Princess Yicheng was a Chinese princess of the Sui dynasty and a khatun of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate . She spent at least 30 years of her life among the Turks.
86-397: She was an extended family member of Sui Dynasty . Her father was named Yang Xie (杨谐) and her brother was Yang Shanjing (杨善经). After the death of Princess Anyi (安义公主) in 599, she was created a princess by Emperor Wen of Sui and was wedded to Yami Qaghan under the heqin system. She was inherited by her step-son Shibi Qaghan in 609, in a levirate marriage. She had much influence on
172-589: A Central Secretariat that functioned similarly to the Song institution, but the paperwork was done by academicians rather than professional drafters. The Right Chancellor of the Central Secretariat ( shangshu you chengxiang 尚書右丞相) was subordinate to the Grand Chancellor. Emperor Wanyan Liang (r. 1149–1160) abolished the institution. The Mongol dominated Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) made the Central Secretariat
258-626: A Director ( zhongshu ling 中書令). Although lower in rank than the Department of State Affairs, the personnel of the Central Secretariat worked closer to the emperor and were responsible for drafting edits, and therefore their content. Under the Wei, the Central Secretariat was also in charge of the palace library, but this responsibility was terminated during the Jin dynasty (266–420) . In the Northern and Southern dynasties ,
344-528: A Vice Director ( zhongshu puye 中書仆射). These two posts came to assert significant political influence on the court, causing eunuchs to be forbidden from holding these posts by the end of the Western Han dynasty . This institution continued after the end of the Han dynasty into Cao Wei and it was Emperor Wen of Wei who formally created the Central Secretariat, headed by a Secretariat Supervisor ( zhongshu jian 中書監) and
430-445: A bloody purge, Wen had 59 Zhou princes eliminated, in contrast to his later reputation as the "Cultured Emperor". Emperor Wen emphasized Han cultural identity during his reign, abolishing the anti-Han policies of Northern Zhou and reclaiming his Han surname of Yang. Having won the support of Confucian scholars who held power in previous Han dynasties (abandoning the nepotism and corruption of the nine-rank system ), Emperor Wen initiated
516-642: A close, ending a prolonged period of political division since the War of the Eight Princes . The Sui endeavoured to rebuild the country, re-establishing and reforming many imperial institutions; in so doing, the Sui laid much of the foundation for the subsequent Tang dynasty , who after toppling the Sui would ultimately preside over a new golden age in Chinese history . The dynasty was founded by Yang Jian (Emperor Wen), who had been
602-567: A decree of a stiffer punishment for those who were found to deliberately injure and heal themselves. Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short (581–618), much was accomplished during its tenure. The Grand Canal was one of the main accomplishments. It was extended north from the Hangzhou region across the Yangtze to Yangzhou, and then northwest to the region of Luoyang. Again, like the Great Wall works,
688-459: A means to regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlier Han dynasty . The large agricultural surplus supported rapid growth of population to a historical peak, which was only surpassed at the zenith of the Tang dynasty more than a century later. The capital of Daxing ( Chang'an , modern Xi'an ), while situated in the militarily secure heartland of Guanzhong , was remote from
774-531: A member of the military aristocracy that had developed in the northwest during the prolonged period of division. The Sui capital was initially based in Daxing ( Chang'an , modern Xi'an ), but later moved to Luoyang in 605, which had been re-founded as a planned city . Wen and his successor Emperor Yang undertook various centralising reforms, most notably among them the equal-field system that aimed to reduce economic inequality and improve agricultural productivity,
860-521: A posthumous son of Yang Jian who was created as puppet King of Sui (隋國王) by Chuluo. This marriage was brief. After Chuluo's death in June, she refused to marry Ashina Momo (阿史那摸末, 607 - 649, was titled Yushe shad (郁射設) and eventually married to someone of imperial Li (李) clan), claiming he was weak. Instead, she was married to Ashina Duobi, who was created Illig Qaghan. After refusing Yushe Shad, she finally wed to Illig Qaghan in 620, yet another step-son. She
946-707: A series of reforms aimed at strengthening his empire for the wars that would reunify China. In his campaign for southern conquest, Emperor Wen assembled thousands of boats to confront the naval forces of the Chen dynasty on the Yangtze River . The largest of these ships were very tall, having five layered decks and the capacity for 800 non-crew personnel. They were outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-board techniques. Besides employing Xianbei and other Chinese ethnic groups for
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#17328588594901032-487: A supervising secretary ( jishizhong ), took over their work in the Chancellery. The position of supervising secretary originated in the Department of State Affairs, from where they were transferred to the Chancellery in the early Tang period. They were responsible for studying the drafts of memorials and implementing corrections before they were presented to the emperor. The Chancellery began to decline in significance during
