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89-573: Trinidad began with the establishment of the Trinidad Railway Company in 1846. The Company surveyed the country with the intention of implementing a railway system. However, the finances needed to continue with this project were not available. Subsequently, on Saturday 5 March 1859 the Cipero Tramroad became Trinidad's first railway. It was planters’ line that passed between Mission (now Princes Town) and Kings Wharf at San Fernando. It

178-492: A sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 150 to 200 °C (300 to 390 °F). At these temperatures, the aluminium is dissolved as sodium aluminate (the Bayer process ). The aluminium compounds in the bauxite may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (AlOOH) or diaspore (AlOOH); the different forms of the aluminium component will dictate the extraction conditions. The undissolved waste, bauxite tailings , after

267-621: A choice of unlimited travel along specific routes being operated by the Public Transport Service Corporation. In 1993, the Travel Card alternative was introduced and to date its Membership has steadily increased. P.T.S.C. Fleet Info Port Of Spain Port of Spain , officially the City of Port of Spain (also stylized Port-of-Spain ), is the capital of Trinidad and Tobago and

356-575: A financial centre for the Caribbean and Central America region. Two of the largest banks in the Caribbean, Republic Bank, Trinidad and Tobago Limited and Royal Bank of Trinidad and Tobago (RBTT, reacquired by the Royal Bank in 2008) are headquartered here or base their Caribbean operations in the city. Trinidad's economy is based on natural gas and oil. No heavy industrial sites are located in Port of Spain, but

445-461: A large agricultural market, known as the "central market" where food produced in the surrounding hinterland is traded. In 1999/2000 there were 40 Government/Assisted schools located in the Port of Spain Administrative Area. There were 17,957 students enrolled in primary schools and 15,641 enrolled in secondary school. In secondary schools, 7,567 were male and 8,074 were female. Education

534-694: A major oil refinery and many petrochemical and iron and steel plants exist or are planned for sites south of it and closer to San Fernando. However, the oil and gas majors and some service companies have located their headquarters in the city to be in close proximity to government services, infrastructure and the high quality of life many citizens of Port of Spain enjoy. Some of the oil and gas company headquarters located in Port of Spain (many others are found in San Fernando & Point Lisas) include BPTT, BGTT (British Gas), BHP Billiton, EOG Resources, Fluor, Repsol YPF, Atlantic LNG and Baker Hughes. Trinidad and Tobago

623-446: A mish-mash of gothic-style cathedrals, mosques and Hindu temples testifying to the diversity of cultures. It is home to African , Indian , French, English, Irish, Scottish , Welsh , Spanish , Portuguese , Venezuelan , Colombian, Bajan , Guyanese , Jamaican , Guadeloupean, Martinicquan , Dominican, Saint Lucian, Grenadian , Bahamian , Belizean , Surinamese , Chinese , Jewish, and Arab immigrants, most of them arriving since

712-450: A moist slurry forms in the can, then there is a likelihood for the cargo to liquefy; although conversely, even if the sample remains dry it does not conclusively prove that it will remain that way, or that it is safe for loading. Bauxite is the main source of the rare metal gallium . During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process , gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor. From this it can be extracted by

801-461: A petition against the mining of bauxite that was signed by 135 accomplished and well known "Intellectuals". This petition helped unite the scattered anti-bauxite movement into a unified opposition against the state. These acts of governmental defiance were met with repressive state actions. Many domestic online reporters were arrested, and legislative action was taken to repress scientific research. Most of India's bauxite ore reserves, which are among

890-593: A private residence, then the office of the prime minister from 1963 to 2010; Mille Fleurs, once a private residence, is undergoing full restoration as a public museum and headquarters for the National Heritage Trust and was sold to the Government in 1979; Roomor, an ornate black-and-white château-like building that remains a private residence; and Stollmeyer's Castle, a turreted house supposedly modelled on Balmoral Castle . The slow pace of building restorations over

979-504: A retail and administrative centre and it has been the capital of the island since 1757. It is also an important financial services centre for the Caribbean and is home to two of the largest banks in the region. The Piarco International Airport is the main airport on the island, connecting the capital to various major global destinations. Port of Spain was also the de facto capital of the short-lived West Indies Federation , which united

