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78-428: Puławy was first mentioned in documents of the 15th century. At that time it was spelled Pollavy , its name probably coming from a Vistula River ford located nearby. The town is a local center of science, industry and tourism, together with nearby Nałęczów and Kazimierz Dolny . Puławy is home to Poland's first permanent museum and is a Vistula River port. The town has two bridges and four rail stations, and serves as

156-570: A counter-attack from Puławy that encircled and defeated a 177,000-strong Soviet force. The attack drove the Red Army from Poland and established Poland's security for two decades, until the German invasion of 1939 . In the Second Polish Republic , Puławy began a slow process of modernization. In 1934, the town significantly grew in size, after several local villages merged with it. Furthermore, in

234-596: A brief struggle. The following day, armed Polish civilians forced the Russian troops to withdraw north of Warsaw. That incident is sometimes called the Warsaw Uprising or the November Night . ( Polish : Noc listopadowa ). Taken by surprise with the rapidly unfolding of events during the night of 29 November 1830, the local Polish government ( administrative council ) assembled immediately to take control and to decide on

312-574: A colonel by the name of Stryjenski, gained the peculiar distinction of giving himself up to Russia. Following the example of Dąbrowski a generation before, General Bem endeavored to reorganize the Polish soldiers in Prussia and Galicia into Legions and lead them to France, but the Prussian government frustrated his plans. The immigrants left Prussia in bands of between fifty and a hundred, and their journey through

390-418: A course of action. Unpopular ministers were removed and men like Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , the historian Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and General Józef Chłopicki took their places. Loyalists led by Prince Czartoryski initially tried to negotiate with Grand Duke Constantine and to settle matters peacefully. However, when Czartoryski told the council that Constantine was ready to forgive the offenders and that

468-535: A former town hall, former Orthodox church, and historic inn. Since the mid-19th century, Puławy has been a center of higher education. Institutions operating here are: Since 2008, local institutes, together with Town Council and the Kazimierz Pułaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom have been working on a modern scientific campus, which will be located in the district of Azoty. Among others,

546-626: A military headquarters in Puławy. The Soviet Union 's Red Army held most of eastern Poland and was besieging Warsaw, (see Polish–Soviet War ). Piłsudski's radio-monitoring, cryptological and intelligence services detected a gap in the Soviet flanks in the Puławy region, and he ordered a concentration of Polish forces in the surrounding area around the Wieprz River . On 18 August 1920, the Polish Army launched

624-718: A practical expression in the foundation in London of the Association of the Friends of Poland . The November Uprising was also supported in the United States. Edgar Allan Poe was sympathetic to the Polish cause and volunteered to fight the Russians during the November Uprising (Bobr-Tylingo 1982, 145). Despite Poland's deep connection to Catholicism and the fact that many participants in

702-632: A river can be crossed". Although today brod in the Serbo-Croatian means 'ship', Slavonski Brod in Croatia, as well as Makedonski Brod in North Macedonia and other place names containing Brod in Slavic countries, where brod is still the word for 'ford', are named after fords. In historic times, positioning an army in large units close to a river was thought best for direct defense as well as to attack

780-656: A road junction. Nearby Dęblin has a military airport. Puławy lies in the western part of Lublin Voivodeship , at the edge of the picturesque Lesser Polish Gorge of the Vistula , and near the easternmost point of the Vistula river. Historically the town belongs to Lesser Poland , and geographically, it lies at the border of Mazovian Lowland and Lublin Upland . The area of the town is 50.49 square kilometres (19.49 sq mi). Puławy

858-734: A settlement near a Vistula river ford was established. In the late 17th century it emerged as the location of a rural residence of the Lubomirski and the Sieniawski noble families and in 1676–1679, Prince Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski built a summer palace, now known as the Pałac Czartoryskich or the Czartoryskich Palace. In 1687, Lubomirski's daughter Elżbieta (who was called the uncrowned Queen of Poland ), married Adam Mikołaj Sieniawski , bringing Puławy her dowry . In 1706, during

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936-437: A triumphant march for the infinitely stronger party. Instead, the war lasted eight months, with often doubtful success. At times the balance seemed to tip decidedly to the side of the weaker adversary who dealt not only blows but even ventured daring offensives." It had long been argued, as Edward Lewinski-Corwin in 1917, that "anarchy and a lack of concord" among people were the causes of Poland's national downfall. Thus, when

