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94-637: According to the declaration of its founders, the movement was created as a counterbalance to anti-Ukrainian colonial and Russophile trends in the Ukrainian society of the period. Prosvita was founded in 1868 in Lviv by 65 delegates from different regions and groups of intellectuals, mostly from the same city. Anatole Vakhnianyn was elected the first head of the Prosvita Society. By the end of 1913, Prosvita had 77 affiliate societies and 2,648 reading rooms. After

188-723: A Rusyn language newspaper published in the United States, avoided any suggestion that the Lemkos were a branch of the Ukrainians . The conflict between Russophiles and Ukrainophiles remained dominant among Rusyn parties under the First Czechoslovak Republic . Calls for a Lemko autonomous region in Poland persisted at least until 1989, with a Rusyn rather than Russian orientation. East Slavs The East Slavs are

282-532: A harsh persecution of the Ukrainophile leaders and their ideology. Ukrainian schools were forcibly converted to Russian-language instruction, reading rooms, newspapers, co-operatives and credit unions were closed, and hundreds of community leaders were arrested and exiled under suspicion of collaboration. The popular head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church , Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky ,

376-471: A hundred of them. The foundation of the main Slavic city of this region, Novgorod , is attributed by the letopis to 862. In the same era, settlements appeared on the territories of other East Slavic tribes (see Old Russian cities ). So, the northerners who lived on the territory of modern Voronezh, Belgorod and Kursk regions, along with settlements in the 9th–10th centuries. built fortified settlements, mainly at

470-650: A manifesto proclaiming that the people of Galicia were brothers who had "languished for centuries under a foreign yoke" and urged them to "raise the banner of United Russia." During this time, with the help of local Russophiles, the Russian administration, aware that the Ukrainophiles were loyal to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and that they had organized the Ukrainian legion of the Austro-Hungarian army, engaged in

564-659: A prominent Ukrainophile leader and the future president of the West Ukrainian National Republic , appeared as a prosecutor during the trials against the Russophiles. When civil war broke out in Russia, some Galician Russophiles then fought in the ranks of the White Army, specifically under Lavr Kornilov , in the hope that Galicia would become part of a democratic White Russia. After the collapse of Austria–Hungary,

658-677: A refuge for the Ukrainian national movement and the Galician Ruthenians as Ukrainians of the 20th century. The 1890 agreement was crucial in helping Ukrainian national identity flourish in Galicia earlier than it did in the Russian Empire's territories where it was suppressed. Other factors helped Ukrainophilia triumph over Russophilia in Galicia: the Polish-dominated high society of Galicia

752-516: A role in such feelings. Events of the 1860s helped to increase pro-Russian feelings in Galicia. Traditionally, the local Ruthenians had a naive belief that the Habsburg Emperor was on their side and that he would defend them against the Polish nobility. From the late 1850s, Austrian courts often sided with (primarily Polish) nobles in land disputes with peasants, during which forests and pastures that

846-547: A small Ruthenian nation of under three million people, weak in comparison to its neighbours, the Russophiles now saw themselves as the westernmost branch of the Great Russian people. A Russian orientation also played into the Russophile's elitist tendencies, because the Russian literary language which they tried to adopt (many continued to use the Polish language in their daily lives) set the Russophile priests and nobles apart from

940-405: A unique East Slavic nation; and Ukrainophilia , the idea that the people of western Ukraine were the same as those of neighbouring lands in the Russian Empire but that both were a people different from Russians — Ukrainians . Initially, there existed a fluidity between all three national orientations, with people changing their allegiance throughout their lives, and until approximately the turn of

1034-476: Is consistent with the proximity of their languages, demonstrating significant differences from the neighboring Finno-Ugric, Turkic and North Caucasian peoples all the way from west to east; such genetic homogeneity is somewhat unusual for genetics given such a wide dispersal of Slavic populations, especially Russians. Together they form the basis of the " East European " gene cluster , which also includes Balts , some Balkan peoples. Genetic research has shown that

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1128-734: Is no consensus among scholars as to the urheimat of the Slavs . In the first millennium AD, Slavic settlers are likely to have been in contact with other ethnic groups who moved across the Eastern European Plain during the Migration Period . Between the first and ninth centuries, the Sarmatians , Huns , Alans , Avars , Bulgars , and Magyars passed through the Pontic steppe in their westward migrations. Although some of them could have subjugated