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1068-708: A ring of trees round its perimeter, the Savannah was never really landscaped, except for the small area in its northwest corner called the Hollows, a former reservoir now drained and planted with flowering shrubs. Immediately north of the Savannah—also the northern limit of the city of Port of Spain—are the Royal Botanic Gardens , the Emperor Valley Zoo , President's House (recently abandoned after one end fell down),

1157-479: A small parcel near its centre that served as the Peschier cemetery, which remains in private hands). At first it was used as a vast cattle pasture in what was then the town's suburbs, but by the middle of the 19th century it had become established as a park. Until the early 1990s, horse racing was held frequently at the Savannah race track, and it also contains several cricket , football and rugby pitches. Apart from

1246-458: A temperature in excess of 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). This aluminium oxide is dissolved at a temperature of about 960 °C (1,760 °F) in molten cryolite . Next, this molten substance can yield metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of electrolysis, which is called the Hall–Héroult process , named after its American and French discoverers. Prior to

1335-602: A temporary North Stand and raised stage are constructed in front of the Grand Stand, creating the "Big Yard", Carnival's central location since the early 20th century (previously, the main viewing area for Carnival was in downtown Port of Spain). From this location the Parade of Bands is broadcast live to the nation on Carnival Monday and Tuesday; it is also the venue for the Calypso Monarch and Carnival King and Queen Competitions and

1424-499: A variety of methods. The most recent is the use of ion-exchange resin . Achievable extraction efficiencies critically depend on the original concentration in the feed bauxite. At a typical feed concentration of 50 ppm, about 15 percent of the contained gallium is extractable. The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams. Bauxite is also a potential source for vanadium . The social and environmental impacts of bauxite extraction are well documented. Most of

1513-650: A youth march. In 2020, A Rocha Ghana also sued the government over the drilling in the reserve after they failed to provide a statement explaining their actions. In early 2009, the Vietnamese Government proposed a plan to mine remote regions of the central highlands. This proposal was highly controversial and sparked a nationwide debate and the most significant domestic conflict since the Vietnam War . Government scientists, journalists, religious leaders, retired high level state officials, and General Võ Nguyên Giáp ,

1602-590: Is a leading city in the Caribbean region. Trinidad and Tobago hosted the Fifth Summit of the Americas in 2009, whose guests included US President Barack Obama and US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton . Port of Spain is also home to the biggest and most successful stock exchange in the Caribbean, the Trinidad and Tobago Stock Exchange (TTSE). The Nicholas Tower , as well as other skyscrapers, are well known throughout

1691-517: Is also recorded for an Amerindian settlement in this area; this may have been a separate village, another name for Cumucurapo, or the result of miscomprehension by early Spanish settlers, who established a port here: Puerto de los Españoles , later Puerto de España . In 1560, a Spanish garrison was posted near the foot of the Laventille Hills, which today form the city's eastern boundary. The part of today's downtown Port of Spain closest to

1780-558: Is considered one of the wealthiest nations in the Caribbean and some of this wealth is on display in Port of Spain. High-income proceeds from the international sale of natural gas has aided the country in the Port of Spain International Waterfront project constructed on former Port Authority Land. The Port of Port of Spain is the country's major port for containerized shipping followed by the Port of Point Lisas. Cruise ships also dock at

1869-490: Is free and compulsory up to secondary school. Port of Spain school leavers, as citizens of Trinidad and Tobago, do not pay tuition to study at local & regional public and private tertiary institutions except for graduate studies where they pay a heavily subsidised fee. There are several prominent tertiary institutions in Port of Spain and environs, in particular the St. Augustine campus of the three-campus, Caribbean-wide University of

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1958-499: Is geologically incorrect. Over 465 species of birds, and 100 species of mammals can be found in these mountains, making it one of the most biodiverse mountain ranges in the Caribbean . The Northern Range runs from the Chaguaramas Peninsula in the west to Toco in the east and consists mainly of steeply dipping metasedimentary rocks and lush rainforest containing a wide variety of plants and animal species. Port of Spain lies at