1014-425: Is a shallow place with good footing where a river or stream may be crossed by wading, or inside a vehicle getting its wheels wet. A ford may occur naturally or be constructed. Fords may be impassable during high water. A low-water crossing is a low bridge that allows crossing over a river or stream when water is low but may be treated as a ford when the river is high and water covers the crossing. The word ford

1092-752: Is both a noun (describing the water crossing itself) and a verb (describing the act of crossing a ford). A ford is a much cheaper form of river crossing than a bridge , and it can transport much more weight than a bridge, but it may become impassable after heavy rain or during flood conditions. A ford is therefore normally only suitable for very minor roads (and for paths intended for walkers and horse riders etc.). Most modern fords are usually shallow enough to be crossed by cars and other wheeled or tracked vehicles (a process known as "fording"). Fords may be accompanied by stepping stones for pedestrians. The United Kingdom has more than 2,000 fords, and most of them do not have any way of stopping vehicles from crossing when

1170-512: Is located on Polish Expressway S12 (highway), and the intersection of the S17 and S12 highways is located nearby, east of the city. Furthermore, the town has four rail stations ( Puławy, Puławy Azoty, Puławy Chemia and Puławy Miasto ). Long-distance rail transport is served by the Puławy Miasto station, with connections to all Polish cities. The history of Puławy dates back to the 15th century when

1248-459: Is the Baroque -Classicist Czartoryski Palace , dating from 1676–1679 (architect Tylman van Gameren ), burned in 1706, remodeled 1722–36, and again by Chrystian Piotr Aigner ca. 1800. The palace is surrounded by a 30-hectare park, in 1798-1806 fashioned into an English landscape garden , which includes classicist park pavilions dating from the early 19th century. One, the colonnaded round Temple of

1326-644: The Belweder Palace , the main seat of the Grand Duke. The final spark that ignited Warsaw was a Russian plan to use the Polish Army to suppress France's July Revolution and the Belgian Revolution , in clear violation of the Polish constitution. The rebels managed to enter the Belweder, but Grand Duke Constantine had escaped in women's clothing. The rebels then turned to the main city arsenal and captured it after

1404-744: The Dutch voorde (as in Vilvoorde , Coevorden , Zandvoort , or Amersfoort ) are cognates with the same meaning, all deriving from Proto-Indo-European *pértus 'crossing'. This is the source of Brythonic and Gaulish ritus (modern Welsh rhyd ; the Welsh name of Oxford is Rhydychen "ford of oxen"), which underlies such names as Chambord (from Gaulish *Camboritum "ford at the bend") and Niort ( Novioritum "new ford"). Towns such as Maastricht , Dordrecht , and Utrecht also formed at fords. The endings tricht , drecht , and trecht are derived from

1482-591: The Great Northern War , the settlement together with the castle were destroyed by Swedish soldiers as Elżbieta was a supporter of King Augustus II the Strong . In 1731, Maria Zofia Sieniawska (the daughter of Elżbieta and Adam Sieniawski), married August Aleksander Czartoryski . As a result, Puławy remained in the hands of the Czartoryski family for the next 100 years. The settlement prospered, and in 1784 it became

1560-575: The Latin word traiectum , meaning "crossing". Thus the name Utrecht, originally the Roman fort of Traiectum , is derived from "Uut Trecht", meaning "downstream crossing". The Afrikaans form was taken into South African English as drift and led to place names like Rorke's Drift and Velddrift . Similarly, in Slavic languages , the word brod comes from the linguistic root that means "river-crossing" or "place where

1638-587: The River Amman ); Stafford , the county town of Staffordshire ('ford by a staithe ', or 'ford by the landing place'), Staffort crossing the river Pfinz ; and Stratford (a ford on a Roman street ). Similarly, the German word Furt (as in Frankfurt , the ford of the Franks ; Ochsenfurt , synonymous to Oxford; Schweinfurt , a ford where swine crossed the river; and Klagenfurt , literally "ford of complaints") and