1222-772: The Dnieper river in what is now Ukraine and Belarus to the North; they then spread northward to the northern Volga valley, east of modern-day Moscow and westward to the basins of the northern Dniester and the Southern Buh rivers in present-day Ukraine and southern Ukraine. Another group of East Slavs moved to the northeast, where they encountered the Varangians of the Rus' Khaganate and established an important regional centre of Novgorod for protection. The same Slavic population also settled

1316-578: The Eastern Slavic people of Galicia were descendants of the people of Kievan Rus' ( Ruthenians ), and followers of Eastern Christianity , they were thus a branch of the Russian people. The movement was part of the larger Pan-Slavism that was developing in the late 19th century. Russophilia was largely a backlash against Polonisation (in Galicia) and Magyarisation (in Carpathian Ruthenia ) that

1410-760: The First Russian Revolution , local branches of the society were also opened in the Russian-ruled areas populated by Ukrainians: in Katerynoslav and Odesa (1905), Kyiv (1906), Kamianets-Podilskyi , Zhytomyr , Chernihiv , Mykolaiv , Melitopol , Katerynodar and other cities. However, all of Prosvita societies in the Russian Empire were closed before the start of the First World War , as they were accused of promoting separatism by imperial authorities. A new wave of Prosvita's development started after

1504-507: The Hungarians revolted against the Austrians in 1848, the local East Slavs , antagonistic toward the Hungarians who had dominated them, were deeply moved by the presence of the seemingly invincible Russian troops sent by Nicholas to help crush the rebellion. At this time, Austria supported the Russophile movement as a counterbalance to Polish and Hungarian interests, and under the leadership of

1598-627: The Polans and Severians arose in the region of Kyiv and Chernigov already by the 7th–8th centuries, which indicates at least a partial rejection of the previous strategy of scattered and secretive living among the forests. This is also evidenced by the fact that in the VIII-IX centuries. in all other East Slavic lands there were no more than two dozen cities, while only on the Left Bank of the Dnieper there were about

1692-653: The Russian National Party , called for complete identification with Russia and promoted the conversion of the western Ukrainian people to Orthodoxy. The Russophiles now largely depended on financing from the Russian government and Russian private sponsors (the Galician-Russian Benevolent Society was established in Saint Petersburg in 1908) and from ultraconservative Galician Polish aristocrats. The Polish ultraconservatives had become alarmed by

1786-768: The Russian Revolution of 1917 , when its branches were restored in Dnieper Ukraine , Volhynia and Polissia , as well as in Kuban and the Far East. However, most of them were once again closed down by the Soviet and Polish authorities in the 1920s and 1930s. Similarly, the Zakarpattian branch of Prosvita established in 1920 was closed down by the Hungarian government in 1939. After

1880-647: The Russkie Druzhiny – a Russophile counterpart to the Ukrainophile pro-Austrian Ukrainian Sich Riflemen . Hundreds of suspected Russophiles were shot, and thirty thousand were sent to the Talerhof concentration camp, where approximately three thousand died of exposure. The camp was closed by Blessed Emperor Charles I of Austria , 6 months into his reign. The Russian administration of Galicia lasted from August 1914 until June 1915. Russian Grand Duke Nicholas issued

1974-526: The Stauropegion Institute , with its printing press and large collection of archives) and the venerable Ruthenian newspaper Slovo ('The Word'), and under their leadership, it became the most widely circulated newspaper among Western Ukrainians. In 1870, the Russophiles formed a political organization, the Ruthenian Council ( Ruska Rada ) which represented the population of Western Ukraine. From

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2068-504: The serfs , introduced compulsory education and raised the status of the Ruthenian priests to that of their Polish and Hungarian counterparts. Furthermore, they mandated that Ukrainian Catholic seminarians receive a formal higher education (previously, priests had been educated informally by their fathers), and organized institutions in Vienna and Lviv that would serve this function. This led to

2162-931: The 11th century (none before the 10th century) have survived. The earliest major manuscript with information on Rus' history, the Primary Chronicle , dates from the late 11th and early 12th centuries. It lists twelve Slavic tribal unions which, by the 10th century, had settled in the later territory of the Kievan Rus between the Western Bug , the Dniepr and the Black Sea : the Polans , Drevlyans , Dregovichs , Radimichs , Vyatichs , Krivichs , Slovens , Dulebes (later known as Volhynians and Buzhans ), White Croats , Severians , Ulichs , and Tivertsi . There

2256-447: The 11th century resulted in considerable population shifts and a political, social, and economic regrouping. The resultant effect of these forces coalescing was the marked emergence of new peoples. While these processes began long before the fall of Kiev, its fall expedited these gradual developments into a significant linguistic and ethnic differentiation among the Rus' people into Ukrainians , Belarusians , and Russians . All of this