2047-434: Is located to the south-eastern area of St. Ann's. Cascade borders St. Ann's by a hill named Mount Hololo, a neighbourhood of both middle class and exclusive housing developments. Maraval is home to the exclusive Trinidad Country Club and right next door to the popular Long Circular Mall. Further afield, west of Diego Martin, lies the suburb of Westmoorings, which is known for its expensive Miami style highrise apartments facing

2136-449: Is one of the only two upland evergreen forests in Ghana, and makes up a significant portion of the remaining 20% of forested habitat left in Ghana. The Atewa range falls under the jurisdiction of Akyem Abuakwa Traditional Area and is overseen by the king known as Okyenhene. In 2013, an NGO called A Rocha Ghana held a summit with the forestry and water resource commission, the minister of lands,

2225-437: Is relatively small, and reflects the narrow city boundaries including the central business district and a number of economically depressed and a few upscale adjoining suburbs. In addition to the official population, the adjacent East–West Corridor conurbation has a population close to 600,000 people and the "big city" feel with its suburban car dominated commuting. The corridor is the built-up area of north Trinidad stretching from

2314-472: Is the current mayor of Port of Spain. The electoral districts are: Port of Spain became a "city" in 1914; the ordinance was passed on 29 May and was proclaimed by the Governor on 25 June 1914. The first city councillors were elected on 2 November. Among them were oil pioneer Randolph Rust, lawyer and social activist Emmanuel Mzumbo Lazare and Dr. Enrique Prada, who was elected chairman by the council and became

2403-512: Is the island's second largest wetland after the east coast Nariva Swamp which is almost twice as large. It has well over 160 species of birds, including the national bird, the scarlet ibis . It is one of the country's most popular tourist attractions with visitor facilities and regular guided boat tours. Some of the city lies on land reclaimed from the Gulf of Paria , the calm sheltered bay separating Trinidad from Venezuela, while other parts climb into

2492-528: The Boké Region of Guinea have caused in 35 conflicts which include movements of revolts and road blockades. These conflicts have resulted in the loss of human life, the destruction of heavy machinery, and damage to government buildings. The Atewa range in Ghana, classified as an ecologically important forest reserve with an area of 17,400 hectares (43,000 acres), has been is a recent site of conflict and controversy surrounding baxuite mining. The forest reserve

2581-578: The Boké Region of Guinea, there has been a significant increase in bauxite mining pressure on the local population. This has resulted in potable water issues, air pollution, food contamination, and land expropriation disputes due to improper compensation. Bauxite mining has led to protests, civil unrest, and violent conflicts in Guinea, Ghana, Vietnam, and India. Guinea has a long history of mining related conflicts between communities and mining companies. Between 2015 and 2018, new bauxite mining operations in

2670-510: The Ghana Integrated Bauxite and Aluminium Development Authority Act that would create the legal framework required to develop and establish an integrated bauxite industry. In may of that year, the government began drilling deep holes in the reserve. These actions sparked several protests, including a 95-kilometre (59 mi) march from the reserve to the presidential palace, an informational billboard campaign led by A Rocha Ghana, and

2759-456: The free surface effect can cause the cargo to shift rapidly inside the hold and make the ship unstable, potentially sinking the ship. One vessel suspected to have been sunk in this way was the MS Bulk Jupiter in 2015. One method which can demonstrate this effect is the "can test", in which a sample of the material is placed in a cylindrical can and struck against a surface many times. If

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2848-454: The 1960s at about 100,000 people. Since then the population within the city limits has declined in size as the downtown area has become increasingly commercial and the suburbs in the valleys north, west, and north-east of the city have grown. Today Port of Spain is the western hub of a metropolitan area stretching from Carenage, 8 kilometres (5 mi) west of the city, to Arima, 24 kilometres (15 mi) east; this East–West Corridor runs along

2937-443: The 2011 census. The city experienced an average annual growth rate of −2.3% between the censuses of 2000 and 2011 Port of Spain's diverse population reflects two centuries of immigration and this shows in the architecture of its buildings. The city features French colonial 'ginger bread' style houses, buildings with New Orleans reminiscent wrought-iron railings and wooden fretwork set beside modern high-rise towers and strip malls with

