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Pumbedita Academy or Pumbedita Yeshiva ( Hebrew : ישיבת פומבדיתא ; sometimes Pumbeditha , Pumpedita , Pumbedisa ) was a yeshiva in present-day Iraq, called Babylon, during the era of the Amoraim and Geonim sages. It was founded by Judah bar Ezekiel (220–299 CE) and, with the Sura Academy founded in 225 by Abba Arika , was an influential and dominant yeshiva for about 800 years.

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89-501: After Abba Arikha and Samuel of Nehardea died at the end of the first generation of the Amoraim, along with the designation of Rav Huna as dean Sura, Judah bar Ezekiel went to the city of Pumbedita and had established a new yeshiva there. Pumbedita Academy was active for about 800 years over the course of the eras of the Amoraim , Savoraim , and Geonim up until the days of Hai Gaon . At

178-401: A bave . Bave diameters for tussah silk can reach 65 μm. See cited reference for cross-sectional SEM photographs. Silk has a smooth, soft texture that is not slippery, unlike many synthetic fibers . Silk is one of the strongest natural fibers, but it loses up to 20% of its strength when wet. It has a good moisture regain of 11%. Its elasticity is moderate to poor: if elongated even

267-466: A brilliant phase of its existence under Samuel's directorate, and, with the academy founded by Rav at Sura , enjoyed a high general reputation. Rav at Sura and Samuel at Nehardea established the intellectual independence of Babylonian Jewry . Young men taking up the study of the Law there were no longer obliged to go to Israel, since they had the foremost teachers at home. Babylon now came to be regarded, in

356-424: A large satin waistcoat with flaps, were got up, of which the silk was perfect, but the lining entirely gone ... from the thread giving way ... No articles of dress of woollen cloth have yet been found.' Silk is a poor conductor of electricity and thus susceptible to static cling . Silk has a high emissivity for infrared light, making it feel cool to the touch. Unwashed silk chiffon may shrink up to 8% due to

445-718: A long history of a formative textile industry in ancient China, this find of silk textiles employing "complicated techniques" of weaving and dyeing provides direct evidence for silks dating before the Mawangdui -discovery and other silks dating to the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). Silk is described in a chapter of the Fan Shengzhi shu from the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD). There is a surviving calendar for silk production in an Eastern Han (25–220 AD) document. The two other known works on silk from

534-471: A number of legendary stories are connected with his birth. His father, Abba bar Abba , subsequently known also by the Aramaic language designation Abuh di-Shemu'el ("father of Samuel"), was a silk - merchant . R. Yehuda ben Betheira ordered a silken garment from him, but refused to take it after Abba had procured it, and when the latter asked him the reason of his refusal, R. Yehuda answered, "The commission

623-440: A number of small firms and cooperatives emerged. Among the most prominent of these was the cooperative utopian Northampton Association for Education and Industry, of which Sojourner Truth was a member. Following the destructive Mill River Flood of 1874 , one manufacturer, William Skinner , relocated his mill from Williamsburg to the then-new city of Holyoke . Over the next 50 years he and his sons would maintain relations between

712-430: A sense, as a second Holy Land. Samuel taught, "As it is forbidden to migrate from Israel to Babylon, so is it forbidden to migrate from Babylon to other countries". After Rav's death no new director was elected, and Rav's greatest pupil, R. Huna, who became president of the court of Sura, subordinated himself to Samuel in every respect, asking his decision in every difficult religio-legal question. The Academy of Nehardea

801-402: A servant, and the master has no right to treat her with condescension or to have marital relations in the presence of the slaves. Once, when a female slave had been taken away from Samuel and he had unexpectedly recovered her by paying a ransom, he felt obliged to liberate her because he had given up hope of recovering her. Following the example of his teacher Levi ben Sisi , Samuel collected

890-417: A small amount, it remains stretched. It can be weakened if exposed to too much sunlight. It may also be attacked by insects, especially if left dirty. One example of the durable nature of silk over other fabrics is demonstrated by the recovery in 1840 of silk garments from a wreck of 1782 : 'The most durable article found has been silk; for besides pieces of cloaks and lace, a pair of black satin breeches, and