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1716-721: The Towarzystwo Patriotyczne ('Patriotic Society'), directed by Joachim Lelewel . On 25 January 1831, the Sejm passed the Act of Dethronization of Nicholas I , which ended the Polish-Russian personal union and was equivalent to a declaration of war on Russia. The proclamation declared that "the Polish nation is an independent people and has a right to offer the Polish crown to him whom it may consider worthy, from whom it might with certainty expect faith to his oath and wholehearted respect to

1794-876: The United Kingdom . Examples are at Brockenhurst in Hampshire , Wookey in Somerset , and Swinbrook in Oxfordshire . Some of these are being replaced by bridges as these are a more reliable form of crossing in adverse weather conditions. Some very spectacular watersplashes can be found in diverse locations. Australia has the Gulf Savannah , and others may be found in Canada , Italy , South Africa , and Finland . They are also found on some Tennessee backroads, where they are referred to as "underwater bridges". In Israel and part of

1872-525: The "personal union", Grand Duke Constantine had no intention of respecting the Polish constitution, one of the most progressive in Europe at that time. He abolished Polish social and patriotic organizations and the liberal opposition of the Kaliszanie faction, and replaced Poles with Russians in important administrative positions. Although married to a Pole ( Joanna Grudzińska ), he was commonly considered an enemy of

1950-668: The British areas under the mandate a low water crossing or watersplash had been known as the "Irish bridge" in reference to the Anglo–Irish war . The names of many towns and villages are derived from the word 'ford'. Examples include Oxford (a ford where oxen crossed the river: see the Coat of arms of Oxford ); Hertford , the county town of Hertfordshire (the ford where harts cross or "deer crossing"); Brantford , (the ford where Joseph Brant Forded The Grand River ); Ammanford (a ford on

2028-523: The French national spirit and did not wish to weaken Russia, "as Europe might soon again require her services in the cause of order, and to prevent Poland, whom it regarded as a national ally of France, from becoming a French province of the Vistula". Austria and Prussia adopted a position of benevolent neutrality towards Russia. They closed the Polish frontiers and prevented the transportation of munitions of war or supplies of any kind. Under those circumstances,

2106-669: The Organic Statute in 1832, according to which, henceforth Russian-occupied Poland would lose its autonomy and become an integral part of the Russian Empire. Warsaw became little more than a military garrison, and its university closed. After the Partitions of Poland by Austria, Germany, and Russia, Poland ceased to exist as an independent political entity at the end of 1795. However, the Napoleonic Wars and Polish participation in

2184-631: The Polish borders. The force included the Finnish Guards' Rifle Battalion . The first major battle took place on 14 February 1831, close to the village of Stoczek near Łuków . In the Battle of Stoczek , Polish cavalry under Brigadier Józef Dwernicki defeated the Russian division of Teodor Geismar. However, the victory had mostly psychological value and could not stop the Russian advance towards Warsaw. The subsequent Battles of Dobre, Wawer and Białołęka were inconclusive. The Polish forces then assembled on

2262-406: The Polish cause was collected in the United States. The governments of France and Britain, however, did not share the feelings of some of their people. King Louis-Philippe of France thought mainly of securing for himself recognition on the part of all European governments, and Lord Palmerston was intent on maintaining friendly relations with Russia. Britain regarded with alarm the reawakening of

2340-501: The Polish nation. Also, his command over the Polish Army led to serious conflicts within the officer corps. The frictions led to various conspiracies throughout the country, most notably within the army. The armed struggle began when a group of conspirators led by a young cadet from the Warsaw officers' school, Piotr Wysocki , took arms from their garrison on 29 November 1830 and attacked

2418-593: The Polish national epic. A 1937 German film, Ride to Freedom was partly shot on location in Poland. The Scottish poet Thomas Campbell , who had championed the cause of the Poles in The Pleasures of Hope , was affected by the news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 as if it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my heart night and day", he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy found

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2496-474: The Sejm pronounced the National Uprising against Russia, and on 7 January 1831, Prince Drucki-Lubecki returned from Russia with no concessions. The Tsar demanded the complete and unconditional surrender of Poland and announced that the "Poles should surrender to the grace of their Emperor". His plans foiled, Chłopicki resigned the following day. Power in Poland was now in the hands of the radicals united in