3026-437: The Caribbean. The city is also home to the largest container port on the island and is one of several shipping hubs of the Caribbean, exporting both agricultural products and manufactured goods. Bauxite from Guyana is trans-shipped via facilities at Chaguaramas , about 8 kilometres (5 mi) west of the city. The pre-lenten Carnival is the city's main annual cultural festival and tourist attraction. Today, Port of Spain

3115-633: The Knowsley Ministry of Foreign Affairs Building. The western edge of the Savannah, along Maraval Road, is the location of the Magnificent Seven, a group of late Victorian and Edwardian buildings built in an eccentric and flamboyant variety of styles. These are the recently well restored Queen's Royal College ; the residences of the Anglican bishop and the Roman Catholic archbishop; Whitehall, once

3204-512: The Northern Range. Port of Spain's largest open space—and the world's largest traffic roundabout —is the Queen's Park Savannah , known colloquially simply as "the Savannah". It occupies about 110 hectares (260 acres) of level land, and the distance around the perimeter is about 3.5 km (2.2 mi). Once sugar land, it was bought by the town council in 1817 from the Peschier family (except for

3293-572: The Spanish Cedula of Population of 1783. Prominent Port of Spain citizens include Derek Walcott (Nobel Prize Literature 1992) and former West Indies cricketer Brian Lara . Bauxite Bauxite ( / ˈ b ɔː k s aɪ t / ) is a sedimentary rock with a relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium and gallium . Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite ( Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), mixed with

3382-537: The West Indies , which had a local campus enrollment of 15,571 in academic year 2007/2008. The University of Trinidad and Tobago has several campuses and institutes in the greater Port of Spain area including the Chaguaramas Centre for Maritime Studies. Port of Spain has a population of 18,008 males and 19,066 females, with 5,694 businesses and is home to 12,333 households with an average size of 2.9 according to

3471-410: The aluminium compounds are extracted contains iron oxides , silica , calcia , titania and some un-reacted alumina . After separation of the residue by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide . The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminium oxide , Al 2 O 3 , by heating in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to

3560-474: The area bounded by the St. Ann's River, thus establishing the grid pattern which has survived in downtown Port of Spain to the present day. Along the sea shore was the Plaza de la Marina (Marine Square), a parade ground. By 1786, the town had a population of about 3,000. Realising that the St. Ann's River, prone to flooding, was impeding the expansion of the town, Chacón had its course diverted in 1787 so that it ran to

3649-481: The area immediately east of the diverted St. Ann's River; the district is still called Sea Lots today. Gradually the landfill crept west and the area south of Plaza del Marina became solid land. Further major reclamation efforts took place in the 1840s, the 1870s, and in 1906. In 1935 the Deep Water Harbour Scheme dredged the offshore area along Port of Spain's western neighbourhoods, and the dredged material

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3738-526: The bauxite originates from Miocene volcanic ash deposits from episodes of significant volcanism in Central America. Australia is the largest producer of bauxite, followed by Guinea and China . Bauxite is usually strip mined because it is almost always found near the surface of the terrain , with little or no overburden . Increased aluminium recycling , which requires less electric power than producing aluminium from ores, may considerably extend

3827-532: The capital, Port of Spain, 24 kilometres (15 mi) east to Arima. It includes the towns of Barataria , San Juan , St. Joseph, Curepe , St. Augustine , Tunapuna , Tacarigua , Arouca , and Five Rivers, once distinct communities and now districts within a continuous urban area. For the most part it runs along the Eastern Main Road, between the Churchill–Roosevelt Highway and the foothills of

3916-468: The capital; the new British colonial government renamed most of the streets after British royalty or military figures, but allowed Chacón Street (which followed the old course of the St. Ann's River) to retain its name, in tribute to the former governor. In 1803, Port of Spain began growing southwards, with the reclamation of the foreshore mudflats, using fill from the Laventille Hills. This began with