979-479: A son was born to Abba, whom he named Samuel. Even as a boy Samuel displayed rare ability. His first teacher was an otherwise unknown man, and Samuel, who knew more about a certain legal question than did his teacher, would not submit to ill treatment by him. Then Samuel's father, who was himself a prominent teacher of the Law, recognized as such even by Rav, undertook to instruct the boy. As he seems to have been unequal to this task he sent him to Nisibis to attend

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1068-623: A teacher in Babylon". Samuel was unfortunate in his family life. He had no sons, and his two daughters were captured by soldiers during the war with the Romans. They were taken to Tzippori , in Israel, where they were ransomed by coreligionists, but both died at an early age after having been married successively to a relative. The esteem in which Samuel was held appears from the fact that no one thought of attributing his misfortune to any sin committed by him; it

1157-453: A thorough knowledge of the science of medicine as it was known in his day; this is evident from many of his medical maxims and dietetic rules scattered through the Talmud. He energetically opposed the view then current, even in intelligent circles, that most diseases were due to the evil eye , declaring that the source of all disease must be sought in the noxious influence exercised by the air and

1246-416: A white-colored silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the whole cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread, permitting a much stronger cloth to be woven from the silk. Wild silks also tend to be more difficult to dye than silk from

1335-434: Is a natural protein fiber , some forms of which can be woven into textiles . The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons . The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity ( sericulture ). The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism -like structure of

1424-486: Is chiefly important, however, because of his promulgation of new theories and his independent decisions both in ritual and in civil law. However, in the field of ritual law he was not considered as great an authority as his colleague Rav, and practical questions were always decided according to Rav's views as against those of Samuel. In civil law his authority was the highest in Babylon, and his decisions became law even when contrary to Rav's. Samuel seems to have possessed

1513-509: Is composed mostly of beta-sheets , due to a 59-mer amino acid repeat sequence with some variations. The flat surfaces of the fibrils reflect light at many angles, giving silk a natural sheen. The cross-section from other silkworms can vary in shape and diameter: crescent-like for Anaphe and elongated wedge for tussah . Silkworm fibers are naturally extruded from two silkworm glands as a pair of primary filaments (brin), which are stuck together, with sericin proteins that act like glue , to form

1602-537: Is concentrated in the Coimbatore , Erode , Bhagalpuri , Tiruppur , Salem , and Dharmapuri districts. Hyderabad , Andhra Pradesh , and Gobichettipalayam , Tamil Nadu , were the first locations to have automated silk reeling units in India. In the northeastern state of Assam , three different types of indigenous variety of silk are produced, collectively called Assam silk : Muga silk , Eri silk and Pat silk . Muga,

1691-504: Is forbidden. Modern attire has raised a number of issues, including, for instance, the permissibility of wearing silk neckties , which are masculine articles of clothing. In the Odyssey , 19.233, when Odysseus, while pretending to be someone else, is questioned by Penelope about her husband's clothing, he says that he wore a shirt "gleaming like the skin of a dried onion" (varies with translations, literal translation here) which could refer to

1780-584: Is now part of Malaysia , a second generation of silkworm was being imported as early as 1764 for the country's silk textile industry, especially songket . However, since the 1980s, Malaysia is no longer engaged in sericulture but does plant mulberry trees. In Vietnamese legend, silk appeared in the first millennium AD and is still being woven today. The process of silk production is known as sericulture . The entire production process of silk can be divided into several steps which are typically handled by different entities. Extracting raw silk starts by cultivating

1869-527: Is potentially large when compared with other natural fibers. A life-cycle assessment of Indian silk production shows that the production process has a large carbon and water footprint, mainly due to the fact that it is an animal-derived fiber and more inputs such as fertilizer and water are needed per unit of fiber produced. Silk fibers from the Bombyx mori silkworm have a triangular cross section with rounded corners, 5–10  μm wide. The fibroin-heavy chain

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1958-415: Is soaked in extremely cold water and bleached before dyeing to remove the natural yellow coloring of Thai silk yarn. To do this, skeins of silk thread are immersed in large tubs of hydrogen peroxide . Once washed and dried, the silk is woven on a traditional hand-operated loom. The Rajshahi Division of northern Bangladesh is the hub of the country's silk industry. There are three types of silk produced in

