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120-434: The name Puntigam is originally a family name. It originates from the family who since the early modern era owned a mansion with an inn and a brewery in this area. The brewery Puntigam developed out of this in the 19th century. Together with the village Straßgang, Puntigam became the 16th city district of Graz, Straßgang , in 1938. In 1988, the district Puntigam was broken up from the 16th district Straßgang with small parts of

240-456: A metaphysical position, solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist. Solipsism is the only epistemological position that, by its own postulate , is both irrefutable and yet indefensible in the same manner. Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small, it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another's arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence, in

360-569: A millenarian -turned-socialist and Christian Israelite . Although an early follower of Robert Owen , he eventually rejected Owen's collective idea of property and found in individualism a " universalism " that allowed for the development of the "original genius". Without individualism, Smith argued that individuals cannot amass property to increase one's happiness. William Maccall , another Unitarian preacher and probably an acquaintance of Smith, came somewhat later, although influenced by John Stuart Mill , Thomas Carlyle and German Romanticism , to

480-467: A pandemic . Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later. The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and

600-460: A big part of the industry of Graz is situated in Puntigam. There are for example the firms Gowi Spielwaren (toys), Ankünder Außenwerbung (advertising), Spar Austria (retail) as well as recycling companies and others. 47°01′44″N 15°25′34″E  /  47.02889°N 15.42611°E  / 47.02889; 15.42611 Modern era The modern era or the modern period is considered

720-756: A certain proposition and which have no objective reality in and of themselves. Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition to moral realism , which claims that moral propositions refer to objective facts, independent of human opinion; to error theory , which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense; and to non-cognitivism , which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all. The most common forms of ethical subjectivism are also forms of moral relativism , with moral standards held to be relative to each culture or society, i.e. cultural relativism , or even to every individual. The latter view, as put forward by Protagoras , holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in

840-419: A difference in tastes between people or times is the terminus of the argument: the problem is abandoned at this point to whoever studies and explains tastes (psychologists? anthropologists? phrenologists? sociobiologists?). On our preferred interpretation, one never reaches this impasse: the economist continues to search for differences in prices or incomes to explain any differences or changes in behavior. "With

960-433: A distinction, relevant in this context, between guilt societies (e.g. medieval Europe ) with an "internal reference standard" and shame societies (e.g. Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is acceptable or not. Individualism is often contrasted either with totalitarianism or with collectivism , but there

1080-562: A form of organisation in place of the state . Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. Egoism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy, but it has also gone beyond Stirner within anarchism. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay . John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "Modern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche , and expounded by Ibsen , Shaw and others,

1200-422: A moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject ) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and "the self" to a status not granted to others), but that one also should not (as altruism does) sacrifice one's own interests to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-being ) are substantially-equivalent to

1320-696: A mutual defense agreement, the Tripartite Pact , and were known as the Axis Powers . Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompted it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor , bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined

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1440-484: A new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. Historians analyze the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called " Middle Ages " (between Modern and Ancient Times ). The " Baroque " is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period. Historians sometimes define

1560-608: A nineteenth century historical era stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the First World War ); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the " long nineteenth century " as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. During this century, the Spanish , Portuguese , and Ottoman Empires began to crumble and the Holy Roman and Mughal Empires ceased. The Napoleonic era

1680-441: A person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what their own interests are on a personal basis, without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure (an individualist need not be an egoist ). The individualist does not necessarily follow one particular philosophy. They may create an amalgamation of elements of many philosophies, based on personal interests in particular aspects that they find of use. On

1800-488: A societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a necessary trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau , claims that his concept of general will in The Social Contract is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for

1920-677: A successful slave revolt in Haiti , Britain forced the Barbary pirates to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, banned slavery throughout its domain in 1833, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in Russia in 1861, by the Emancipation Proclamation in the United States in 1863, and in Brazil in 1888. (see Abolitionism ). Following

2040-444: A theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an always incomplete process, always leaving a "pre-individual" left-over, itself making possible future individuations. The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies

2160-551: A threat, it was causing anti-Western and anti-American feelings in parts of the world, especially in the Middle East . English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged. Terrorism , dictatorship , and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as Kim Jong-il in North Korea continued to lead their nations toward