4005-557: The city which are under construction or planned. Port of Spain is administered by the Port of Spain City Corporation. There are 12 councillors and 4 aldermen. The mayor is elected from the membership of the council. The council is presided over by the mayor, who is effectively the chief custodian of the city. It formulates policy and gives direction for the running of the city through a number of standing committees which each meet at least once per month. Decisions are then ratified at

4094-484: The city, temperature inversion is quite frequent. Immediately north and northwest of Port of Spain lie the suburbs of Cascade, St. Ann's and Maraval. The last one falls outside the municipal boundary, but is sometimes considered an extension of the city. St. Ann's is notable for being the location of the Prime Minister's official residence and diplomatic centre. Cascade, a mainly suburban area with treed lot type housing

4183-471: The east of the city, along the foot of the Laventille Hills. (During the rainy season the river still had a tendency to overflow its banks, flooding parts of the city; over the decades its channel would be widened and paved. During the dry season the water level drops to a trickle; hence its nickname, the East Dry River.) Port of Spain was now able to continue spreading northwards and westwards, encroaching on

4272-538: The eastern section of the E-W corridor – the regional University of the West Indies, St. Augustine campus and the multi campus local University of Trinidad and Tobago whose main campus is on the Arima outskirts. The city has a tropical monsoon climate ( Köppen Am ) characterized by warm to hot temperatures year-round, with little seasonal variation due to its proximity to the equator, though nighttime temperatures dip somewhat during

4361-454: The efforts of the Holy Fathers". By 1757, the old capital, San José de Oruña (modern Saint Joseph ), about 11 kilometres (7 mi) inland, had fallen into disrepair, and Governor Don Pedro de la Moneda transferred his seat to Port of Spain, which thus became Trinidad's de facto capital. The last Spanish Governor of Trinidad, Don José Maria Chacón , devoted much of his time to developing

4450-534: The federal government, is a memorial to that time. In July 1990, an extremist group held the prime minister and members of parliament hostage for 5 days while rioting and looting shook Port of Spain. The damage was a significant setback to the city's commercial district at a time of severe economic hardship, yet businesses returned. In 2005 there was an unprecedented series of small bombings in Port of Spain which caused injuries to bystanders. They ceased in October 2005 but

4539-581: The finals of the Panorama steelpan competition. The architecturally soothing arches and curves of the Port of Spain National Academy for the Performing Arts (see picture and caption) dominate the south boundary of the Savannah between the green trimmed landmarks of Memorial Park (in remembrance of fallen soldiers during World Wars I and II) and the gingerbread styled, limestone built, colourful splendour of

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4628-526: The first mayor of the City of Port of Spain. For several convocations all city MPs are from People's National Movement . Port of Spain is a shopping and business centre for much of the country. Most government offices are also located in the city and many important government services can only be accessed in the Ministry offices located downtown. Within recent years, local banks headquartered here have helped it become

4717-477: The general population. To address the problem, East Port of Spain Development Company was formed in 2005 with a mandate to develop and redevelop a zone in east Port-of-Spain to improve the economic, social and physical environment of those areas. Large parts of Port of Spain's Eastern entrance have been cleared of old warehouses and substandard housing. There are several new government housing projects in

4806-419: The hills above the city. Geographically, the Port of Port of Spain is ideal for maritime traffic, providing a natural harbour on Trinidad's north-western coasts where adverse weather conditions are extremely rare. Unlike Chaguanas and San Fernando , Port of Spain has a comparatively cool climate due to the surrounding Northern Range mountains. In the valleys and mountains that surround the northern outskirts of

4895-645: The historic Railway Building, South Quay, Port of Spain and journeys to the South East Coast of the island. Along the way, patrons will learn about places of interest, our people's history and local folklore. On approaching the coast, patrons will get the opportunity to see the splendor of the mouth of the Ortoire River. This river is fifty (50) km long and extends into the Atlantic Ocean. Fishes and manatees are abundant in these waters. Patrons will also be afforded

4984-483: The invention of this process, and prior to the Deville process , aluminium ore was refined by heating ore along with elemental sodium or potassium in a vacuum . The method was complicated and consumed materials that were themselves expensive at that time. This made early elemental aluminium more expensive than gold . As a bulk cargo , bauxite is a Group A cargo that may liquefy if excessively moist. Liquefaction and

