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35-506: The meaning of the title, "first spatharios ", indicates its original role as leader of the order ( taxis ) of the spatharioi , the imperial bodyguards, was already attested in the 6th century. Probably under the Heraclians , the rank became an honorary dignity (Greek: δια βραβείου ἀξία, dia brabeiou axia ), and was henceforth bestowed to high-ranking theme commanders, senior court officials, and allied rulers. The first concrete reference to

70-586: A prōtospatharios occurs in the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor , who records "Sergios, prōtospatharios and stratēgos of Sicily " in 718. In the late 9th century, the prōtospatharios is recorded as ranking below the patrikios and above the dishypatos . The award of the dignity also meant the entry of its holder in the Byzantine Senate . Its prestige was consequently very high, as illustrated by

105-511: A man in Christ, and the other rejected the title, based on God being eternal and thus could not be born. Nestorius' compromise, the title Christotokos ("birth-giver of Christ"), was rejected; he was accused of separating Christ's divine and human natures, resulting in "two Christs", in a doctrine later called Nestorianism . Nestorius was strongly opposed by Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria and eventually lost Theodosius's support. At Nestorius's request,

140-556: A particular individual. Among ancient and medieval writers, Monophysites had a favorable opinion of Theodosius. In 425, Theodosius founded the University of Constantinople with 31 chairs (15 in Latin and 16 in Greek). Among the subjects were law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and rhetoric. It is likely that his wife Eudocia encouraged him in this matter and was behind

175-601: A second commission that met in Constantinople, assigned to collect all of the general legislations and bring them up to date, was completed; their collection was published as the Codex Theodosianus in 438. The law code of Theodosius II, summarizing edicts promulgated since Constantine, formed a basis for the law code of Emperor Justinian I , the Corpus Juris Civilis , in the following century. Eudocia reached

210-524: A well-known story related by Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos ( r.  913–959 ) in his De Administrando Imperio : during the reign of his father, Emperor Leo VI the Wise ( r.  886–912 ), an aged cleric of the Nea Ekklesia , Ktenas by name, paid 60 litras of gold (circa 19.4 kg), i.e. sixty times the annual stipend of 72 nomismata to which prōtospatharioi were entitled, to acquire

245-655: Is assumed that his sister continued to exert an influence on him until his marriage. In June 421, Theodosius married Aelia Eudocia , a woman of Athenian origin. The two had a daughter named Licinia Eudoxia , another named Flaccilla, and possibly a son called Arcadius. In 423, the Western Emperor Honorius , Theodosius's uncle, died and the primicerius notariorum Joannes was proclaimed emperor. Honorius's sister Galla Placidia and her young son Valentinian , who had earlier fled to Constantinople to escape Honorius's hostility, sought Eastern assistance to claim

280-460: Is assumed to be inconclusive, Antiochus , a eunuch of Persian origin, became a tutor and an influence on Theodosius. He also became praepositus sacri cubiculi later but Theodosius dismissed him when he reached his adulthood. In 414, Theodosius's older sister Pulcheria vowed perpetual virginity along with her sisters. She was proclaimed augusta , and acted as a guardian of her brother. The guardianship ended when he reached his majority, but it

315-529: The Empire of Trebizond , an equivalent title of Turkish origin, amytzantarios , was used. Aside from being a court rank, there were several prōtospatharioi who had specific duties: Spatharios The spatharii or spatharioi (singular: Latin : spatharius ; Greek : σπαθάριος , literally " spatha -bearer") were a class of Late Roman imperial bodyguards in the court in Constantinople in

350-653: The Huns . Early in Theodosius II's reign Romans used internal Hun discord to overcome Uldin 's invasion of the Balkans. The Romans strengthened their fortifications and in 424 agreed to pay 350 pounds of gold to encourage the Huns to remain at peace with the Romans. In 433 with the rise of Attila and Bleda to unify the Huns, the payment was doubled to 700 pounds. Theodosius became engaged with

385-570: The megas archōn . According to the Klētorologion of Philotheos , the holders of the dignity were distinguished between eunuchs ( ektomiai ) and non-eunuchs ( barbatoi , "bearded ones"). In addition to the insigne of their rank, a gold necklet ( maniakion ) adorned with pearls, the former had a special dress, a white, gold-adorned tunic and a red doublet with gold facings. The non-eunuchs were distinguished only by their golden collar ( kloios ), decorated with precious stones. Pictorial evidence of