2280-600: A way to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom. Nietzsche's concept of the superman is closely related to the idea of individualism and the pursuit of one's own unique path and potential. As is seen in the following quote, the concept of superman reflects Nietzsche's emphasis on the need to overcome traditional moral and societal norms in order to achieve personal growth and self-realization: Freethought holds that individuals should not accept ideas proposed as truth without recourse to knowledge and reason . Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on

2400-430: Is a limit of the world". Metaphysical subjectivism is the theory that reality is what we perceive to be real, and that there is no underlying true reality that exists independently of perception. One can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that is reality ( subjective idealism ). In probability , a subjectivism stands for the belief that probabilities are simply degrees-of-belief by rational agents in

2520-894: Is a period in the history of France and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the French Revolution , the first being the National Assembly , the second being the Legislative Assembly , and the third being the Directory . The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon's coup d'état , overthrowing the Directory and ends at the Hundred Days and his defeat at Waterloo ( November 9 1799 – June 28 1815 ). The Congress of Vienna soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days. The Industrial Revolution

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2640-476: Is a philosophical tenet that accords primacy to subjective experience as fundamental of all measure and law. In extreme forms such as solipsism, it may hold that the nature and existence of every object depends solely on someone's subjective awareness of it. In the proposition 5.632 of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote: "The subject doesn't belong to the world, but it

2760-488: Is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into consciousness (by means of dreams, active imagination or free association to take examples) to be assimilated into the whole personality. It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place. Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development. In L'individuation psychique et collective , Gilbert Simondon developed

2880-474: Is a spectrum of behaviors at the societal level ranging from highly individualistic societies through mixed societies to collectivist. According to an Oxford Dictionary , "competitive individualism" in sociology is "the view that achievement and non-achievement should depend on merit. Effort and ability are regarded as prerequisites of success. Competition is seen as an acceptable means of distributing limited resources and rewards. Methodological individualism

3000-430: Is a system of philosophy created by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand which holds that reality exists independent of consciousness; human beings gain knowledge rationally from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive and deductive logic; the moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness or rational self-interest. Rand thinks the only social system consistent with this morality

3120-404: Is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual." Stirner and Nietzsche , who exerted influence on anarchism despite its opposition, were frequently compared by French "literary anarchists" and anarchist interpretations of Nietzschean ideas appear to have also been influential in

3240-587: Is also associated with humanist philosophical positions and ethics. In the English language , the word individualism was first introduced as a pejorative by utopian socialists such as the Owenites in the late 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith ,

3360-688: Is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the fall of Constantinople (1453), Gutenberg 's moveable type printing press (1450s), completion of the Reconquista (1492) and Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the Americas (also 1492), to the Reformation begun with Martin Luther 's Ninety-five Theses (1517). The term "modern"

3480-489: Is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that in pursuing self-interest one ought always to do what one wants to do, e.g. in the long term the fulfilment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self. Fleeting pleasance then takes a back seat to protracted eudaemonia . In the words of James Rachels , "[e]thical egoism [...] endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness." Ethical egoism

3600-479: Is found on both the right and left in modern politics. For scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood , "there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism [...] and non-Lockean individualism may encompass socialism ". British historians such as Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives by

3720-414: Is full respect for individual rights, embodied in pure laissez-faire capitalism ; and the role of art in human life is to transform man's widest metaphysical ideas, by selective reproduction of reality, into a physical form – a work of art – that he can comprehend and to which he can respond emotionally. Objectivism celebrates man as his own hero, "with his own happiness as

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3840-572: Is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin . Autarchism promotes the principles of individualism, the moral ideology of individual liberty and self-reliance whilst rejecting compulsory government and supporting the elimination of government in favor of ruling oneself to the exclusion of rule by others. Robert LeFevre , recognized as an autarchist by anarcho-capitalist Murray Rothbard , distinguished autarchism from anarchy , whose economics he felt entailed interventions contrary to freedom in contrast to his own laissez-faire economics of

3960-487: Is often defined in contrast to communitarianism , collectivism and corporatism . Individualism has been used as a term denoting "[t]he quality of being an individual; individuality", related to possessing "[a]n individual characteristic; a quirk ". Individualism is also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors. It

4080-549: Is one devoid of most moral restraints, which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable, especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society. Libertines place value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain . Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester and