5073-474: The large towns of San Juan, Tunapuna and Arima. With congestion rendering downtown inaccessible during peak hours, major shopping centres like Valsayn Shopping Centre, Grand Bazaar and Trincity Mall have sprung up at highway intersections. The last two are noted for being among the largest shopping centres in the country and in the Caribbean, with 60,000 square metres (600,000 sq ft) of commercial space in each. Two large Universities have been established in

5162-592: The mainland (now Venezuela ) and up the Orinoco River . The French naval commander Comte d'Estrées visited in 1680, and reported that there was no Port of Spain. But in 1690, Spanish governor Don Sebastien de Roteta reported in writing to the King of Spain : In 1699, the alcalde of Trinidad reported to the king that the natives "were in the habit of showering scorn and abuse upon the Holy Faith and ridiculed with jests

5251-462: The military leader of anti-colonial revolution, were among the many people across Vietnamese society who opposed the governments plans. In an attempt to stop the spread of information across the globe, the government banned domestic reporters from reporting on bauxite mining. However, reporters turned to Vietnamese language websites and blogs where the reporting and discussion continued. On April 12, 2009, several well-respected Vietnamese scholars started

5340-401: The minister of the environment, and other important stakeholders. They came to the conclusion that no future government should mine bauxite in the region because the reserve is environmentally and culturally significant. In 2016, the government along with NGO's began the process of upgrading the reserved to a national park. However, that year an election took place, and before it became official,

5429-601: The name Manzanilla (“small apples”) The final point of interest along this route is Mayaro. Mayaro is one of the earliest villages in Trinidad. It was an Arawak settlement before the arrival of the Spanish. The name “Mayaro” means place of the maya plant; which was of great importance to the Amerindians. Here, patrons can indulge themselves in beach activities or simply just enjoy the sound of the crashing waves. The PTSC Travel Card gives

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5518-446: The new capital. He compelled the island's Cabildo (governing council) to move to Port of Spain, and he limited its powers to the municipality. The 1783 Cedula of Population, which encouraged the settlement of French Catholics in the island, led to a rapid increase in the town's population and its geographical extension westwards. From the small cluster of buildings at the foot of the Laventille Hills, eleven streets were laid out west to

5607-483: The newly elected National Patriotic Party (NPP) rejected the plan. In 2017, the government of Ghana signed a Memorandum of Understanding with China to develop new bauxite mining infrastructure in Ghana. Although there was no official plan to mine the Atewa Forest Reserve, tensions between local communities, NGO and the government began to rise. In 2019, tensions began to reach a peak when the government presented

5696-492: The official residence of the prime minister, and Queen's Hall, the city's major performing arts venue. Lady Chancellor Road, which ascends the hills overlooking the Savannah, is one of Port of Spain's most exclusive residential areas and is the current home of former West Indies cricketer and record breaking batsman, Brian Lara. On the Savannah's southern side is the Grand Stand, formerly used for viewing horse races, now used for various cultural events, most notably Carnival , when

5785-399: The opportunity to observe the beauty of Manzanilla Beach, and enjoy the scenic drive through Manzanilla Road which is lined with coconut trees and the Atlantic Ocean running along its coastline. The name Manzanilla was derived from Spanish sailors in the 18th century, because it was thickly covered with small round poisonous fruits called manchineels. These fruits resembled small apples and thus

5874-532: The perpetrator has not been charged. Port of Spain measures about 10.4 km (c. 4 sq. mi) in area and is located in the northwest section of the island of Trinidad, between the Gulf of Paria , the Northern Range and the Caroni Swamp . The Northern Range is the range of tall, biodiverse hills across the northern portion of Trinidad and is considered an extension of the Andes mountains of South America, although that

5963-489: The port which has: public international cargo-handling facilities for containerised, break-bulk, Roll-on/Roll-off and dry/liquid bulk cargo The Port also operates the ferry service between Trinidad & Tobago, as agents of the Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Tourism is targeted for expansion and is a growing sector in the city's economy, but it is not as important as in other Caribbean cities. Port of Spain has