2574-725: The Sibyl , is the setting of Bolesław Prus ' striking 1884 micro-story , " Mold of the Earth ." Near the Temple of the Sibyl is the "Gothic House", built between 1800 and 1809 to commemorate Prince Józef Poniatowski ’s visit to Puławy; it now houses the Regional Museum. Other palace buildings house the Soil and Fertilizer Institute. Additional interesting buildings within the park include: The town of Puławy itself features some interesting buildings, including

2652-438: The chicanery of Constantine. He overestimated the power of Russia and underestimated the strength and the fervor of the Polish revolutionary movement. By temperament and conviction, he was opposed to a war with Russia and did not believe in a successful outcome. He accepted the dictatorship essentially to maintain internal peace and to save the constitution. Believing that Tsar Nicholas was unaware of his brother's actions and that

2730-662: The complex will host four departments of the Radom University of Technology. Puławy has several sports clubs, with the most famous ones being Wisła Puławy ( football , swimming, track and field, weight lifting), and KS Azoty-Puławy handball team which plays in the Polish Superliga , the country's top division, finishing 3rd in 2015, 2016 , 2017 and 2018. Puławy is twinned with: Former twin towns, both having ended their relation due to implementation of an LGBT ideology-free zone : Ford (crossing) A ford

2808-720: The enemy at any crossing point. Therefore, a ford was often a strategic military point with many famous battles fought at or near fords: November Uprising [REDACTED] Congress Poland The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution , was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire . The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when young Polish officers from

2886-507: The forces of Constantine. The Polish army, with all but two of its generals, Wincenty Krasiński and Zygmunt Kurnatowski , now joined the uprising. The remaining four ministers of the pre-revolutionary cabinet left the administrative council, and their places were taken by Mochnacki and three of his associates from the Patriotic Club, including Joachim Lelewel . The new body was known as the "provisional government". To legalize its actions

2964-588: The freedoms granted to the Kingdom were gradually taken back, and the constitution was progressively ignored by the Russian authorities. Alexander I of Russia never formally crowned himself as King of Poland. Instead, in 1815, he appointed his brother, Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich as de facto viceroy and disregarded the constitution. Soon after the Congress of Vienna resolutions had been signed, Russia ceased to respect them. In 1819, Alexander I abandoned liberty of

3042-497: The inactivity of the commanders, who continued to hope for foreign intervention, added to the feeling of despair. The more radical elements severely criticized the government not only for its inactivity but also for its lack of land reform and its failure to recognize the peasants' rights to the soil they tilled, but the Sejm, fearing that the governments of Europe might regard the war with Russia as social revolution, procrastinated and haggled over concessions. The initial enthusiasm of

3120-608: The influx of workers. Recently the plant has become the world's largest producer of melamine . In 1980 and 1981, Zakłady Azotowe Puławy was one of the largest centers of the Solidarity movement in the Lublin Region. After the declaration of Martial law in Poland (December 13, 1981), strike action was initiated in the plant, which was put down by force by the ZOMO on Dec. 19, and 20 people were arrested. The most notable landmark in Puławy

3198-539: The late 18th century Poland visited the palace. Among them were Grzegorz Piramowicz , Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , Adam Naruszewicz , Jan Paweł Woronicz , Franciszek Karpiński , Franciszek Zabłocki , Jan Piotr Norblin , Marcello Bacciarelli . In 1794, during the Kościuszko Uprising , Puławy was plundered and burned by the Russians as punishment for the Czartoryski family's support of

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3276-775: The late 1930s Puławy took advantage of the Central Industrial Area . In September 1939, during the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland , which started World War II , Puławy was seized by the Wehrmacht , and afterwards was occupied by Germany . Three German concentration camps operated around Puławy. In 1940 the Germans carried out mass arrests of local Polish intelligentsia , which was then imprisoned in Lublin, and then often deported to concentration camps or murdered in Rury, Lublin . During

3354-466: The line of battle had been established in Lithuania , wrote Lewinski-Corwin, and if the Russian forces, arriving in Poland progressively, had been dealt with separately and decisively, one unit after another. After the end of the November Uprising, Polish women wore black ribands and jewellery as a symbol of mourning for their lost homeland. Such images can be seen in the first scenes of the movie Pan Tadeusz , filmed by Andrzej Wajda in 1999, based on