2350-435: The 1860s until the 1880s Western Ukrainian political, religious, and cultural life came to be dominated by the Russophiles. Within a generation of achieving dominance of Western Ukrainian life, however, the Russophiles were eclipsed by the Ukrainophiles, or so-called Populists ( Narodovtsi ). Originally coming from the same social stratum as the Russophiles (priests and nobles), but joined by the emerging secular intelligentsia,

2444-511: The 1890s, under the influence of Mykola Kostomarov and the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius in central Ukraine. After the fall of the westernmost East Slavic state in 1349, most of the area of what is now Western Ukraine came under the control of Poland and Hungary , with Poland ruling Galicia and Hungary controlling Carpathian Ruthenia . The loss of independence began a period of gradual, centuries-long assimilation of much of

2538-582: The 1907 elections to the Viennese parliament, the Ukrainophiles won 22 seats while the Russophiles won five. But the Russophiles, due to Polish interference, won elections to the Galician parliament the same year by taking 11 seats, the Ukrainophiles 10. In 1913, 30 Ukrainophile and only 1 Russophile delegate were sent to the Galician Diet. There were certain regional patterns in the support for Russophilism, in that it

2632-487: The 19th century, as Austria-Hungary and Russia became rivals, the Austrian authorities became alarmed by the Russophiles' activities. To maintain the loyalty of the Ukrainian population, the Austrian authorities made concessions to Ukrainian causes, such as expanding the Ukrainian educational system, and in 1893 made the Ukrainophile version of the vernacular Ukrainian language the language of instruction. Doing so effectively shut

2726-532: The 20th century members of all three groups frequently identified themselves by the ethnonym Ruthenians ( Rusyny ). Initially, the most prominent ideology was Ruthenianism, or Rutenstvo . Its proponents, referred to as "Old Ruthenians", were mainly wealthier or more influential priests and the remnants of the nobility who had not been Polonised, and were quite loyal to the Habsburgs, to whom they owed their higher social standing. While emphasizing their separateness from

2820-481: The Ancient Galician-Russian Principality . In a letter to his friend Mikhail Pogodin , Zubrytsky claimed that his stated purpose was to acquaint his Galician people with Russian history and the Russian language. Indeed, the historiography of the medieval Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia was largely begun by Galician Russophiles and served as the basis for their nation-building project (in contrast,

2914-399: The Austrian authorities because it served to undermine Polish or Hungarian control of the area. The cultural movements included: Russophilia , the idea that Galicia was the westernmost part of Russia and that the natives of Western Ukraine were, like all of the Russian Empire's East Slavic inhabitants, members of one Russian nation; Ruthenianism, the idea that the people of Western Ukraine were

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3008-448: The Austrians were driven from Galicia in August 1914, they avenged themselves upon suspected Russophiles and their families. Russophiles were punished for allegedly seeking to separate Galicia, Northern Bukovina and parts of northern Hungary from Austria-Hungary and attaching them to Russia, of seeking volunteers for the Russian army, and of organizing a pro-Russian paramilitary group known as

3102-503: The Church's hierarchy of Russophiles. Despite drawing some Ukrainophiles' criticism for the slow progression of his changes, under Sheptytsky's leadership the Church gradually ceased being a bastion of Russophilism and instead became a staunchly Ukrainophile one. Lacking support within their community and from the Austrian government, the remaining Russophiles turned to outsiders for support and became more radical in their politics. They founded

3196-512: The Dnieper region, but the main fortress of the Antes (Selishte) was located in the western part of this area, near the borders of Byzantine Empire (in modern Moldova), on which they made military campaigns. The early Slavic settlements were destroyed by the Avars in the 7th century, after which they were not built until the 10th century. The disintegration, or parcelling of the polity of Kievan Rus' in

3290-542: The Poles in terms of religion and background, these people nevertheless maintained an elitist attitude towards the peasantry. They frequently spoke the Polish language among themselves, and tried to promote a version of Church Slavonic with elements of the local Ukrainian vernacular as well as the Russian language as a literary language for western Ukraine. This language was never standardized, however. The language actually spoken by

3384-612: The Polish rebels provided the Ukrainian peasants with relatively favorable compensation. Many Galicians began to approvingly contrast the Tsar's brutal treatment of the Polish nobles with the Austrians' seemingly taking the Polish side in the Polish-Ukrainian conflict. Many of them came to believe that the plight of the Ukrainians was improving more under the Tsars than it was under the Austrians. In

