spear in his camp before being sent to Awadh . Over the next two days, Alauddin formed a provisional government at Kara. He promoted the existing Amirs to the rank of Maliks , and appointed his close friends as the new Amirs . At that time, there were heavy rains, and the Ganga and the Yamuna rivers were flooded. But Alauddin made preparations for

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6014-399: The highest point of efficiency; for this he made away with disaffected or jealous chiefs, and steadily refused to entrust authority to Hindus ; for this he stayed near his capital and would not be tempted into distant campaigns. Large-scale Mongol invasions of India ceased and the Delhi sultans used the respite to recover the frontier towns like Multan , Uch , and Lahore , and to punish

6111-539: The invaders, he and other soldiers in his unit were killed in the battle. Qutlugh Khwaja was also seriously wounded, forcing the Mongols to retreat. Around the same time, Alauddin turned his attention towards the present-day state of Rajasthan to subdue the Rajput kingdoms for a secure base to Gujarat and Malwa and for further expeditions in the South. In 1299 CE, Alauddin besieged the fortress of Jaisalmer ruled by Bhatis at

6208-631: The king, and put down the rebellion, after which the country remained subject to the Mongol Empire for many years. The Delhi prince Jalal al-Din Masud, traveled to the Mongol capital at Karakorum to seek the assistance of Möngke Khan in seizing the throne from his elder brother in 1248. When Möngke was crowned as Great Khan , Jalal al-Din Masud attended the ceremony and asked for help from Möngke. Möngke ordered Sali Noyan to assist him to recover his ancestral realm. Sali Noyan made successive attacks on Multan and Lahore . Shams-uddin Muhammad Kurt I ,

6305-545: The leaders of the mutiny near Jalore. After Nusrat Khan was killed during the siege, Alauddin personally took charge of the siege operations, and conquered the fort in July 1301. During the Ranthambore campaign, Alauddin faced three unsuccessful rebellions . To suppress any future rebellions, he set up an intelligence and surveillance system, instituted a total prohibition in Delhi, established laws to prevent his nobles from networking with each other, and confiscated wealth from

6402-653: The local ranas and rais who had joined hands with either the Khwarazmian or the Mongol invaders. After civil war broke out in the Mongol Empire in the 1260s, the Chagatai Khanate controlled Central Asia which leader since the 1280s was Duwa Khan , who was second in command of Kaidu Khan . Duwa was active in Afghanistan , and attempted to extend Mongol rule into India . The Muslim Negudari governor Abdullah, who

6499-488: The loot to him there. However, Alauddin marched directly to Kara with all the wealth. Jalaluddin's advisors such as Ahmad Chap recommended intercepting Alauddin at Chanderi, but Jalaluddin had faith in his nephew. He returned to Delhi, believing that Alauddin would carry the wealth from Kara to Delhi. After reaching Kara, Alauddin sent a letter of apology to the Sultan and expressed concern that his enemies may have poisoned Sultan's mind against him during his absence. He requested

6596-472: The loyal nobles. Alauddin then entered the city, where a number of nobles and officials accepted his authority. On 21 October 1296, Alauddin was formally proclaimed as the Sultan in Delhi. Initially, Alauddin consolidated power by making generous grants and endowments and appointing many people to government positions. He balanced the power between the officers appointed by the Mamluks , the ones appointed by Jalaluddin and his own appointees. He also increased

6693-471: The main difficulty affecting his reign. He also had to face talk of conspiracies at his court. After some initial conspiracies and Hindu revolts in rural areas during the early period of his reign, he struck the root of the problem by introducing reforms that also aimed at ensuring support of his army and food supply to his capital. He took away all landed properties of his courtiers and nobles and cancelled revenue assignments which were henceforth controlled by