4200-541: Is sometimes the philosophical basis for support of libertarianism or individualist anarchism as in Max Stirner , although these can also be based on altruistic motivations. These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action. Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who generally held, despite profound doctrinal differences, that

4320-456: Is strongly correlated with GDP per capita and venture capital investments. The cultures of economically developed regions such as Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, North America and Western Europe are the most individualistic in the world. Middle income regions such as Eastern Europe, South America and mainland East Asia have cultures which are neither very individualistic nor very collectivistic. The most collectivistic cultures in

4440-411: Is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad. The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure (an umbrella term for all inherently likable emotions) is the only thing that is good in and of itself or by its very nature. This implies evaluating the moral worth of character or behavior according to the extent that the pleasure it produces exceeds the pain it entails. A libertine

4560-450: Is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents. In economics, people's behavior is explained in terms of rational choices , as constrained by prices and incomes. The economist accepts individuals' preferences as givens. Becker and Stigler provide a forceful statement of this view: On the traditional view, an explanation of economic phenomena that reaches

4680-439: Is to seek the society most favorable to the artist. [...] for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated. [...] Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete ". Woodcock finds that "[t]he most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man Under Socialism " and finds that it

4800-448: Is toleration of different beliefs and of different ideas as to what constitutes a good life. Liberalism generally values differing political opinions, even if they clash and cause discord. Egoist anarchism is a school of anarchist thought that originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner , a 19th-century Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of

4920-580: The Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government, such as the Divine Right of Kings , hereditary status, and established religion . John Locke and Montesquieu are often credited with the philosophical foundations of classical liberalism , a political ideology inspired by the broader liberal movement. Locke wrote that "no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions." In

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5040-463: The Austrian School . Liberalism is thought "that attaches [and advances the] importance...[of]...the civil and political rights of individuals and their freedoms of speech and expression ." This belief is widely accepted in the United States, Europe, Australia and other Western nations, and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history, in particular since

5160-661: The British in East Africa , and the Portuguese and Spanish at various points throughout the continent, while Leopold II of Belgium was able to retain his personal fiefdom, Congo . Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a Second Industrial Revolution which enabled Germany , Japan , and the United States to become great powers that raced to create empires of their own . However, Russia and China failed to keep pace with

5280-706: The Cold War . It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over Commonwealth countries, most notably by the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by the Statute of Westminster , the patriation of constitutions by the Canada Act 1982 , and the Australia Act 1986 , as well as the independence of countries like India , Pakistan , South Africa , and Ireland . The First World War

5400-607: The Marquis de Sade . During the Baroque era in France, there existed a freethinking circle of philosophers and intellectuals who were collectively known as libertinage érudit and which included Gabriel Naudé , Élie Diodati and François de La Mothe Le Vayer . The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester 's libertinism to Hobbesian materialism . Objectivism

5520-597: The Modern or New World . In each case, the identification of the change over time can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern. Starting in western countries, the modern world has seen a systematic re-evaluation of value systems , monarchical regimes, and feudal economic systems. These have often been replaced by democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics , science , psychology , sociology , and economics . Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show

5640-479: The 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism. Individuality is the state or quality of being an individuated being; a person separated from everything with unique character by possessing their own needs, goals, and desires in comparison to other people. The principle of individuation, or principium individuationis , describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things. For Carl Jung , individuation

5760-503: The 17th century, liberal ideas began to influence European governments in nations such as the Netherlands, Switzerland, England and Poland, but they were strongly opposed, often by armed might, by those who favored absolute monarchy and established religion. In the 18th century, the first modern liberal state was founded without a monarch or a hereditary aristocracy in the United States of America. The US Declaration of Independence includes

5880-414: The 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes . 21st century Humanism tends to strongly endorse human rights , including reproductive rights , gender equality , social justice , and the separation of church and state . The term covers organized non-theistic religions , secular humanism , and a humanistic life stance. Philosophical hedonism is a meta-ethical theory of value which argues that pleasure

6000-413: The 1970s, demanding greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control, angrily complaining that the establishment was withholding it. Historians argue that this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal. Within anarchism, individualist anarchism represents several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize

6120-489: The 19th century until today. The time from the end of World War II (1945) can also be described as being part of contemporary history . The common definition of the modern period today is often associated with events like the French Revolution , the Industrial Revolution , and the transition to nationalism towards the liberal international order . The modern period has been a period of significant development in