2047-584: Is the presence of the silk protein fibroin in soil samples from two tombs at the neolithic site Jiahu in Henan , which date back about 8,500 years. The earliest surviving example of silk fabric dates from about 3630 BC, and was used as the wrapping for the body of a child at a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun near Xingyang , Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu (Hsi-Ling-Shih, Lei-Tzu). Silks were originally reserved for

2136-474: Is the second largest producer of silk in the world after China. About 97% of the raw mulberry silk comes from six Indian states, namely, Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Jammu and Kashmir , Tamil Nadu , Bihar , and West Bengal . North Bangalore, the upcoming site of a $ 20 million "Silk City" Ramanagara and Mysore , contribute to a majority of silk production in Karnataka. In Tamil Nadu , mulberry cultivation

2225-616: The Great Palace complex in Constantinople, and the cloth produced was used in imperial robes or in diplomacy, as gifts to foreign dignitaries. The remainder was sold at very high prices. Italy was the most important producer of silk during the Medieval age. The first center to introduce silk production to Italy was the city of Catanzaro during the 11th century in the region of Calabria . The silk of Catanzaro supplied almost all of Europe and

2314-473: The Holy Land , probably with his father, and returned to his native city. His reputation as a teacher of the Law having preceded him, many pupils gathered about him. As he was especially well versed in civil law , the exilarch Mar Ukva , who was his pupil, appointed him judge of the bet din at Nehardea, where he was associated with his friend the learned and clever Karna . This court was regarded at that time as

2403-718: The Torah , a scarlet cloth item called in Hebrew "sheni tola'at" שני תולעת – literally "crimson of the worm" – is described as being used in purification ceremonies, such as those following a leprosy outbreak (Leviticus 14), alongside cedar wood and hyssop ( za'atar ). Eminent scholar and leading medieval translator of Jewish sources and books of the Bible into Arabic , Rabbi Saadia Gaon , translates this phrase explicitly as "crimson silk" – חריר קרמז حرير قرمز. In Islamic teachings, Muslim men are forbidden to wear silk. Many religious jurists believe

2492-509: The Yayoi period . The silk industry was dominant from the 1930s to 1950s, but is less common now. Silk from East Asia had declined in importance after silkworms were smuggled from China to the Byzantine Empire. However, in 1845, an epidemic of flacherie among European silkworms devastated the silk industry there. This led to a demand for silk from China and Japan , where as late as

2581-471: The 12th century. Other Italian cities involved in silk production were Genoa , Venice , and Florence . The Piedmont area of Northern Italy became a major silk producing area when water-powered silk throwing machines were developed. The Silk Exchange in Valencia from the 15th century—where previously in 1348 also perxal ( percale ) was traded as some kind of silk—illustrates the power and wealth of one of

2670-579: The 17th century. James I attempted to establish silk production in England, purchasing and planting 100,000 mulberry trees, some on land adjacent to Hampton Court Palace , but they were of a species unsuited to the silk worms, and the attempt failed. In 1732 John Guardivaglio set up a silk throwing enterprise at Logwood mill in Stockport ; in 1744, Burton Mill was erected in Macclesfield ; and in 1753 Old Mill

2759-631: The American silk industry and its counterparts in Japan, and expanded their business to the point that by 1911, the Skinner Mill complex contained the largest silk mill under one roof in the world, and the brand Skinner Fabrics had become the largest manufacturer of silk satins internationally. Other efforts later in the 19th century would also bring the new silk industry to Paterson, New Jersey , with several firms hiring European-born textile workers and granting it

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2848-507: The Bible and the traditional Law, which were usually the only subjects of study of the Jewish youth of that time, Samuel was instructed, probably in his early youth, in other sciences. It is likely that he accompanied his father on the latter's journey to Israel; for after his teacher Levi ben Sisi had gone to Israel there was no one in Babylon with whom he could have studied. According to an account in

2937-581: The Chinese monopoly . Nonetheless, sericulture reached Korea with technological aid from China around 200 BC, the ancient Kingdom of Khotan by AD 50, and India by AD 140. In the ancient era, silk from China was the most lucrative and sought-after luxury item traded across the Eurasian continent, and many civilizations, such as the ancient Persians, benefited economically from trade. Archaeological evidence indicates that sericulture has been practiced since