6790-412: The new governor of Kara in 1291. Malik Chajju's former Amirs (subordinate nobles) at Kara considered Jalaluddin as a weak and ineffective ruler and instigated Alauddin to usurp the throne of Delhi. This, combined with his unhappy domestic life, made Alauddin determined to dethrone Jalaluddin. While instigating Alauddin to revolt against Jalaluddin, Malik Chajju's supporters emphasized that he needed

6887-665: The news spread in towns and villages that he was recruiting soldiers while distributing gold. Many people, from both military and non-military backgrounds, joined him. By the time he reached Badaun, he had a 56,000-strong cavalry and a 60,000-strong infantry. At Baran, Alauddin was joined by seven powerful Jalaluddin nobles who had earlier opposed him. These nobles were Tajul Mulk Kuchi, Malik Abaji Akhur-bek, Malik Amir Ali Diwana, Malik Usman Amir-akhur, Malik Amir Khan, Malik Umar Surkha, and Malik Hiranmar. Alauddin gave each of them 30 to 50 mann s of gold, and each of their soldiers 300 silver tanka s (hammered coins). Alauddin's march to Delhi

6984-437: The next few years, Alauddin successfully fended off the Mongol invasions from the Chagatai Khanate , at Jaran-Manjur (1297–1298), Sivistan (1298), Kili (1299), Delhi (1303), and Amroha (1305). In 1306, his forces achieved a decisive victory against the Mongols near the Ravi riverbank , and later ransacked the Mongol territories in present-day Afghanistan . The military commanders that successfully led his army against

7081-450: The officers, elephants, and wealth that Alauddin had left at Kara. Alauddin appointed Ala-ul Mulk as the kotwal of Delhi and placed all the non-Turkic municipal employees under his charge. Since Ala-ul Mulk had become very obese , the governorship of Kara was entrusted to Nusrat Khan, who had become unpopular in Delhi because of the confiscations. In the winter of 1297, the Mongols led by

7178-674: The orders of King Jayasinh Umat and his consorts Shia and Sundari in Vikram Samvat 1240. It is constructed between 11th and 13th century. It seems to be constructed in two stages; the lower part in the 11th century. More than 70 idols were discovered belonging to both sects buried under sand near foundation of the temple which indicates intentional burial. The walls and pillars of temple has intrinsically carved images. Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji ( Persian : علاء الدین خلجی ; r.  1296–1316 ), born Ali Gurshasp ,

7275-470: The other southern kingdoms, which had accumulated a huge amount of wealth, having been shielded from the foreign armies that had ransacked northern India. In late 1309, he sent Malik Kafur to ransack the Kakatiya capital Warangal . Helped by Ramachandra of Devagiri, Kafur entered the Kakatiya territory in January 1310, ransacking towns and villages on his way to Warangal. After a month-long siege of Warangal ,

7372-563: The outskirts of Delhi , the Delhi Sultanate of India led a campaign against them in which the Mongol army suffered serious defeats. Delhi Sultanate officials viewed war with the Mongols as one of the sultan 's primary duties. While the sultanate's chroniclers described the conflicts between the Tengrist Mongols and Muslim community in binary terms, with the Delhi Sultanate being an island of Islamic civilization surrounded by Hindus and Buddhist to its north and south, it ignored

7469-469: The practice of punishing wives and children for the crimes of men started with this incident in Delhi. In 1299, the Chagatai ruler Duwa sent a Mongol force led by Qutlugh Khwaja to conquer Delhi. In the ensuing Battle of Kili , Alauddin personally led the Delhi forces, but his general Zafar Khan attacked the Mongols without waiting for his orders. Although Zafar Khan managed to inflict heavy casualties on

7566-633: The protector of the weaker section of the rural society. However, while the cultivators were free from the demands of the landowners, the high taxes imposed by the state meant a cultivator had "barely enough for carrying on his cultivation and his food requirements." To enforce these land and agrarian reforms, Alauddin set up a strong and efficient revenue administration system. His government recruited many accountants, collectors and agents. These officials were well-paid but were subject to severe punishment if found to be taking bribes. Account books were audited and even small discrepancies were punished. The effect