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6240-505: The 5th district Gries and became the new 17th district. Since the beginnings of the trams in Graz the line number 5 leads to Puntigam. Until 2006, the line number 5 reversed at the brewery Puntigam coming from Andritz . At the newly created local traffic connection Puntigam one can change to the bus lines 62, 64, 78 and 80. It is also planned to become a station of the new Koralmbahn Railway in about 2025. Coming from Puntigam one can get via

6360-482: The Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time and attacked Japanese armies through guerrilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants was as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union, and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan. The United Kingdom,

6480-462: The Cold War ended and the post–Cold War era began (which includes most of the 1990s , the last decade of the 20th century). The Korean War , Vietnam War , and Soviet–Afghan War , impacted political life, while the counterculture of the 1960s and the rise of computers changed society in different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility. At the end of the twentieth century,

6600-546: The Enlightenment . It is often rejected by collectivist ideas such as in Abrahamic or Confucian societies, although Taoists were and are known to be individualists. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising "the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed". Liberalism has its roots in

6720-778: The European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the Triple Entente , and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the Triple Alliance . Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front , within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a " no man's land ") running from the North Sea to

6840-468: The Industrial Revolution is not exact. Eric Hobsbawm held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of George III , The Regency , and George IV ). The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting

6960-559: The Pacific Ocean, and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied puppet state and an Allies-friendly state in the south; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan surrendered , marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945. It is possible that around 62 million people died in

7080-713: The United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as British Commonwealth countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the Indian Empire . All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939. Following the lull in fighting, known as the " Phoney War ", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed

7200-637: The United States, the Soviet Union, and China were referred to as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during World War II and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations . These four countries were considered the " Four Policemen " or "Four Sheriffs" of the Allies and were the primary victors of World War II. Battles raged across all of Europe, in the north Atlantic Ocean , across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across

7320-683: The United States. Ethical egoism, also called simply egoism, is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest . It differs from psychological egoism , which claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. However, these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism. Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism , which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that

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7440-621: The Weblinger Gürtel street towards the rotary Webling which is located at the Pyhrn Autobahn (A9) motorway. From there one can quickly reach the motorway rotary Graz West at the crossing of the motorways A2 and A9. For generations, the Puch factories are the dominant part of the economy in Puntigam and Liebenau . The brewery Puntigam is one of the most successful breweries in Austria. Even today

7560-462: The abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all." — Oscar Wilde , The Soul of Man under Socialism , 1891 Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as

7680-626: The abolition of the slave trade , and propelled by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884–1885. All the major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The French gained major ground in West Africa ,

7800-421: The basis of facts , scientific inquiry and logical principles, independent of any logical fallacies or intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias , cognitive bias , conventional wisdom , popular culture , prejudice , sectarianism , tradition , urban legend and all other dogmas . Regarding religion , freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to scientifically validate

7920-694: The beginning of World War II in 1939. It included the Roaring Twenties , the Great Depression , and the rise of communism in Russia and fascism in Italy and Germany. World War II was a global military conflict that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in The Holocaust and ending with the dropping of the atom bomb . Although Japan had invaded China in 1937,

8040-546: The border of Switzerland . On the Eastern Front , the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under

8160-407: The connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development . Optimism and the belief in constant progress have been most recently criticized by postmodernism , while the dominance of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by postcolonial theory . Eras can not easily be defined. 1500

8280-460: The conventional view is that World War II began on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Within two days, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe. The Allies were initially made up of Poland,

8400-410: The cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become

8520-524: The current historical period of human history . It was originally applied to the history of Europe and Western history for events that came after the Middle Ages , often from around the year 1500. From the 1990s, it is more common among historians to refer to the period after the Middle Ages and up to the 19th century as the early modern period . The modern period is today more often used for events from

8640-469: The development of nuclear weapons. The fear existed that not only were terrorists already attempting to obtain nuclear weapons, but that they had already acquired them. Individualism Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy , ideology , and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual . Individualists promote realizing one's goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance, and advocating that

8760-420: The earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism ." According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists , non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will which Stirner proposed as