1118-610: The Byzantine Empire , the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east. From Turkic peoples of Central Asia the Eastern Romans derived a new name for China after the older Sinae and Serica : Taugast ( Old Turkic : Tabghach ), during its Northern Wei (386–535) period. The 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote a generally accurate depiction of the reunification of China by Emperor Wen of
1204-524: The Confucian examination system for bureaucrats. By supporting educational reforms, he lost the support of the nomads. He also started many expensive construction projects such as the Grand Canal of China , and became embroiled in several costly wars. Between these policies, invasions into China from Turkic nomads, and his growing life of decadent luxury at the expense of the peasantry, he lost public support and
1290-599: The Five Departments and Six Boards [ zh ] system, which preceded the Three Departments and Six Ministries system, and the standardisation and re-unification of the coinage . The Sui also encouraged the spread of Buddhism throughout the empire. By the dynasty's mid-point, the state experienced considerable prosperity, enjoying a vast agricultural surplus that supported rapid population growth. The Sui engaged in many construction mega-projects, including
1376-471: The Grand Canal , the extension of the Great Wall , and the reconstruction of Luoyang. The canal linked Luoyang in the east with Chang'an in the west, with the eastern economic and agricultural centres towards Jiangdu (now Yangzhou, Jiangsu ) and Yuhang (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang ), and with the northern frontiers (near modern Beijing ). While the initial motivations of the canal were improving grain shipments to
1462-624: The Hongwu Emperor became suspicious of the chancellor Hu Weiyong and executed him in 1380. The Central Secretariat was also abolished and its functions delegated to the Hanlin Academy and Grand Secretariat . The Chancellery was originally the Court of Attendants in the Han dynasty (206 BC – 9 AD), which oversaw all palace attendants. It was not until the Cao Wei and Jin dynasty (266–420) era that
1548-545: The Korean peninsula , ended in defeat by 614, the dynasty disintegrated under a series of popular revolts culminating in the assassination of Emperor Yang by his minister, Yuwen Huaji in 618. The dynasty, which lasted only thirty-seven years, was undermined by ambitious wars and construction projects, which overstretched its resources. Particularly, under Emperor Yang , heavy taxation and compulsory labour duties would eventually induce widespread revolts and brief civil war following
1634-512: The Later Jin (Five Dynasties) . This practice was referred to as èrwáng-sānkè [ simple ; zh ] ( 二王三恪 ). Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short-lived, in terms of culture, it represents a transition from the preceding ages, and many cultural developments which can be seen to be incipient during the Sui dynasty later were expanded and consolidated during the ensuing Tang dynasty , and later ages. This includes not only
1720-733: The Northern Qi in 577, reunifying northern China. By this time, Yang Jian, a Northern Zhou general who would later found the Sui dynasty, became the regent to the Northern Zhou court. Yang Jian's clan, the Yang clan of Hongnong, had Han origins and claimed descent from the Han dynasty general Yang Zhen, but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. Yang Jian's daughter was the Empress Dowager, and her stepson, Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou ,
1806-623: The Secretariat-Chancellery during the late Tang dynasty , Song dynasty and in the Korean kingdom of Goryeo. The Six Ministries (also translated as Six Boards) were direct administrative organs of the state under the authority of the Department of State Affairs. They were the Ministries of Personnel , Rites , War , Justice , Works , and Revenue . During the Yuan Dynasty, authority over
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#17328588594901892-671: The Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern dynasties tended to work more similarly to the Southern dynasties over time but were dominated by barbarian peoples such as the Xianbei . During the Sui dynasty (581–618), the post of Director was often left vacant while two Vice Directors, Gao Jiong and Yang Su , handled affairs. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the post of Director continued to be left vacant for
1978-461: The Southern dynasties period, the Chancellery became responsible for the imperial coaches, medicine, provisions and the stables. During the Sui dynasty (581–618), it also became responsible for the city gates, the imperial seals, the wardrobe and the palace administration. These new external duties were reduced in the Tang dynasty (618–907) to just the city gates, the insignia, and the Institute for
2064-616: The Three Bureaus and the Bureau of Military Affairs . The Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) transferred authority over the Six Ministries to the Central Secretariat. The succeeding Ming dynasty (1368–1644) abolished the Central Secretariat entirely and put the Six Ministries under the direct control of the emperor. In 1901 and 1906, the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) added new ministries to the structure, making
2150-560: The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) and was never re-established in the following Ming dynasty . The Six Ministries (六部 Liù Bù ), also known as the "Six Boards," were government agencies directed by the Department of State Affairs and formally institutionalized during the Cao Wei and Jin dynasty (266–420) periods. Each ministry was headed by a Minister or Secretary ( Chinese : 尚書 ; pinyin : shàngshū ; Manchu : [REDACTED] ) who