3432-414: The local office of Communist secret services temporarily. The postwar history of Puławy has been dominated by the 1960 decision of the government of People's Republic of Poland to build a large chemical plant north of the town ( Zakłady Azotowe Puławy ). It was opened in 1966 and produced nitrate fertilizer . As a result, in the 1960s and 1970s Pulawy quickly grew in size, with new districts built for

3510-428: The matter would be amicably settled, Maurycy Mochnacki and other radicals angrily objected and demanded a national uprising. Fearing an immediate break with Russia, the government agreed to let Constantine depart with his troops. Mochnacki did not trust the newly-constituted ministry and set out to replace it with the Patriotic Club, organized by him. At a large public demonstration on 3 December in Warsaw, he denounced

3588-403: The military academy of the Army of Congress Poland revolted, led by Lieutenant Piotr Wysocki . Large segments of the peoples of Lithuania , Belarus , and Right-bank Ukraine soon joined the uprising. Although the insurgents achieved local successes, a numerically superior Imperial Russian Army under Ivan Paskevich eventually crushed the uprising. The Russian Emperor Nicholas I issued

3666-420: The negotiations between the government and Grand Duke Constantine, who was encamped outside the city. Mochnacki advocated a military campaign in Lithuania to spare the country from the devastation of war and to preserve the local food supply. The meeting adopted a number of demands to be communicated to the administrative council, including the establishment of a revolutionary government and an immediate attack upon

3744-424: The news arrived that the Polish crack corps under Ramorino, unable to join the main army, had laid down its arms after crossing the Austrian frontier into Galicia. It became evident that the war could be carried on no longer. On 5 October 1831, the remainder of the Polish army of over 20,000 men crossed the Prussian frontier and laid down their arms at Brodnica in preference to submission to Russia. Only one man,

3822-432: The nucleus of the present Czartoryski Museum in Kraków . In the 1830s, the Czartoryski family was forced to leave Russian-controlled Congress Poland (see Great Emigration ), and Puławy was reduced into a small, provincial village. In 1842, to further erase traces of Polish culture, the Russians renamed Puławy to Nowa Aleksandria . In 1869, an Agricultural and Forestry Institute was founded here. One of its first students

3900-411: The occupation, Polish poet Krystyna Krahelska lived in the city from 1940 to 1942 and was part of the Polish underground resistance movement . She is best known as the author of the most popular song of the Polish resistance movement ( Hej chłopcy, bagnet na broń ), which she premiered in 1943 in Warsaw , where she was killed in the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The town's Jewish population of some 3,600

3978-406: The peasantry waned, and the ineptitude of the government became more apparent. In the meantime, the Russian forces, commanded after the death of Diebitsch by General Paskevich, were moving to encircle Warsaw . Skrzynecki failed to prevent the Russian forces from joining, and the Sejm responded to popular clamor for his deposition by appointing General Dembinski to temporary command. The atmosphere

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4056-520: The press in the Congress Kingdom and introduced censorship. The Russian secret police, commanded by Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev , started to infiltrate and persecute Polish clandestine organizations, and in 1821, the Tsar ordered the abolition of Freemasonry . As a result, after 1825, sessions of the Polish Sejm were conducted in secret. Nicholas I of Russia formally crowned himself as King of Poland on 24 May 1829 in Warsaw. Despite numerous protests by various Polish politicians who actively supported

4134-443: The pretext of religion, and revolting against the legitimate authority of the princes, they filled their fatherland, which they loosed from due obedience to authority, with mourning. We shed abundant tears at the feet of God, grieving over the harsh evil with which some of our flock was afflicted. Afterward We humbly prayed that God would enable your provinces, agitated by so many and so serious dissensions, to be restored to peace and to

4212-461: The property of Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski and his wife Izabela Czartoryska , née Fleming. Under their stewardship, and after the loss of Poland's independence in 1795 (see Partitions of Poland ) the palace became a museum of Polish national memorabilia and a major cultural and political centre. In 1784 Adam and Izabela moved permanently into the palace, and soon afterwards Puławy became known as Polish Athens . All major cultural figures of

4290-403: The provisional government ordered the convocation of the Sejm and on 5 December 1830 proclaimed General Chłopicki as "dictator of the uprising". Chłopicki considered the uprising an act of madness but bowed to pressure and consented to take command temporarily in the hope that it would be unnecessary to take the field. An able and highly-decorated soldier, he had retired from the army because of