3478-480: The Prague-Korchak (Zimino, Lezhnitsa, Khotomel, Babka, Khilchitsy, Tusheml ) and Penkovo (Selishte, Pastyrskoe) cultures existed in the 6th–7th centuries. on a vast territory from the borders of modern Poland and Romania to the Dnieper. The Prague-Korchak settlements were a site surrounded by a wooden wall with one building, which was part of the common wall of the settlement. They did not have agricultural tools, and

3572-558: The Prosvita Society: Ukrainian Russophiles Galician Russophilia ( Ukrainian : Галицьке русофільство , romanized :  Halytske rusofilstvo ) or Moscophilia ( Москвофіли , romanized : Moskvofily ) was a cultural and political movement largely in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , Austria-Hungary (currently western Ukraine ). This ideology emphasized that since

3666-429: The Russian administration united with right-wing Russian elements in urging the Russian government to solve the "Jewish question" by stripping Jews of Russian citizenship, expelling them to Germany and distributing their property (along with that of Poles) among the local Ukrainian (who Moscophiles considered "Russian") people. The latter appeals were ignored by the Russian military, who did not want excessive disruptions to

3760-542: The Russian authorities was so heavy-handed that it was denounced as a "European scandal" in the Russian Duma by the Russian statesman Pavel Milyukov . The Russians were aided in their suppression of Ukrainian culture by local Russophiles and by Polish anti-Ukrainian figures such as Lviv professor Stanisław Grabski . Such actions angered most of the local Ukrainian population. When Austria regained Galicia in June 1915 , most of

3854-399: The Russophile decline. By the early 20th century, the Russophiles became a minority in Galicia. Within the Church, they were nicknamed "bisons," in scholar Himka's words an "ancient, shaggy species on the verge of extinction." Of nineteen Ukrainian periodicals published in Galicia in 1899, sixteen were Ukrainophile in orientation, only two were Russophile in orientation and one was neutral. In

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3948-637: The Russophile leader Denis Zubrytsky defended serfdom both before and after the emancipation of Austrian Galician serfs in 1848. There were also antisemitic strains in Russophilism. From the 1860s to the 1880s some peasants hoped that the Tsar would come to Galicia and slaughter the Poles and the Jews. During the Russian occupation of Galicia in 1914–1915 , a Galician Russophile newspaper spread rumours of anti-Russian Jewish uprisings in order to justify antisemitic pogroms by Russian troops, and Russophiles working within

4042-555: The Russophile newspaper Slovo and deposed the Russophile head of the Greek Catholic Church , Metropolitan Joseph Sembratovych . In 1899, Count Andrey Sheptytsky became new head of the Greek Catholic Church . A Polonised nobleman from an old Ukrainian family, he adopted the Ukrainian language and a Ukrainophile orientation. Although Sheptytsky did not interfere in priests' personal activities and writings, he slowly purged

4136-438: The Russophile nobleman Adolf Dobriansky, the people of Carpathian Ruthenia were granted limited autonomy, although the region reverted to Hungarian control after a few years. In Galicia, Russophilia emerged as early as the 1830s, when "Society of scholars" was organized in Przemyśl and was stimulated in part by the presence in Lviv in 1835 and from 1839–1840 of Russian pan-Slavist Mikhail Pogodin who became acquainted with

4230-415: The Russophile version, the Kachkovsky Society (founded in 1874), had only 300. The Ukrainian co-operative union had 900 members, while the rival Russophile one had only 106. Prevented from publishing in the mainstream western Ukrainian newspapers by the Russophiles who controlled them, the Populists created their own. In 1880, Dilo ('Deed') was founded as a rival to the Russophile Slovo ("Word"), and due to

4324-425: The Russophiles despite the latter group's love for Russia. Moreover, while educated Ukrainophiles were coming to Galicia from the Russian Empire, local Russophiles in Galicia experienced a "brain drain" as many of them left western Ukraine for positions in Russia. Many of the classics teachers needed as a result of Russian educational reforms promoted by Dmitry Tolstoy in the 19th century were Galicians. From among

4418-441: The Russophiles out of the educational system. During the 1880s the Austrians put many Russophiles on trial for treason or espionage. These trials were widely publicized, and served to discredit the Russophiles among the Ukrainian people, most of whom continued to be loyal to the Austrian Emperor . One of the prosecutors was Kost Levitsky , who later became an important Ukrainian politician. The Austrians also deported an editor of

4512-467: The Slavs were located "in unusual topographic conditions: in low places, often now flooded during floods". Eastern Slavs, who found themselves as a result of migrations of the 4th–5th centuries. in the basins of lakes Chudskoye and Ilmen, formed the culture of Pskov long barrows . This culture was strongly influenced by the autochthonous Finno-Ugric and Baltic peoples, from whom it adopted a specific burial rite and some features of ceramics, but in general,