8880-1015: The economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty . From these early influences, anarchism and especially individualist anarchism was related to the issues of love and sex . In different countries, this attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals, free love and birth control advocates, individualist naturists nudists as in anarcho-naturism , freethought and anti-clerical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism and individual reclamation , especially within European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France . These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde , Émile Armand , Han Ryner , Henri Zisly , Renzo Novatore , Miguel Giménez Igualada , Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others. In his important essay The Soul of Man Under Socialism from 1891, Wilde defended socialism as

9000-590: The elimination of the state, philosophical anarchists do not believe that they have an obligation or duty to obey the state, or conversely that the state has a right to command. Philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism. Philosophical anarchists of historical note include Mohandas Gandhi , William Godwin , Pierre-Joseph Proudhon , Max Stirner , Benjamin Tucker and Henry David Thoreau . Contemporary philosophical anarchists include A. John Simmons and Robert Paul Wolff . Subjectivism

9120-525: The emphasis on the individual, but differ in varying degrees on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling life, what obstacles must be overcome, and what external and internal factors are involved, including the potential consequences of the existence or non-existence of God. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy in both style and content as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Existentialism became fashionable after World War II as

9240-435: The existence of supernatural phenomena. Humanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority. Since the 19th century, humanism has been associated with an anti-clericalism inherited from

9360-584: The fields of science , politics , warfare , and technology . It has also been an Age of Discovery and globalization . During this time, the European powers and later their colonies, strengthened its political, economic, and cultural colonization of the rest of the world. It also created a new modern lifestyle and has permanently changed the way people around the world live. In the 19th and early 20th century , modernist art , politics , science , and culture have come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America , but almost every area on

9480-436: The first expression of anarchism. Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with

9600-610: The focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and their emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts. The early 19th century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard , posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism, maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one's own life meaning and living that life passionately and sincerely , in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair , angst , absurdity , alienation and boredom . Subsequent existential philosophers retain

9720-580: The general good. An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism , or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner . Stirner's The Ego and Its Own , published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. To Stirner, rights were spooks in

9840-406: The globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the western world and globalization . The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism , capitalism , urbanization , and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political progress . The brutal wars and other conflicts of this era , many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and

9960-405: The individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, William Godwin , who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice , which some consider to be

10080-770: The individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason ). Individualism versus collectivism is a common dichotomy in cross-cultural research . Global comparative studies have found that the world's cultures vary in the degree to which they emphasize individual autonomy, freedom and initiative (individualistic traits), respectively conformity to group norms, maintaining traditions and obedience to in-group authority (collectivistic traits). Cultural differences between individualism and collectivism are differences in degrees, not in kind. Cultural individualism

10200-401: The interests of the individual should gain precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government. Individualism makes the individual its focus, and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation". Individualism

10320-562: The majority of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic Revolution , when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle. The First Industrial Revolution gave way to the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships and railways, and later in

10440-419: The mid-20th century and only gained substantial traction in the 1960s and 1970s. Nipperdey (2022) pointed to its widespread usage by American historians around 1900 already, adding: 'In the interwar years the term permeated all areas of professional activity from textbooks and graduate school seminars to conferences, research articles, and job descriptions.' The difference between "early modern" and just "modern"

10560-549: The middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to democratization . Technological developments included the development of airplanes and space exploration , nuclear technology , advancement in genetics , and the dawning of the Information Age . Major political developments included the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , two world wars, and

10680-504: The mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists , non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state. Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. Egoist anarchism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It

10800-491: The moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." Philosophical anarchism is an anarchist school of thought which contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy . In contrast to revolutionary anarchism, philosophical anarchism does not advocate violent revolution to eliminate it but advocates peaceful evolution to superate it. Although philosophical anarchism does not necessarily imply any action or desire for

10920-518: The nineteenth century with the internal combustion engine and electric power generation. Following the Napoleonic Wars , the British Empire became the world's leading power, controlling one-quarter of the world's population and one-third of the land area. It enforced a Pax Britannica , encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following

11040-457: The other hand, would describe rather a movement in art than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history. This changed, when postmodernity was coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy. These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam,

11160-531: The other world powers, which led to massive social unrest in both empires. While earlier centuries also saw significant developments, the 20th century was distinguished by the unprecedented pace and global scale of economic, technological, and cultural changes. Still, advancing technology and medicine have had a great impact even in the Global South . Large-scale industry and more centralized media made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in

11280-403: The others' interests and well-being. Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism , but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of consequentialism (i.e. subject-focused or subjective ), but utilitarianism is called agent-neutral (i.e. objective and impartial ) as it does not treat the subject's (i.e.