3026-553: The Chinese word "sī" and other Asian sources—compare Mandarin sī "silk", Manchurian sirghe , Mongolian sirkek . The production of silk originated in China in the Neolithic period, although it would eventually reach other places of the world ( Yangshao culture, 4th millennium BC). Silk production remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during

3115-636: The Han period are lost. The first evidence of the long distance silk trade is the finding of silk in the hair of an Egyptian mummy of the 21st dynasty, c.1070 BC. The silk trade reached as far as the Indian subcontinent , the Middle East , Europe , and North Africa . This trade was so extensive that the major set of trade routes between Europe and Asia came to be known as the Silk Road . The emperors of China strove to keep knowledge of sericulture secret to maintain

3204-618: The Japanese silk industry and its position as the lead silk exporter of the world. Today, China exports the largest volume of raw silk in the world. Silk has a long history in India. It is known as Resham in eastern and north India, and Pattu in southern parts of India . Recent archaeological discoveries in Harappa and Chanhu-daro suggest that sericulture , employing wild silk threads from native silkworm species, existed in South Asia during

3293-554: The Jews were granted many privileges. On one occasion Samuel even made his love for his own people subsidiary to his loyalty to the Persian king and to his strict view of the duties of a citizen; for when the news came that the Persians, on capturing Mazaca , had killed 12,000 Jews who had obstinately opposed them, Samuel refrained from displaying any sorrow. It is worth noting that Samuel formulated

3382-520: The Middle East by Peter Gaddum . Wild silk taken from the nests of native caterpillars was used by the Aztecs to make containers and as paper. Silkworms were introduced to Oaxaca from Spain in the 1530s and the region profited from silk production until the early 17th century, when the king of Spain banned export to protect Spain's silk industry. Silk production for local consumption has continued until

3471-539: The Talmud, Samuel is said to have cured R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi of an eye disease. Although Samuel was at that time too young to study directly under R. Yehuda, he studied under the pupils of the patriarch, especially with Hanina bar Hama . After having acquired a great store of knowledge in the Land of Israel , his studies there including the Mishnah edited by R. Yehuda haNasi as well as the other collections of tradition, Samuel left

3560-582: The Talmudic dictum that " the law of the state is to be upheld " ( Hebrew : דינא דמלכותא דינא ). R' Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog disagrees with that interpretation. First, Samuel intended to demonstrate a Law not his emotions on the subject. Second, Samuel held that the Messianic Era would arrive through natural means. Samuel may have believed that King Shapur I was destined to usher in the 3rd temple era as Cyrus had been before him. Therefore, those Jews who fought on

3649-553: The academy's name remained "Pumbedita Academy" despite its relocation. The last period of Pumbedita Academy growth took place during the days of Sherira Gaon and his son, Hai Gaon. Thousands of letters with halachic issues attached were received at Pumbedita, addressed to the heads of the Academy from all around the Jewish diaspora . The Geonim of the Academy worked hard to respond to their questions. Along with Hai Gaon's death ( c. 1038),

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3738-415: The beginning of the month. According to Krochmal "Shoḳed," another name given to Samuel, means "astronomer". But Hoffmann's view that "Shoḳed" means "the watchful, diligent one" is more likely correct. This name is said to have been given to Samuel because, despite his medical and astronomic studies, he devoted himself to the study of the Law. It was due to Mar Samuel's influence with the Persian king that

3827-443: The climate upon humans. He traced many diseases to lack of cleanliness, and others to disturbances of the regular mode of living. He claimed to possess cures for most diseases, and was especially skillful in treating the eye; he discovered an eye-salve which was known as the "killurin [κολλύριον] of Mar Samuel," although he himself said that bathing the eyes with cold water in the morning and bathing hands and feet with warm water in

3916-435: The community, but must seek his welfare in that of society". He was known for being very precise with his words. He demanded seemly behavior from every one, saying that any improper conduct was punishable by law. One should help one's fellow man at the first signs of approaching difficulties, so as to prevent them, and not wait until he is in actual distress. In his solicitude for helpless orphans he imposed upon every court