4606-499: The Ukrainian language imposed by the tsarist government in eastern Ukraine, eastern Ukrainian noble or Cossacks officer families who had not become Russified sent money to Galicia in order to sponsor Ukrainophile cultural activities there. These people, enjoying gentry status, were generally much wealthier than the priests and priests' sons who dominated the local Galician movements. The amount sent by these private individuals from Russian-ruled Ukraine to Ukrainophile causes likely equalled

4700-466: The Ukrainian people. Researchers know relatively little about the Eastern Slavs prior to approximately 859 AD when the first events recorded in the Primary Chronicle occurred. The Eastern Slavs of these early times apparently lacked a written language. The few known facts come from archaeological digs, foreign travellers' accounts of the Rus' land, and linguistic comparative analyses of Slavic languages . Very few native Rus' documents dating before

4794-427: The Ukrainian-speaking peasants. Politically, the Russophiles came to advocate the idea of a union between a Galician Ruthenia and Russia. One of the most active of the Galician Russophiles was the prominent historian, nobleman Denis Zubrytsky , who helped convert many of the Galician elite to his cause. He was also the first to begin writing in standard Russian: as early as 1849 he started his main work, The History of

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4888-417: The Ukrainians of Galicia proclaimed the West Ukrainian National Republic. Between 70 and 75 thousand men fought in its Ukrainian Galician Army . They lost their war and the territory was annexed by Poland. However, the experience of proclaiming a Ukrainian state and fighting for it significantly intensified and deepened the Ukrainian orientation within Galicia. The Russophile movement barely clung on during

4982-452: The Ukrainophiles at that time focused on the history of the Cossacks). In terms of literature and culture, the Russophiles promoted Nikolai Gogol and Ivan Naumovich in contrast to Ukrainophile emphasis on Taras Shevchenko . In terms of language, Galician Russophiles were strongly opposed to the adoption of the vernacular Ukrainian language spoken by peasants and instead supported the adoption of standard literary Russian. This opposition

5076-413: The Ukrainophiles were from a younger generation who unlike their fathers found enthusiasm for Taras Shevchenko rather than the Tsars, and embraced the peasantry rather than rejected it. This dedication to the people (the "bottom-up" approach) would prove successful against the Russophiles' elitist "top-down" orientation. Many factors accounted for the collapse of the Russophile movement. The principal one

5170-409: The appearance, for the first time, of a large educated social class within the Ukrainian population in Galicia. Austrian reforms led to a gradual social mobilization of the native inhabitants of Western Ukraine and the emergence of several national ideologies that reflected the natives' East Slavic culture and were opposed to that of Roman Catholic Poland and Hungary. This development was encouraged by

5264-454: The common people was viewed with contempt. Old Ruthenians rejected both Ukrainophilism and Russophilism. The Ukrainian thinker Mykhailo Drahomanov wrote ironically of them, that "you Galician intellectuals really do think of creating some kind of Uniate Paraguay, with some kind of hierarchical bureaucratic aristocracy, just like you have created an Austro-Ruthenian literary language!" Old Ruthenianism dominated Galicia's cultural scene until

5358-468: The confluence of large rivers (see Romensko-Borshchiv culture). In the 10th century, a fortress appeared not far from the city of Smolensk that arose later (the Gnezdovsky archaeological complex ). Somewhat apart are the early East Slavic settlements, the creation of which is attributed to the tribal unions of Dulebs and Antes . Archaeologically, they are represented by the Prague-Korchak and Penkov cultures, respectively. A number of such settlements of

5452-512: The differences between Ukrainian petty gentry and peasants. The gentry were somewhat more likely to support Russophilia than were peasants. A noble candidate in the elections of 1911, Ivan Kulchytsky, declared "now we have recovered our sight and shall not allow the bastards to trick us with Ukraine…. You should know that from now on we do not give a damn for Ukraine and have returned to the historical road. From now on we are Russians." Help from Russian and Polish patrons largely failed to prevent

5546-404: The differences within their faction, referring to commonness with all Russians, or their unique stand within the whole of the Russian nation. The ethnonym Ruthenians for Ukrainian people had been accepted by both the Russophiles and the Moscophiles for quite a long period of time. The new name Ukrainians began to be accepted by the Ruthenian Galicians (as opposed to Polonian Galicians) around