6052-471: The region. These buildings dominate the city's skyline. Some of the tallest skyscrapers in the Caribbean are located in Port of Spain. Port of Spain was founded by the Spanish as Puerto España . The first settlement was near the site of the Amerindian fishing village of Cumucurapo ("place of the silk cotton trees "), located in the area today known as Mucurapo, west of the city centre. The name Conquerabia

6141-564: The regulations of the Statutory Authorities Service Commissions Ordinance. Following an election in 1887, Michel Maxwell Philip became the mayor, a position that had previously been held by only whites. Bridget Brereton wrote in her 2002 book Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad 1870–1900 that "perhaps this marks the emergence of the coloured man as a political force in Trinidad". Chinua Alleyne

6230-506: The sea was once an area of tidal mudflats covered by mangroves . The first Spanish buildings here, in the 16th and 17th centuries, were open mud-plastered ajoupas, interspersed between large silk cotton trees and other trees. The fort was a mud-walled enclosure with a shack inside, a flagpole, two or three cannon, and few Spanish soldiers. This was captured during Walter Raleigh 's expedition in April 1595. The Caribs were transient, travelling to

6319-509: The seafront. One of Trinidad's poshest shopping centres, The Falls at West-Mall, lies at the centre of these developments. As you head west beyond Carenage settlement is sparse, however the peninsula known as Chaguaramas, which was once a large US Army Base, has become a mecca for hundreds of international cruisers and a world major yacht storage and repair hub. To the east along the East–West Corridor, also falling outside city limits, lie

6408-501: The southern edge of the Northern Range . From 1958 to 1962, Port of Spain was the temporary capital of the short-lived West Indies Federation , though there were plans to build a new federal capital at Chaguaramas , on land occupied by the US military base established during World War II . Federation Park , a residential neighbourhood in western Port of Spain intended to house employees of

6497-451: The statutory meeting of the council, which takes place on the last Wednesday of each month. The policies and directives of the council are executed by the administrative arm of the corporation, which is headed by the chief executive officer and has under her charge a number of senior officers and a workforce of about 3,000 daily-paid and 300 monthly-paid employees. The chief executive officer and her staff are public servants functioning under

6586-706: The strip mining process, the biodiversity and habitat once present in the area is completely lost and the hydrological and soil characteristics in the region are permanently altered. Other environmental impacts of bauxite mining include soil degradation , air pollution , and water pollution . Red mud is a highly alkaline sludge, with a high pH around 13, that is a byproduct of the Bayer process .  It contains several elements such as sodium aluminoscilicate , calcium titanate , monohydrate aluminium, and trihydrate aluminium that do not break down in nature. When improperly stored, red mud can contaminate soil and water, which can result in local extinction of all life. Red mud

6675-463: The surrounding sugar-cane plantations. In 1797, Trinidad was invaded by a British force under General Sir Ralph Abercromby . The British landed west of Port of Spain, at what is still called Invaders Bay, and marched towards the town. Realising his military resources were inadequate to defend the colony and wishing to avoid unnecessary destruction, Governor Chacón capitulated and was able to negotiate generous terms with Abercromby. Port of Spain remained

6764-460: The terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Historically, the Indigenous peoples living on these lands have shown resistance to development, and oppose any new bauxite mining projects in the area. This has led to violent conflicts between Indigenous communities and police. On December 16, 2000, police killed three Indigenous protestors and wounded over a dozen more during a protest over a bauxite project in

6853-465: The third largest municipality, after Chaguanas and San Fernando . The city has a municipal population of 49,867 (2017), an urban population of 81,142 and a transient daily population of 250,000. It is located on the Gulf of Paria , on the northwest coast of the island of Trinidad and is part of a larger conurbation stretching from Chaguaramas in the west to Arima in the east with an estimated population of 600,000. The city serves primarily as

6942-401: The top ten largest in the world, are located on tribal land. These tribal lands are densely populated and home to over 100 million Indigenous Indian peoples.  The mountain summits located on these lands act as a source of water and greatly contribute to the regions fertility. The Indian bauxite industry is interested in developing this land for aluminum production, which poses great risk to