4005-493: The cost price, and he was ready even to temporarily modify the Law in order to prevent them from selling at a high price goods necessary for the fulfillment of a religious duty. In a certain case also he permitted the infraction of a religious prescription in order to keep people from harm. Samuel was very modest in his associations with others, openly honoring any one from whom he had gained any knowledge. He never obstinately insisted on his own opinion, but yielded as soon as he

4094-422: The courses of the stars as with the streets of Nehardea , I cannot explain the nature or the movements of the comets ". Samuel devoted himself especially to that branch of applied astronomy that deals with calendric science, which he taught to his colleagues and pupils. His studies of the moon enabled him to predict the beginning of the month as it was determined in Israel, and he claimed to be able to remove

4183-482: The cultivated silkworm. A technique known as demineralizing allows the mineral layer around the cocoon of wild silk moths to be removed, leaving only variability in color as a barrier to creating a commercial silk industry based on wild silks in the parts of the world where wild silk moths thrive, such as in Africa and South America. Silk use in fabric was first developed in ancient China. The earliest evidence for silk

4272-511: The domesticated varieties in colour and texture and are therefore less uniform; second, cocoons gathered in the wild have usually had the pupa emerge from them before being discovered so the silk thread that makes up the cocoon has been torn into shorter lengths; and third, many wild cocoons are covered in a mineral layer that prevents attempts to reel from them long strands of silk. Thus, the only way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated

4361-708: The early center of the silk industry in America, when the Cheney Brothers became the first in the United States to properly raise silkworms on an industrial scale; today the Cheney Brothers Historic District showcases their former mills. With the mulberry tree craze of that decade, other smaller producers began raising silkworms. This economy particularly gained traction in the vicinity of Northampton, Massachusetts and its neighboring Williamsburg , where

4450-411: The emperors of China for their own use and gifts to others, but spread gradually through Chinese culture and trade both geographically and socially, and then to many regions of Asia . Because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in great demand, and became a staple of pre- industrial international trade . Silk

4539-565: The era of the Geonim ended. Hezekiah Gaon and Bostanai were appointed deans of Pumbedita Academy, the only men to be simultaneously a Gaon and Exilarch . Twenty years later, Hezekiah Gaon, by some accounts, was tortured to death by the Muslim Buyid dynasty and Pumbedita Academy closed. Source: Samuel of Nehardea Samuel of Nehardea or Samuel bar Abba , often simply called Samuel ( Hebrew : שמואל) and occasionally Mar Samuel ,

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4628-431: The era of the Geonim, the two Talmudic academies were correspondingly active as well. One of Pumbedita's Gaons and dean of the Academy, Hai Gaon (approximately in years 988-990), moved the academy to Baghdad because the number of Jews making a living from agriculture was growing smaller and they were migrating to the big cities, mainly to Baghdad (apart from the phenomenon of Jewish emigration out of Babylonia ). However,

4717-588: The evening were better than all the eye-salves in the world. Samuel discovered also a number of the diseases of animals. He sometimes drew the figure of a palm branch as his signature, although perhaps this was used by physicians generally at that time as a sign of their profession. Samuel had a special affinity for astronomy . From the scattered references in the Talmud it is impossible to determine exactly his proficiency in astronomy; but he knew how to solve many mathematics problems and how to explain many phenomena. He says himself: "Although I am as familiar with

4806-463: The foremost institution of its kind. In Israel, as well as in Babylon, Samuel and Karna were called the "judges of the Diaspora" ( dayyanei Golah ). Upon the death of Rav Shela , the director of the academy ("resh sidra") of Nehardea, Samuel was appointed to the office, after it had been refused by Rav, who would not accept any post of honor at Nehardea, Samuel's home. The Academy of Nehardea entered upon

4895-495: The golden silk, and Eri are produced by silkworms that are native only to Assam. They have been reared since ancient times similar to other East and South-East Asian countries. Silk is produced year-round in Thailand by two types of silkworms, the cultured Bombycidae and wild Saturniidae. Most production is after the rice harvest in the southern and northeastern parts of the country. Women traditionally weave silk on hand looms and pass

4984-556: The great Mediterranean mercantile cities. Silk was produced in and exported from the province of Granada , Spain, especially the Alpujarras region, until the Moriscos , whose industry it was, were expelled from Granada in 1571. Since the 15th century, silk production in France has been centered around the city of Lyon where many mechanic tools for mass production were first introduced in