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420-552: The praetorian prefect Anthemius , under whose supervision the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople were constructed. According to Theophanes the Confessor and Procopius , the Sasanian king Yazdegerd I (399–420) was appointed by Arcadius as the guardian of Theodosius, whom Yazdegerd treated as his own child, sending a tutor to raise him and warning that enmity toward him would be taken as enmity toward Persia. Though this story

455-481: The 5th–6th centuries, later becoming a purely honorary dignity in the Byzantine Empire . Originally, the term was probably applied to both private and imperial bodyguards. The original imperial spatharioi were probably or later became also the eunuch cubicularii (Greek: koubikoularioi ), members of the sacrum cubiculum (the imperial "sacred chamber") charged with military duties. They are attested from

490-429: The Huns. Anatolius negotiated a peace agreement; the Huns withdrew in exchange for humiliating concessions, including an annual tribute of 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 687 kg) of gold. In 447 the Huns went through the Balkans, destroying among others the city of Serdica ( Sofia ) and reaching Athyra ( Büyükçekmece ) on the outskirts of Constantinople. In 449, an Eastern Roman attempt to assassinate Attila failed, however

525-519: The Isaurian (r. 717–741). It gradually declined, however, and in the Klētorologion of 899, it occupies the seventh-highest place in the hierarchy of ranks for non-eunuchs, above the hypatos and below the spatharokandidatos . According to the Klētorologion , the insignia of the dignity was a gold-hilted sword . At the same time, the term oikeiakos spatharios still designated a bodyguard of

560-556: The Persian persecution of Christians, and the Eastern empire declared war against the Sassanids (421–422); the war ended in an indecisive stalemate, when the Romans were forced to accept peace as the Huns menaced Constantinople . Peace was arranged in 422 without changes to the status quo . The later wars of Theodosius were generally less successful. The Eastern Empire was plagued by raids by

595-621: The affairs of the West after installing Valentinian III as his Western counterpart. When Roman Africa fell to the Vandals in 439, both Eastern and Western Emperors sent forces to Sicily , intending to launch an attack on the Vandals at Carthage, but this project failed. Seeing the borders without significant forces, the Huns and Sassanid Persia both attacked and the expeditionary force had to be recalled. During 443 two Roman armies were defeated and destroyed by

630-455: The council the "robber synod". Theodosius supported the outcome, but it was reversed by the Council of Chalcedon after his death in 450. Theodosius died on 28 July 450 as the result of falling off his horse. On 25 November, his sister Pulcheria married the newly elected emperor Marcian , a domesticus under the influential general Aspar . The eunuch Chrysaphius was executed shortly after by

665-524: The dress of prōtospatharioi in illuminated manuscripts , however, varies considerably over time. In the Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, the garb of this rank is defined as a gold wire-embroidered skaranikon (a tubular headdress), with the image of the reigning emperor enthroned in front and riding a horse behind, a gold kabbadion ( caftan ) and a skiadion (brimmed hat) of the klapōton type, while bearing no distinctive dikanikion (staff of office). In

700-708: The emperor convened the First Council of Ephesus in 431 to allow Nestorius to contest Cyril's accusations of heresy. The council was divided between the Cyrillians and the Nestorians, with Theodosius ultimately favoring the Cyrillians. The council affirmed the title Theotokos and condemned Nestorius, who returned to his monastery in Syria and was eventually exiled to a remote monastery in Egypt. Constantinopolitan abbot Eutyches reignited

735-479: The enormous apple. The emperor was enraged and suspected an affair between Eudocia and Paulinus; he had his lifelong friend Paulinus executed, and Eudocia asked to be exiled to Jerusalem. A separation ultimately occurred between the imperial couple around 443, with Eudocia's establishment in Jerusalem where she favored monastic Monophysitism . The situation between the Romans and the Sassanids deteriorated in 420 due to

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770-514: The establishment of the university; she had been born in Athens, where the Neoplatonic School of Athens was the last great center for pagan, classical learning. Eudocia was known for her great intellect. In 429, Theodosius appointed a commission to collect all of the laws since the reign of Constantine I , and create a fully formalized system of law. This plan was left unfinished, but the work of

805-495: The height of her influence with the emperor from 439 to 441, a period in which the emperor's sister Pulcheria was sidelined in favor of his wife. Eudocia's power was undone by a certain Phrygian apple in a story conveyed by the sixth-century historian John Malalas of Antioch. Malalas wrote that one day, the emperor was on his way to church when a man presented the emperor with an "apple huge beyond any exaggeration." The emperor thanked