7031-538: The tramways could not ignore the demands of the commuters and facilitated a few passengers; this started the tramway's first passenger service. It also acted as the first postal service between San Fernando and Mission. The Cipero Tramroad was greatly successful and lasted up to the 1920s before it was absorbed into the Trinidad Government Railway. PTSC city service is a service which operates within both Port Of Spain and San Fernando This tour begins at

7120-459: The two iron oxides goethite (FeO(OH)) and haematite ( Fe 2 O 3 ), the aluminium clay mineral kaolinite ( Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ) and small amounts of anatase ( TiO 2 ) and ilmenite ( FeTiO 3 or FeO·TiO 2 ). Bauxite appears dull in luster and is reddish-brown, white, or tan. In 1821, the French geologist Pierre Berthier discovered bauxite near

7209-451: The village of Les Baux in Provence , southern France . Numerous classification schemes have been proposed for bauxite but, as of 1982 , there was no consensus. Vadász (1951) distinguished lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) from karst bauxite ores (carbonate bauxites): In the case of Jamaica , recent analysis of the soils showed elevated levels of cadmium , suggesting that

7298-440: The western end and the city climbs into the hills and valleys which are settled and largely deforested. The two tallest peaks are El Cerro del Aripo and El Tucuche which top 900 m (3,000 ft). The 3278 hectare protected Caroni Swamp has long formed a physical barrier to the city's expansion to the south, forcing urban growth relentlessly eastward at the expense of a traffic relieving ring road. This west coast mangrove area

7387-399: The winter months from January to March. Temperatures typically range from 19 to 34 °C (66.2 to 93.2 °F), rarely above 35 °C (95 °F) or below 17 °C (62.6 °F). The wet season lasts from May to December, and the dry season lasts from January to April of the following year. Between December and February, it can become mild at night. Port of Spain's official population

7476-436: The world's bauxite deposits can be found within 1 to 20 metres (3 ft 3 in to 65 ft 7 in) of the earths surface. Strip mining is the most common technique used for extracting shallow bauxite. This process involves removing the vegetation, top soil, and overburden to expose the bauxite ore. The overlying soil is typically stockpiled in order to rehabilitate the mine once operations have finished. During

7565-401: The world's bauxite reserves. As of 2010 , approximately 70% to 80% of the world's dry bauxite production is processed first into alumina and then into aluminium by electrolysis . Bauxite rocks are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical, and refractory. Bauxite ore is usually heated in a pressure vessel along with

7654-597: The years remains a concern. Housing in Port of Spain ranges from luxurious waterfront apartments to board houses lacking indoor plumbing and motor vehicular access. Continued pressure for expansion of commercial development in Woodbrook and uptown POS (Port of Spain proper) has led to a rapid rate of decline in the city's population over the past 4 decades. The private development scheme at Damien street Woodbrook recently provided 350 luxury-apartments, but those are unaffordable to most, even though they were originally intended for

7743-564: Was responsible for killing all life in the Marcal River in Hungary after a spill occurred in 2010. When red mud dries, it turns into dust that can cause lung disease, cancer and birth defects. In the tropical regions of Asia, central Africa, South America and northern Australia, there has been an increase of bauxite mines on traditional and indigenous lands. This has resulted in a number of negative social impacts on local and indigenous peoples. In

7832-524: Was used primarily to transport produce from the remote estates of the Naparimas out to Kings Wharf to waiting ships. The man responsible for this tramway was sugar planter William Eccles. The tramway was used primarily for transporting produce but there was a great demand for the transportation of workers from one estate to another along the line. A number of prominent persons also indicated their desire to commute by tramway rather than by horseback. The owners of

7921-436: Was used to fill in the area south of Woodbrook. Wrightson Road, linking downtown Port of Spain to its western suburbs, was constructed at the same time. These reclaimed lands were originally called Docksite, and were home to US forces during World War II; later a number of government buildings were constructed here. Port of Spain continued to grow in size and importance during the 19th and early 20th centuries, peaking in size in

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