7663-445: The share of loot). The mutiny was crushed, and the mutineers' families in Delhi were severely punished. In late 1299, Duwa Khan dispatched his son Qutlugh Khwaja to conquer Delhi. Alauddin Khalji led his army to Kili near Delhi, and tried to delay the battle, hoping that the Mongols would retreat amid a scarcity of provisions and that he would receive reinforcements from his provinces. However, his general Zafar Khan attacked

7760-508: The southern Yadava kingdom in the Deccan region, as well as about the routes leading to their capital Devagiri . Therefore, he shrewdly surrendered the loot from Bhilsa to Jalaluddin to win Sultan's confidence, while withholding the information on the Yadava kingdom. A pleased Jalaluddin gave him the office of Ariz-i Mamalik (Minister of War), and also made him the governor of Awadh . In addition,

7857-525: The spoils of war from his soldiers, instead of the traditional one-fifth share ( khums ). Mongol invasions of India The Mongol Empire launched numerous invasions into the Indian subcontinent from 1221 to 1327, with many of the later raids made by the Qara'unas of Mongol origin. The Mongols occupied parts of the subcontinent for decades. As the Mongols progressed into the Indian hinterland and reached

7954-453: The strength of the Sultanate's army, and gifted every soldier the salary of a year and a half in cash. Of Alauddin's first year as the Sultan, chronicler Ziauddin Barani wrote that it was the happiest year that the people of Delhi had ever seen. At this time, Alauddin could not exercise his authority over all of Jalaluddin's former territories. In the Punjab region , his authority was limited to

8051-468: The throne, requesting him to march from Multan to Delhi. However, Arkali refused to come to her aid. Alauddin resumed his march to Delhi in the second week of October 1296, when the Yamuna river subsided. When he reached Siri , Ruknuddin led an army against him. However, a section of Ruknuddin's army defected to Alauddin at midnight. A dejected Ruknuddin then retreated and escaped to Multan with his mother and

8148-575: The time under Jait Singh I. Following a long siege and due to the dearth of food and resources, eventually, the besieged Rajputs under the command of Mularaja performed Saka where the women committed Jauhar and the men fought until death. Thus, Alauddin successfully penetrated into territories of the Bhattis. After the conquest of Jaisalmer, it remained under the Khalji's for few more years. In 1301, Alauddin ordered Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to invade Ranthambore , whose king Hammiradeva had granted asylum to

8245-569: The town before withdrawing from the Delhi Sultanate. At the same time the Great Khan Ögedei died (1241). The Kashmiris revolted in 1254–1255, and Möngke Khan , who became Great Khan in 1251, appointed his generals, Sali and Takudar, to replace the court and appointed the Buddhist master, Otochi, as darugachi of Kashmir. However, the Kashmiri king killed Otochi at Srinagar . Sali invaded Kashmir, killing

8342-542: The way. Jalal ad-Din was also joined by forces from Ghor and Peshawar, including members of the Khalji , Turkoman , and Ghori tribes. With his new allies he marched on Ghazni and defeated a Mongol division under Turtai, which had been assigned the task of hunting him down. The victorious allies quarreled over the division of the captured booty; subsequently the Khalji , Turkoman, and Ghori tribesmen deserted Jalal ad-Din and returned to Peshawar . By this time Ögedei Khan , third son of Genghis Khan, had become Great Khan of

8439-417: The winter of 1297, the Chagatai noyan Kadar led an army that ravaged the Punjab region , and advanced as far as Kasur . Alauddin's army, led by Ulugh Khan and probably Zafar Khan , defeated the invaders on the Battle of Jaran-Manjur on 6 February 1298, where quite a large number of them were taken prisoner. Later in 1298–1299, a Mongol army (possibly Neguderi fugitives) invaded Sindh , and occupied