5073-545: The largest silk exporter in the world. This increase in exports was mostly due to the economic reforms during the Meiji period and the decline of the Qing dynasty in China, which led to rapid industrialization of Japan whilst the Chinese industries stagnated. During World War II , embargoes against Japan had led to adoption of synthetic materials such as nylon , which led to the decline of

5162-460: The latter part of the 1st millennium BC, though China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk production for another thousand years. Several kinds of wild silk, produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and spun in China , South Asia , and Europe since ancient times. However, the scale of production was always far smaller than for cultivated silks. There are several reasons for this: first, they differ from

5251-520: The law of the kingdom is [binding] law . This principle made it a religious duty for the Jews to obey the laws of the country. Thus, although the Jews had their own civil courts, Samuel thought that the Persian law should be taken into account and that various Jewish regulations should be modified according to it. Due to his loyalty to the government and his friendship with the Sassanid king, Shapur I , Samuel

5340-467: The lustrous quality of silk fabric. Aristotle wrote of Coa vestis , a wild silk textile from Kos . Sea silk from certain large sea shells was also valued. The Roman Empire knew of and traded in silk, and Chinese silk was the most highly priced luxury good imported by them. During the reign of emperor Tiberius , sumptuary laws were passed that forbade men from wearing silk garments, but these proved ineffectual. The Historia Augusta mentions that

5429-405: The messianic age, except for [the ending of] subjugation [of Israel] to [foreign] kingdoms". [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore ; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Samuel Yarhina'ah" . The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. It has the following bibliography: Silk Silk

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5518-511: The necessity of celebrating double holy days in the Diaspora . He also computed a Hebrew calendar for sixty years, which he subsequently sent to R. Yohanan , the head of the Israeli teachers, as a proof of his knowledge. He was called "Yarkhina'ah" or "Yarkhinai" (Hebrew: שמואל ירחינאה; "yerakh" = "month") because of this familiarity with calendric science and this ability to determine independently

5607-488: The nickname "Silk City" as another major center of production in the United States. World War II interrupted the silk trade from Asia, and silk prices increased dramatically. U.S. industry began to look for substitutes, which led to the use of synthetics such as nylon . Synthetic silks have also been made from lyocell , a type of cellulose fiber, and are often difficult to distinguish from real silk (see spider silk for more on synthetic silks). In Terengganu , which

5696-422: The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Japanese exports competed directly with Chinese in the international market in such low value-added, labor-intensive products as raw silk. Between 1850 and 1930, raw silk ranked as the leading export for both countries, accounting for 20%–40% of Japan's total exports and 20%–30% of China's. Between the 1890s and the 1930s, Japanese silk exports quadrupled, making Japan

5785-571: The present day, sometimes spinning wild silk. King James I introduced silk-growing to the British colonies in America around 1619, ostensibly to discourage tobacco planting. The Shakers in Kentucky adopted the practice. The history of industrial silk in the United States is largely tied to several smaller urban centers in the Northeast region. Beginning in the 1830s, Manchester, Connecticut emerged as

5874-399: The reasoning behind the prohibition lies in avoiding clothing for men that can be considered feminine or extravagant. There are disputes regarding the amount of silk a fabric can consist of (e.g., whether a small decorative silk piece on a cotton caftan is permissible or not) for it to be lawful for men to wear, but the dominant opinion of most Muslim scholars is that the wearing of silk by men

5963-461: The region: mulberry, endi, and tassar. Bengali silk was a major item of international trade for centuries. It was known as Ganges silk in medieval Europe. Bengal was the leading exporter of silk between the 16th and 19th centuries. The 7th century CE murals of Afrasiyab in Samarkand , Sogdiana , show a Chinese Embassy carrying silk and a string of silkworm cocoons to the local Sogdian ruler. In

6052-542: The school of the rabbi who had predicted the boy's birth, that he might there acquire a knowledge of the Law. Samuel seems to have remained only a short time at Nisibis. On his return to Nehardea he studied under Levi ben Sisi , who was in Babylonia before the death of Yehuda Ha-Nasi , and who exerted a great influence on Samuel's development. Samuel made such rapid progress and became so proficient in his studies that he soon associated as an equal with his teacher. Apart from