4368-416: The rebellion were Catholic, the rebellion was condemned by the Church. Pope Gregory XVI issued an encyclical letter in the following year on the subject of civil disobedience. Cum Primum stated: When the first report of the calamities, which so seriously devastated your flourishing kingdom reached our ears, We learned simultaneously that they had been caused by some fabricators of deceit and lies. Under

4446-461: The rebels. The reconstruction of the palace was initiated in 1796 by Princess Izabela who employed the renowned architect Chrystian Piotr Aigner . In 1801, the Princess opened the first museum in Poland in the Temple of the Sibyl in Puławy. The end of Puławy's Golden Age was marked by the November Uprising (1830–31), when after its suppression, the estate was taken over by the Russian government. The museum collections that were saved later became

4524-420: The right bank of the Vistula to defend the capital. On 25 February, a Polish contingent of approximately 40,000 met a Russian force of 60,000 east of Warsaw at the Battle of Olszynka Grochowska . Both armies withdrew after almost two days of heavy fighting and with considerable losses on both sides. Over 7,000 Poles fell on that field, and the number of killed in the Russian army was slightly larger. Diebitsch

4602-421: The rising finally began, the insurgents demanded absolute power for their leaders and tolerated no criticism for fear that discord would again prove ruinous for all. However, the men chosen to lead, because of their past achievements, proved unable to perform the great task expected of them. Moreover, many apparently had little faith that their joint effort could succeed. Militarily, Poland might have succeeded if

4680-421: The rising of young patriots in November 1830, came either too early or too late. Puzyrewski argued that the rising should have been initiated in 1828, when Russia was experiencing reversals in Turkey and was least able to spare substantial forces for war with Poland ( Lewinski-Corwin , 1917). Military critics, such as the Russian pundit General Puzyrevsky, maintained that in spite of the inequality of resources of

4758-449: The second line of the capital's defensive works attacked by the Russians. During the night of 7 September Krukowiecki capitulated, although the city still held out. He was immediately deposed by the Polish government and replaced by Bonawentura Niemojowski . The army and the government withdrew to the Modlin fortress , on the Vistula, subsequently renamed Novo-Georgievsk by the Russians, and then to Płock . New plans had been adopted when

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4836-450: The semi-autonomous so-called Congress Kingdom . Initially, the Russian-formed Congress Kingdom enjoyed a relatively large amount of internal autonomy and was only indirectly subject to imperial control. It had its own constitution . The province, united with Russia through a personal union with the Tsar as King of Poland, could elect its own parliament (the Sejm ) and government. The kingdom had its own courts, army and treasury. Over time,

4914-420: The sworn guarantees of civic freedom." On 29 January, the national government of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski was established, and Michał Gedeon Radziwiłł was chosen as successor to Chłopicki, who was persuaded to accept active command of the army. It was too late to move the theatre of hostilities to Lithuania. On 4 February 1831, a 115,000-strong Russian army under Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch crossed

4992-401: The two countries, Poland had had every chance of holding her own against Russia if the campaign had been managed skillfully. Russia sent over 180,000 well-trained men against Poland's 70,000, 30% of whom were fresh recruits entering the service at the opening of hostilities. "In view of this, one would think that not only was the result of the struggle undoubted, but its course should have been

5070-439: The uprising could be ended if the Russian authorities accepted the constitution, Chłopicki's first move was to send Prince Franciszek Ksawery Drucki-Lubecki to Saint Petersburg to negotiate. Chłopicki refrained from strengthening the Polish army and refused to initiate armed hostilities by expelling Russian forces from Lithuania. However, the radicals in Warsaw pressed for war and the complete liberation of Poland. On 13 December,

5148-424: The various German principalities was greeted with enthusiasm by the local populations. Even German sovereigns such as the King of Saxony , the Princess of Weimar and the Duke of Gotha shared in the general demonstration of sympathy. It was only upon the very insistent demands of Russia that the Polish committees all over Germany were be closed. Adam Czartoryski remarked that the war with Russia, precipitated by