5640-491: The end of the First World War, Prosvita continued to develop in Galicia . In 1936 alone, when Western Ukraine with the city of Lviv were part of the Second Polish Republic , the society opened over 500 new outlets with full-time professional staff. By the end of the interwar period , Prosvita had grown to include 83 affiliates, 3,210 reading rooms, 1,207 premises, 3,209 libraries (with 688,186 books), 2,185 theater clubs, 1,115 choirs, 138 orchestras, and 550 study groups. In 1939

5734-540: The extensive forests in which they settled. This method of agriculture involved clearing tracts of forest with fire, cultivating it and then moving on after a few years. Slash and burn agriculture requires frequent movement because soil cultivated in this manner only yields good harvests for a few years before exhausting itself, and the reliance on slash and burn agriculture by the East Slavs explains their rapid spread through eastern Europe. The East Slavs flooded Eastern Europe in two streams. One group of tribes settled along

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5828-457: The historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky , who headed a newly established department at the University of Lviv . Many of these figures settled or lived for a time in Lviv. In contrast, no prominent Russian intellectuals came to Galicia in order to help the local Russophile cause. This phenomenon led to the ironic observation of Drahomanov that the Ukrainophiles were actually more in touch with contemporary Russian cultural and intellectual trends than were

5922-435: The impoverished peasants, Ukrainophile activists set up co-operatives that would buy supplies in large quantities, eliminate middlemen, and pass the savings onto the villagers. Credit unions were created, providing inexpensive loans to farmers and eliminating the reliance on non-Ukrainian moneylenders. Russophiles belatedly tried to imitate such strategies but could not catch up. By 1914, Prosvita had 3,000 reading rooms while

6016-426: The interwar era, Galicia has been the centre of Ukrainian nationalism . Russophilia disappeared in western Ukraine during and after Soviet rule. The Russophile tradition persisted in the portions of Galicia west of the Dukla Pass , resulting in the formation of the Lemko-Rusyn Republic . Metodyj Trochanovskij continued to espouse the Rusyn national identity, up to the start of World War II. Karpatska Rus' ,

6110-403: The interwar period, supported by the Polish government which funded and granted Russophiles some institutions such as the Stauropegion Institute (which was returned to Russophiles in 1922 after it had been given to the Ukrainophiles in 1915) and which subsidized the movement in order to try to divide Ukrainian society. This had little effect beyond the Lemko regions in the extreme west, and since

6204-399: The local Ruthenian intelligentsia and became an influence on them. However, the movement did not come to dominate western Ukrainian society until the 1850s–60s. Many proponents of Ruthenianism became disenchanted with Austria and linked themselves with the giant and powerful Russian state . The relative rise of Russia's power in comparison to that of Austria during the 19th century also played

6298-401: The local economy during the war. Russophiles who had been installed by the Russian authorities as mayors in some towns proceeded to shut down Jewish schools. Western Ukrainian Russophilia appeared in Carpathian Ruthenia at the end of the 18th century. At this time, several people from the region settled in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and obtained high academic positions. The best known of these

6392-443: The local intelligentsia, Ivan Franko showed the literary potential of the vernacular Ukrainian language. The local declining number of Russophiles could not compete with the talent of these Ukrainophile cultural figures and scholars. Possibly as a result of the Polish-Ruthenian agreement of 1890 which allowed Ukrainian culture and education in Galicia, Ukrainian language students rose sharply in number. Hrushevsky envisioned Galicia as

6486-404: The mid-19th century, when it was supplanted by Russophilia; many of the proponents of old Ruthenianism eventually became Russophiles. The early Galician Russophile Nikolay Kmicykevich wrote an article in 1834 stating that the Russians were the same people from Western Ukraine to Kamchatka, from the White Sea to the Black Sea, and the language they spoke was the same Russian language. He wrote that

6580-402: The most populous subgroup of the Slavs . They speak the East Slavic languages , and formed the majority of the population of the medieval state Kievan Rus' , which they claim as their cultural ancestor . Today Belarusians , Russians and Ukrainians are the existent East Slavic nations. Rusyns can also be considered as a separate nation, although they are often considered a subgroup of

6674-434: The native elite into Polish and Hungarian culture. This elite adopted a national orientation in which they saw the native Rus population of Galicia as a branch of the Polish nation who happened to be of the Eastern Christian faith. They believed that the native language was merely a dialect of Polish, comparable to Mazovian , and that assimilation would be inevitable. This process of Polonisation was, however, resented by

6768-515: The peasants had traditionally been using were deemed the property of the nobles. This led to significant economic hardship for the peasants. While this was happening, the Russian tsar had emancipated the peasants in Russian-ruled Ukraine. In 1863–1864, an insurrection of Polish nobles in areas that included Russian-ruled Ukraine was brutally crushed by the Tsarist government, which in punishing