6141-577: The side of the Roman Emperor Julian were prolonging the exile and not worthy of being mourned. But he had a great love for his people, and he loyally cherished the memory of the former kingdom of Judah . Once, when one of his contemporaries adorned himself with a crown of olive, Samuel sent him the following message: "The head of a Jew that now wears a crown while Jerusalem lies desolate, deserves to be separated from its trunk ". Samuel declared that "There will be no difference between this world and

6230-1000: The silk fibre, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles , thus producing different colors. Silk is produced by several insects; but, generally, only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis , but some insects, such as webspinners and raspy crickets , produce silk throughout their lives. Silk production also occurs in hymenoptera ( bees , wasps , and ants ), silverfish , caddisflies , mayflies , thrips , leafhoppers , beetles , lacewings , fleas , flies , and midges . Other types of arthropods produce silk, most notably various arachnids , such as spiders . The word silk comes from Old English : sioloc , from Latin : sericum and Ancient Greek : σηρικός , romanized :  sērikós , "silken", ultimately from

6319-745: The silkworms on mulberry leaves. Once the worms start pupating in their cocoons, these are dissolved in boiling water in order for individual long fibres to be extracted and fed into the spinning reel. To produce 1 kg of silk, 104 kg of mulberry leaves must be eaten by 3000 silkworms. It takes about 5000 silkworms to make a pure silk kimono . The major silk producers are China (54%) and India (14%). Other statistics: Production in Int $ 1000 have been calculated based on 1999–2001 international prices Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division The environmental impact of silk production

6408-400: The skill on to their daughters, as weaving is considered to be a sign of maturity and eligibility for marriage. Thai silk textiles often use complicated patterns in various colours and styles. Most regions of Thailand have their own typical silks. A single thread filament is too thin to use on its own so women combine many threads to produce a thicker, usable fiber. They do this by hand-reeling

6497-470: The task of acting as father to them, and he declared that a loan taken from an orphan was not canceled in the Sabbatical year, even if no prozbul had been made out for it. He stored his grain until prices had risen, in order to sell it to the poor at the low prices of the harvest-time. In order to save the people from being cheated he ordered the merchants never to take a profit of more than one-sixth of

6586-561: The third-century emperor Elagabalus was the first Roman to wear garments of pure silk, whereas it had been customary to wear fabrics of silk/cotton or silk/linen blends. Despite the popularity of silk, the secret of silk-making only reached Europe around AD 550, via the Byzantine Empire . Contemporary accounts state that monks working for the emperor Justinian I smuggled silkworm eggs to Constantinople from China inside hollow canes. All top-quality looms and weavers were located inside

6675-435: The threads onto a wooden spindle to produce a uniform strand of raw silk. The process takes around 40 hours to produce a half kilogram of silk. Many local operations use a reeling machine for this task, but some silk threads are still hand-reeled. The difference is that hand-reeled threads produce three grades of silk: two fine grades that are ideal for lightweight fabrics, and a thick grade for heavier material. The silk fabric

6764-700: The time of the Indus Valley civilisation (now in Pakistan and India) dating between 2450 BC and 2000 BC. Shelagh Vainker, a silk expert at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, who sees evidence for silk production in China "significantly earlier" than 2500–2000 BC, suggests, "people of the Indus civilization either harvested silkworm cocoons or traded with people who did, and that they knew a considerable amount about silk." India

6853-608: The time, the academies of Pumbedita and Sura became the most influential and dominant yeshivas of the Jewish communities' world, and all Torah decrees and other religious rulings were issued from these Yeshivas to all the Jewish diaspora . Pumbedita Academy served as a field of growth to the greatest Jewish sages for generations to come, among them: Rabbah bar Nahmani ("Rabbah"), Rav Yosef b. Hiyya , Abaye and Amora sage Rava , Savora sages Rabbah Jose and Simuna , and Geonim Rab Rabbah Gaon and Paltoi ben Abbaye Gaon, as well as Sherira Gaon and his son, Hai Gaon . Pumbedita Academy

6942-488: The traditions handed down to him. His collection of baraitot, called "Tanna debei Shemu'el" in the Talmud, was noted for its correctness and trustworthiness, although it was not held in such high esteem as were the collections of R. Hiyya and R. Hoshaiah . Samuel did much to elucidate the Mishnah, both by his textual explanations and by his precise paraphrasing of ambiguous expressions and his references to other traditions. He