840-449: The imperial oikos ("household"), as distinct from the basilikoi spatharioi who now were the holders of the honorary dignity. The term ceased to be used in these contexts after circa 1075, and by the time Anna Komnene wrote her Alexiad in the early 12th century, a spatharios was held to be completely insignificant. Theodosius II Theodosius II ( Ancient Greek : Θεοδόσιος Theodosios ; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450)

875-505: The man with 150 solidi , and promptly sent the apple to his wife as a present. Eudocia decided to give the apple to Paulinus, a friend of both her and the emperor. Paulinus, unknowing of where Eudocia had gotten the apple, thought it was fit for only the emperor, and gave it to him. Theodosius was suspicious, and asked Eudocia what she had done with the apple. "I ate it," she replied, and then Theodosius asked her to confirm her answer with an oath, which she did. Theodosius then presented her with

910-493: The prefix basilikoi ("imperial ones"). The officer leading the imperial spatharioi held the title prōtospatharios ("first spatharios "), which became a separate dignity probably in the late 7th century. By the early 8th century, these titles had lost their original military connotations and become honorific titles. The title of spatharios ranked initially quite high, being awarded for instance by Emperor Justinian II (r. 685–695) to his friend and future emperor Leo III

945-431: The reign of Emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450), where the eunuch Chrysaphius held the post. The existence of the specific title of spatharokoubikoularios for eunuchs in 532 probably suggests the existence by then of other, non-eunuch, spatharioi in imperial service. The various generals and provincial governors also maintained military attendants called spatharioi , whilst those of the emperor were distinguished with

980-538: The relations between the two did not deteriorate further. Theodosius frequently attempted to resolve doctrinal controversies regarding the nature of Christ . During a visit to Syria , Theodosius met the monk Nestorius , a renowned preacher. Nestorius was appointed as archbishop of Constantinople in 428 and became involved in a Christology dispute between two groups. One group called the Virgin Mary Theotokos ("birth-giver of God"), based on God being born

1015-472: The theological dispute almost twenty years later by asserting the Monophysite view that Christ's divine and human nature were one. Eutyches was condemned by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople but supported by the powerful Dioscurus of Alexandria , Cyril's successor. The Second Council of Ephesus in 449 restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian. The Chalcedonians opposed the decision, with Pope Leo I calling

1050-487: The throne for Valentinian, and after some deliberation in 424 Theodosius opened the war against Joannes. On 23 October 425, Valentinian III was installed as emperor of the West with the assistance of the magister officiorum Helion , with his mother taking an influential role. To strengthen the ties between the two parts of the empire, Theodosius's daughter Licinia Eudoxia was betrothed to Valentinian. She married Valentinian III later on 29 October 437, and became empress of

1085-401: The title. He did not live long to enjoy his new status, however, dying two years later. Like other titles of the middle Byzantine period, its importance declined sharply in the 11th century. The last attested occurrence is in 1115, although the title is still recorded by pseudo-Kodinos in the mid-14th century in the 34th place of the court hierarchy, between the primmikerios of the court and

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1120-400: The western portion of the empire. Theodosius is often seen by both ancient and modern historians as being constantly pushed around by his sister, wife, and eunuchs, particularly Chrysaphius among them. In the later decades of his life, Chrysaphius rose to prominence as one of the emperor's favorites. He favored the pro-Monophysite policy, influenced the foreign policy towards the Huns , and

1155-554: Was Roman emperor from 408 to 450. He was proclaimed Augustus as an infant and ruled as the Eastern Empire 's sole emperor after the death of his father, Arcadius , in 408. His reign was marked by the promulgation of the Theodosian law code and the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople . He also presided over the outbreak of two great Christological controversies, Nestorianism and Eutychianism . Theodosius

1190-472: Was born on 10 April 401 as the only son of Emperor Arcadius and his wife Aelia Eudoxia . On 10 January 402, at the age of 9 months, he was proclaimed co-a ugustus by his father, thus becoming the youngest to bear the imperial title up to that point . On 1 May 408, his father died and the seven-year-old boy became emperor of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire. The government was at first administered by

1225-444: Was resented by Pulcheria, general Zeno , and ancient writers. According to Theodorus Lector , Theodosius was so unmindful of his surroundings that he accidentally signed his sister's note selling his wife, Eudocia, into slavery. However, some scholars argue that contrary to hostile ancient sources, Theodosius was more in control of his government. Others view that the government was controlled mostly by civilian officials, and not by

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