6862-558: The peasants, the clergy, and small minority of nobles who retained their East Slavic culture, religion or both. The latter two groups would form the nucleus of native national movements that would emerge with the loosening of Polish and Hungarian control in western Ukraine, which occurred when the entire region came under the control of the Austrian Habsburgs in the course of the Partitions of Poland . The Austrian Emperor emancipated

6956-633: The present-day Tver Oblast and the region of Beloozero . Having reached the lands of the Merya near Rostov , they linked up with the Dnieper group of Slavic migrants. According to archeology, the Prague, Korchak , Penkova , Kolochin , and Kyiv cultures are classified as early Slavic. The earliest of which, Kyiv, from the 2nd–3rd centuries AD. e. was the northern neighbor of the more developed and multi-ethnic Chernyakhov culture, associated with West Slavs ( Great Moravia ). Rare, few and short-lived settlements of

7050-402: The reasons for all East Slavs to adopt the Russian language was that the modern Russian language had been created in the 17th and 18th centuries by scholars from Ukraine. Despite some democratic elements (such as promoting literacy among peasants) Galician Russophilia tended to be anti-democratic and reactionary, placing it at odds with the democratic trends in 19th-century society. For example,

7144-599: The region's Slavs, these foreign tribes left little trace in the Slavic lands. The Early Middle Ages also saw Slavic expansion as an agriculturist and beekeeper , hunter, fisher, herder, and trapper people. By the 8th century, the Slavs were the dominant ethnic group on the East European Plain. By 600 AD, the Slavs had split linguistically into southern , western , and eastern branches. The East Slavs practiced " slash-and-burn " agricultural methods which took advantage of

7238-515: The remaining Galician Russophiles and their families retreated alongside the Russian army in fear of reprisals. Approximately 25,000 of them were resettled near Rostov-on-Don . Among those that did not leave, the Austrians arrested and sentenced to death approximately thirty noted Russophiles, including two members of parliament, Dmytro Markov and Volodymyr Kurylovich (their sentences were commuted to life imprisonment and they were released in 1917), as well as Metodyj Trochanovskij . Kost Levitsky ,

7332-512: The rising literacy of the Ukrainian population, its circulation surpassed that of its older rival. A second important factor for the success of the Ukrainophiles was the exile from Dnieper Ukraine of a large number of well-educated and talented eastern Ukrainian writers and scholars, such as the writer Panteleimon Kulish , the former professor of Kiev's University of St. Vladimir , economist and philosopher Mykhailo Drahomanov , and especially

7426-506: The settlements, apparently, were built to collect and accommodate a military detachment. Penkovsky settlements could have up to two dozen buildings inside the walls and were large trade, craft and administrative centers for their time. The center of the territory controlled by the dulebs (Zimino, Lezhnitsa) was in the basin of the Western Bug; the geographical center of the Penkovo culture falls on

7520-540: The social mobilization of the Ukrainian peasants and sought to use the Russophile movement as a way of dividing the Ukrainian community. They were also united with the Russophiles in opposition to a proposed alliance between Ukrainophiles and politically moderate Poles. Polish support provided the Russophiles with some advantages during elections, some advantages for Russophile priests in obtaining parishes, and tolerance towards Russophile political activities. The Russophiles also attempted, with some limited success, to exploit

7614-714: The society was shut down and banned by the newly arrived Soviet rulers. Prosvita operated only in Western Europe and America up to 1988. The first Prosvita society established in the United States was in Shenandoah , Pennsylvania in 1887. The Prosvita Society was renewed in Ukraine during the Soviet period of Glasnost of 1988–89 as the Shevchenko Association of Ukrainian Language, and since then has taken an active part in social life of independent Ukraine. In modern times it

7708-410: The standard Russian language was more acceptable for modern writing and that the popular dialects in Ukraine were corrupted by Polish influence. These ideas were stimulated by the Russian pan-Slavist Mikhail Pogodin , who stayed in Lviv (called then Lemberg ) in 1835 and 1839–1840 and who during this time influenced the local Ruthenian intelligentsia. No longer seeing themselves as representatives of

7802-487: The subsidies sent by the Russian government to Galician Russophiles. For example, Yelyzaveta Myloradovich, a noblewoman from Poltava, donated 20,000 Austrian crowns to the Shevchenko Scientific Society . The Austrian government also contributed significantly to the Ukrainophiles' victory. Initially, Austria had supported Russophilia as a counterbalance to the Poles and Hungarians. During the latter part of