7031-513: Was a Jewish Amora of the first generation; son of Abba bar Abba and head of the Yeshiva at Nehardea , Babylonia . He was a teacher of halakha , judge , physician , and astronomer . He was born about 165 CE at Nehardea, and died there in 254 CE. In the Talmud , Samuel is frequently associated with Abba Arikha ("Rav"), with whom he debated on many issues. As in the case of many other great men,

7120-662: Was also used as a surface for writing, especially during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). The fabric was light, it survived the damp climate of the Yangtze region, absorbed ink well, and provided a white background for the text. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, dated to the Eastern Zhou dynasty roughly 2,500 years ago. Although historians have suspected

7209-653: Was at its peak during the third and fourth generation of the Amoraim. During the days of the Amora sage Rava , Pumbedita Academy moved to Mahuza ( מחוזא , modern al-Mada'in ), but after his death, it returned to Pumbedita. After with the sealing of the Talmud by Ravina II Sura, the era of the Savoraim began (499-589), in which most part of that period, proper studying on regular basis no longer took place in Sura, only in Pumbedita. During

7298-805: Was built in Congleton . These three towns remained the centre of the English silk throwing industry until silk throwing was replaced by silk waste spinning . British enterprise also established silk filature in Cyprus in 1928. In England in the mid-20th century, raw silk was produced at Lullingstone Castle in Kent. Silkworms were raised and reeled under the direction of Zoe Lady Hart Dyke , later moving to Ayot St Lawrence in Hertfordshire in 1956. During World War II , supplies of silk for UK parachute manufacture were secured from

7387-464: Was by tedious and labor-intensive carding . Some natural silk structures have been used without being unwound or spun. Spider webs were used as a wound dressing in ancient Greece and Rome, and as a base for painting from the 16th century. Caterpillar nests were pasted together to make a fabric in the Aztec Empire . Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce

7476-510: Was called Shabur Malka. Fürst and Rapoport refer, each differently, the name of Aryok, given to Samuel, to his close relations with the Neo-Persians and their king. Older commentators explain this name without reference to such relations. As a man, Samuel was distinguished for his modesty, gentleness, and unselfishness, being always ready to subordinate his own interests to those of the community. He said: "A man may never exclude himself from

7565-452: Was convinced of being in error. He was friendly to all men, and declared: "It is forbidden to deceive any man, be he Jew or pagan ". "Before the throne of the Creator there is no difference between Jews and pagans, since there are many noble and virtuous among the latter". He taught that the dignity of womanhood should be respected even in the slave: the slave is given to the master only as

7654-435: Was explained rather as being in consequence of some offense committed in Babylon by R. Hananya , the nephew of R. Yehoshua . After his death, Samuel was glorified in legend. He was the teacher of Rabbi Yehuda ben Yehezkel . Despite his status, Samuel was never ordained as a Tanna. Samuel amplified and expanded earlier legal theories and originated many new legal maxims. He formulated the important halakhic principle that "

7743-476: Was now the only one in Babylon, and its director, Samuel, who survived Rav about ten years, was regarded as the highest authority by the Babylonian Jews. Even Rabbi Yochanan , the most prominent teacher in Israel, and who at first looked upon Samuel merely as a colleague, became so convinced of his greatness, after Samuel had sent him a large number of responsa on important ritual laws, that he exclaimed, "I have

7832-405: Was only a spoken word, and was not sufficient to make the transaction binding." Abba thereupon said, "Is the word of a sage not a better guarantee than his money?" "You are right," said R. Yehuda; "and because you lay so much stress upon a given word you shall have the good fortune of having a son who shall be like the prophet Samuel , and whose word all Israel will recognize as true." Soon afterward

7921-609: Was sold in a large market fair in the port of Reggio Calabria , to Spanish, Venetian, Genovese, and Dutch merchants. Catanzaro became the lace capital of the world with a large silkworm breeding facility that produced all the laces and linens used in the Vatican. The city was world-famous for its fine fabrication of silks, velvets, damasks, and brocades. Another notable center was the Italian city-state of Lucca which largely financed itself through silk-production and silk-trading, beginning in

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