5226-487: The war with Russia began to take on a somber and disquieting aspect. The Poles fought desperately and attempts were made to rouse Volhynia , Podolia , Samogitia and Lithuania . With the exception of the Lithuanian uprising in which the youthful Countess Emilia Plater and several other women distinguished themselves, the guerilla warfare carried on in the frontier provinces was of minor importance and served only to give Russia an opportunity to crush local risings. Notorious

5304-439: The wars against Russia and Austria resulted in the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807. The Congress of Vienna brought that state's existence to an end in 1815, and essentially solidified the long-term division of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria. The Austrian Empire annexed territories in the south, Prussia took control over the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznań in the west and Russia assumed hegemony over

5382-432: The water is shallow enough, but the material on the riverbed will not support heavy vehicles, fords are sometimes improved by building a submerged concrete floor. In such cases, a curb (kerb) is often placed on the downstream side to prevent vehicles from slipping off, as the growth of algae will often make the slab very slippery. Fords may be also equipped with a post indicating the water depth, so that users may know if

5460-427: The water is too deep to attempt to cross. Some have an adjacent footbridge so that pedestrians may cross dryshod. Fords were sometimes the only way to cross, such as at the Milkhouse at Rock Creek in Washington, DC, but the regular use of this ford has been superseded by bridges. The crossing remained for "adventurous" drivers until 1996 when the National Park Service closed the ford to cars. A road running below

5538-459: The water level of a stream or river is often known as a "watersplash". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and is sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. Some enthusiasts seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position, and access) on dedicated websites. There are many old fords known as watersplashes in

5616-525: The water makes them impassable. According to The AA , many flood-related vehicle breakdowns are at fords. In New Zealand , fords are a normal part of roads, including, until 2010, along State Highway 1 on the South Island 's east coast. In dry weather, drivers become aware of a ford by crunching across outwash detritus on the roadway. A Bailey bridge may be built off the mainline of the road to carry emergency traffic during high water. At places where

5694-557: Was first confined to a ghetto , then murdered at the Sobibór camp. The Jewish population ceased to exist and was never reconstituted. The town remained under German occupation until July 25, 1944, when it was freed by the Home Army , as well as the Red Army . A year later, on April 24, 1945, a local unit of the anti-Communist organization Freedom and Independence under Marian Bernaciak captured

5772-419: Was forced to retreat to Siedlce and Warsaw was saved. Chłopicki, whose soldierly qualities reasserted themselves by military activity, was wounded in action and his place taken by General Jan Skrzynecki , who, like his predecessor, had won distinction under Napoleon for personal courage. Disliked by Grand Duke Constantine, he had retired from service. He shared with Chłopicki the conviction that war with Russia

5850-558: Was futile but with the opening of hostilities took command of a corps and fought creditably at Grochov. When the weak and indecisive Michał Radziwiłł surrendered the dictatorship, Skrzynecki was chosen to succeed him. He endeavored to end the war by negotiations with the Russian field commanders and hoped for benign foreign intervention. Sympathetic echoes of the Polish aspirations reverberated throughout Europe. Enthusiastic meetings had been held in Paris under Lafayette's chairmanship, and money for

5928-534: Was highly charged. Severe rioting took place and the government became completely disorganized. Count Jan Krukowiecki was made President of the Ruling Council. He had little faith in the success of the military campaign but believed that when passions had subsided he could end the war on what seemed to him advantageous terms. Despite a desperate defence by General Józef Sowiński , Warsaw's suburb of Wola fell to Paskevich's forces on 6 September. The next day saw

6006-588: Was the future Polish writer Bolesław Prus (who had also spent part of his early childhood in Puławy). Prus would set his 1884 micro-story , " Mold of the Earth ," at the Temple of the Sibyl . Puławy received its town charter in 1906. In 1915, it was seized by the Austro-Hungarian Army , which remained until November 1918. On 13 August 1920, Józef Piłsudski , Poland's Chief of State , left Warsaw , and established

6084-484: Was the slaughter of the inhabitants of the small town of Ashmiany in Belarus. Meanwhile, new Russian forces under Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia arrived in Poland but met with many defeats. Constant warfare, however, and bloody battles such as that at Ostroleka in which 8,000 Poles died, considerably depleted the Polish forces. Mistakes on the part of the commanders, constant changes and numerous resignations, and

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