7896-753: The testimony of one Austrian-Ukrainian peasant, "if there is no justice in Vienna, we will find it in the Moskal. " During this time, the poet and scholar Yakiv Holovatsky , a member of "The Ruthenian Trinity", joined the Russophile movement. Soon thereafter, the Russophile priests of the St George Cathedral Circle came to dominate the local hierarchy of the Greek Catholic Church, thereby transforming that Church into an instrument of their cause. Russophiles took over Ruthenian academic institutions (such as

7990-652: The way of life of the Eastern Slavs changed little. By the 5th century on the site of the Kyiv culture and in other regions to the north, east, west and south of it, a number of related cultures arise, such as Korchak , Kolochin , etc. Among the East Slavs, fortified cities, apparently, first appeared among the Ilmen Slovenes in the 5th century (based on archaeological data in the town on Mayat river). The first settlements near

8084-514: Was Vasilly Kukolnik (father of Russian playwright Nestor Kukolnik ), a member of an old noble family who had studied in Vienna before coming to Russia. Vasilly's pupils included Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia and Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich of Russia , the future Emperor Nicholas I of Russia. These émigrés, while adopting a sense of Russian patriotism, also maintained their ties to their homeland and tried to use their wealth to introduce Russian literature and culture to their region. When

8178-500: Was arrested and exiled to Russia. Although Nicholas II issued a decree forbidding forceful conversion from Uniatism to Orthodoxy, except in cases where 75% of the parishioners approved, the ultimate goal was the liquidation of the Ukrainian Catholic Church. In addition to its head, hundreds of priests were exiled to Russia and replaced by Orthodox priests, who urged the parishioners to convert to Orthodoxy. The behaviour of

8272-473: Was deeply anti-Russian in response to the Russian suppression of Polish uprisings, hence, the Galician Polish gentry set an anti-Russian tone for polite society while remaining sympathetic to the Ukrainophile movement. Help for the Ukrainophile cause from eastern Ukraine also took the form of generous financial assistance from wealthy Ukrainian landowners. Due to restrictions against Ukrainian printing and

8366-699: Was emphasized by the subsequent polities these groups migrated into: southwestern and western Rus', where the Ruthenian and later Ukrainian and Belarusian identities developed, was subject to Lithuanian and later Polish influence; whereas the Russian ethnic identity developed in the Muscovite northeast and the Novgorodian north. Modern East Slavic peoples and ethnic/subethnic groups include: According to Y chromosome , mDNA and autosomal marker CCR5de132, East Slavs and West Slavs are genetically very similar, which

8460-558: Was headed by Dmytro Pavlychko and Pavlo Movchan (present head). Currently, almost all higher education institutions in Ukraine have Prosvita affiliations with teachers and students as members. Also active are the Young Prosvita youth organizations. During the 2014 pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine two Prosvita members were kidnapped and one was murdered by pro-Russian separatists in the Donetsk and Luhansk provinces . Official goals of

8554-527: Was largely blamed on the landlords and associated with Roman Catholicism. Russophilia has survived longer among the Rusyn minority , especially that in Carpathian Ruthenia and the Lemkos of south-east Poland. The "Russophiles" did not always apply the term to themselves and called themselves Russians, Rusians, Ruthenians or Rusyny (Rusyns). Some Russophiles coined such terms as Obshche-rossy (Common Russians) or Starorusyny (Old Ruthenians) to stress either

8648-511: Was likely the Ukrainophiles' incredible capacity for organization. The Populists fanned out throughout the countryside in order to mobilize the masses to their cause. In 1868, the Lviv student Anatole Vakhnianyn organized and became the first head of the Prosvita organization, whose goal was to organize reading rooms and community theatres which became extremely popular among the peasants. In order to help

8742-516: Was most popular in the extreme western parts of eastern Galicia, particularly in the Lemko region of centred on the city of Przemyśl . This region, closest to Polish ethnographic territory, may have been most receptive to Russophilia's radical differentiation of Ukrainians/Ruthenians from Poles. Immediately before the outbreak of World War I, the Austrian and Hungarian governments held numerous treason trials of those suspected of Russophile subversion. When

8836-412: Was such that they even welcomed the ban on the Ukrainian language in the Russian Empire in 1876 . Reflecting their belief that the people of Ukraine played a special role in the greater Russian nation, the leading Russophile thinker Ivan Naumovich declared that the Russian language was derived from " Little Russian " and was only being readopted in Galicia. Indeed, Galician Russophiles wrote that one of

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