8536-451: Was a Buddhist who later converted to Islam . Religious tensions in the Chagatai Khanate were a divisive factor among the Mongols. No more large-scale invasions or raids into India were launched after Tamashirin's siege of Delhi. However, small groups of Mongol adventurers hired out their swords to the many local powers in the northwest. Amir Qazaghan raided northern India with his Qara'unas . He also sent several thousand troops to aid

8633-399: Was a ruler from the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent . Alauddin instituted a number of significant administrative changes in India, related to revenues , price controls , and society . He also successfully fended off several Mongol invasions of India . Alauddin was a nephew and a son-in-law of his predecessor Jalaluddin . When Jalaluddin became

8730-630: Was a son of Chagatai Khan 's great-grandson, invaded Punjab with his force in 1292, but his advance guard under Ulghu was defeated and taken prisoner by the Khalji sultan Jalaluddin . The medieval sources claim invasions by hundreds of thousands of Mongols, numbers approximating (and probably based on) the size of the entire cavalry armies of the Mongol realms of Central Asia or Western Asia . The number of 150,000 Mongol invaders during 1292 opposed by Jalaluddin were also recorded in Wolseley Haig 's work of The Cambridge History of India . A count of

8827-478: Was both large landowners and small-scale cultivators were fearful of missing out on paying their assessed taxes. Alauddin's government imposed the jizya tax on its non-Muslim subjects, and his Muslim subjects were obligated to contribute zakat . He also levied taxes on residences ( ghari ) and grazing ( chara'i ), which were not sanctioned by the Islamic law. In addition, Alauddin demanded four-fifths share of

8924-472: Was brought up by Jalaluddin after Shihabuddin's death. Both Alauddin and his younger brother Almas Beg married Jalaluddin's daughters. After Jalaluddin became the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (equivalent to Master of ceremonies ), while Almas Beg was given the post of Akhur-beg (equivalent to Master of the Horse ). Alauddin married Jalaluddin's daughter, Malika-i-Jahan , long before

9021-540: Was confiscated. As a result of these confiscations, Nusrat Khan obtained a huge amount of cash for the royal treasury. Only three malik s from Jalaluddin's time were spared: Malik Qutbuddin Alavi, Malik Nasiruddin Rana, and Malik Amir Jamal Khalji. The rest of the older aristocrats were replaced with the new nobles, who were extremely loyal to Alauddin. Meanwhile, Ala-ul Mulk, who was Alauddin's governor at Kara, came to Delhi with all

9118-459: Was interrupted by the flooding of the Yamuna river. Meanwhile, in Delhi, Jalaluddin's widow Malka-i-Jahan appointed her youngest son Qadr Khan as the new king with the title Ruknuddin Ibrahim, without consulting the nobles. This irked Arkali Khan, her elder son and the governor of Multan . When Malika-i-Jahan heard that Jalaluddin's nobles had joined Alauddin, she apologized to Arkali and offered him

9215-481: Was probably the one institution from his reign that lasted the longest, surviving indeed into the nineteenth or even the twentieth century. From now on, the land tax ( kharaj or mal ) became the principal form in which the peasant's surplus was expropriated by the ruling class. Alauddin also eliminated the intermediary Hindu rural chiefs, and started collecting the kharaj directly from the cultivators. He did not levy any additional taxes on agriculture, and abolished

9312-423: Was the main cause of the misunderstanding between Alauddin and his first wife. Once, while Alauddin and Mahru were together in a garden, Jalaluddin's daughter attacked Mahru out of jealousy. In response, Alauddin assaulted her. The incident was reported to Jalaluddin, but the Sultan did not take any action against Alauddin. Alauddin was not on good terms with his mother-in-law either, who wielded great influence over

9409-447: Was the most powerful ruler of his dynasty. Unlike the previous rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, who had largely relied on the pre-existing administrative set-up, Alauddin undertook large-scale reforms. After facing the Mongol invasions and several rebellions , he implemented several reforms to be able to maintain a large army and to weaken those capable of organizing a revolt against him. Barani also attributes Alauddin's revenue reforms to

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