11400-407: The same positive conclusions in his 1847 work Elements of Individualism . An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics , individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person" as in "the problem of proper names ". From

11520-500: The self's, i.e. the moral "agent's") own interests as being more or less important than if the same interests, desires, or well-being were anyone else's. Ethical egoism does not require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation, e.g. what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for others' interest and well-being to be disregarded or not as long as what

11640-470: The state or religious morality). For L. Susan Brown , "Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations." Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties, or which emphasizes

11760-476: The supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority (such as a state , a corporation and social norms imposed through peer pressure , among others). Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology ; rather, it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights . Because of this, a civil libertarian outlook is compatible with many other political philosophies, and civil libertarianism

11880-469: The terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discoveries . Changes, mostly seen as advances, in all areas of human activity— politics , industry , society , economics , commerce , transport , communication , mechanization , automation , science , medicine , technology , religion , the arts , and other aspects of culture —appear to have transformed an Old World into

12000-606: The war ; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, the Holocaust ), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died. The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole")

12120-479: The war, eventually resulting in the establishment of the People's Republic of China . The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence. The Cold War between the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945, until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, at which point

12240-468: The way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that "[w]ith the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all". For anarchist historian George Woodcock , "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man Under Socialism

12360-420: The words which echo Locke that "all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that to insure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ." Liberalism comes in many forms. According to John N. Gray , the essence of liberalism

12480-492: The work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud . For Stiegler, "the I , as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we , which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits and in which a plurality of I ' s acknowledge each other's existence." Individualism holds that

12600-648: The world are from economically developing regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and South-East Asia, Central Asia and Central America. An earlier analysis by Ruth Benedict in her book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword states that societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and/or self-interested) behaviors, rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviors. Ruth Benedict made

12720-506: The world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technologies radically altered daily lives. However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed. First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, arguing that there

12840-420: The world. Moral subjectivism is that species of moral relativism that relativizes moral value to the individual subject. Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish-language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner . Quelle argued that since the individual gives form to the world, he is those objects, the others and the whole universe. One of his main views was a "theory of infinite worlds" which for him

12960-433: The world. Viruses such as West Nile and Avian influenza continued to spread quickly and easily. In poor nations, malaria and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with HIV , the virus that causes AIDS , which was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa and around the world. Increased globalization , specifically Americanization , was also occurring. While not necessarily

13080-699: Was a world conflict , ranging from July 1914 to the final Armistice on 11 November 1918. The Allied Powers , led by the British Empire , France , Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers , led by the German Empire , Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire . The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in

13200-530: Was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others claimed that powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the Third World . Developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, along with the associated costs. Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of

13320-434: Was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic , surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist , who is best known for his book Walden , a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience , an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later, Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with

13440-463: Was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era. The term "early modern" was introduced in the English language by American historians at the turn of the 20th century (around 1900). It was long thought that the concept was invented either in the 1930s to distinguish the time between the Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800), or that "early modern" was not coined until

13560-538: Was defined by the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution . Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms " modernity " and " modernism " refer to a new way of thinking, distinct, from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking. The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy. " Postmodernism ", coined 1949, on

13680-407: Was developed by pre-socratic philosophers . Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist. The term comes from Latin solus ("alone") and ipse ("self"). Solipsism as an epistemological position holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure. The external world and other minds cannot be known, and might not exist outside the mind. As

13800-464: Was enabled by the introduction of canals , improved roads , and then railways . The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal ) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing ) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The date of

13920-511: Was informally split into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . Western Europe later aligned as NATO , and Eastern Europe as the Warsaw Pact . There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the British Empire to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the Cold War . In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its democratization . China's civil war continued through and after

14040-416: Was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay . Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and The Peaceful Revolutionist , the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, was the first anarchist periodical published. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent [...] that Proudhonian Anarchism

14160-639: Was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" groups during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as during Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans. After World War II, Europe

14280-476: Was the major technological , socioeconomic , and cultural change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery . It began with the mechanisation of the textile industries and the development of iron -making techniques, and trade expansion

14400-488: Was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews . [...] William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form". Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau

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