2236-566: The "Western Terrace" ( xitai 西臺), Wu Zetian (regent 684–690, ruler 690–704) called it the "Phoenix Tower" ( fengge 鳳閣), and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–755) named it the "Department of the Purple Mystery" ( ziweisheng 紫微省). During the Sui-Tang period, the duty of the Central Secretariat was to read incoming material to the throne, answer questions from the emperor, and to draft imperial edicts. The Sui and Tang added posts for compilation of
2322-718: The Advancement of Literature. The Tang assigned several lower-ranking officials to the Chancellery to make records for the imperial diary. The Tang called the Chancellery, headed by the Grand Chancellor , a number of different names such as the Eastern Terrace ( Dongtai 東臺) or the Phoenix Terrace ( Luantai 鸞臺). In cases where the Vice Directors of the Chancellery or Central Secretariat were officiating as Grand Chancellor,
2408-403: The Central Secretariat became Vice Grand Chancellor. The Khitan dominated Liao dynasty (907–1125) had an institution similar in function to the Central Secretariat of the early Tang dynasty, called the Department of Administration ( zhengshisheng 政事省). The posts of Director, Vice Director, and the drafters, were mostly held by Chinese. The Jurchen dominated Jin dynasty (1115–1234) had
2494-528: The Chancellery. In the latter half of the Tang dynasty, the title of Director of the Central Secretariat was given to jiedushi (military commissioners) to give them a higher status, which deprived the title of its real value. The Hanlin Academy gained prominence as its academicians ( xueshi 學士) began processing and drafting documents in place of the Central Secretariat, which allowed emperors to issue edicts without prior consultation with Secretariat staff. During
2580-429: The Department of State Affairs ( shangshu you puye 尚書右仆射, or youcheng 右丞), who also held the title of Court Gentleman of the Central Secretariat ( zhongshu shilang 中書侍郎). Another Court Gentleman of the Central Secretariat managed the institution and participated in court consultations. The Rear Section was managed by a Secretariat Drafter ( zhongshu sheren ). The Left Vice Director ( zuo puye 左仆射, or zuocheng 左丞) held
2666-474: The Department of State Affairs with the shangshu as head of the six sections of government. It was headed by a Director ( ling 令) and a Vice Director ( puye 僕射), assisted by a left and right aide ( cheng 丞) and 36 attendant gentlemen ( shilang 侍郎), six for each section, as well as 18 clerks ( lingshi 令史), three for each section. These six sections later became the Six Ministries , and their chief stewards,
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2752-528: The Director, and Vice Director were collectively known as the eight executives ( bazuo 八座). The power of the Department of State Affairs decreased in the succeeding dynasties of Cao Wei and the Jin dynasty (266–420) as some of its functions and authority were delegated to the Central Secretariat and Chancellery. The posts of Director and Vice Director also became less important as it was bestowed upon high ministers and noble family members who did not participate in
2838-641: The Linyi-Champa Campaign (602–605). The Hanoi area formerly held by the Han and Jin dynasties was easily retaken from the Early Lý dynasty ruler Lý Phật Tử in 602. A few years later the Sui army pushed farther south and was attacked by troops on war elephants from Champa in southern Vietnam. The Sui army feigned retreat and dug pits to trap the elephants, lured the Champan troops to attack then used crossbows against
2924-540: The Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan, which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of Guanlong. The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were later claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages. Information about these major political events in China were somehow filtered west and reached
3010-618: The Six Chief Stewards ( liushang 六尚) that were responsible for headgear, wardrobe, food, the bath, the bedchamber and for writing ( shangshu 尚書, literally "presenting writings"), during the Qin dynasty . The position of Chief Steward for writing ( shangshu ) became more important during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BC), who tried to escape the influence of the Grand Chancellor and Censor-in-Chief( yushi dafu 御史大夫) by relying on other officials. Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25–57) created
3096-728: The Six Ministries was transferred to the Central Secretariat. The Three Departments were abolished by the Ming dynasty , but the Six Ministries continued under the Ming and Qing , as well as in Vietnam and Korea. Before the Three Departments and Six Ministries, the central administrative structure of the Qin and Han dynasties was the Three Lords and Nine Ministers ( 三 公 九 卿 , Sāngōng Jiǔqīng ) system. Nonetheless, even then, offices which fulfilled
3182-524: The Sui dynasty, spreading from India through Kushan Afghanistan into China during the Late Han period. Buddhism gained prominence during the period when central political control was limited. Buddhism created a unifying cultural force that uplifted the people out of war and into the Sui dynasty. In many ways, Buddhism was responsible for the rebirth of culture in China under the Sui dynasty. While early Buddhist teachings were acquired from Sanskrit sutras , it
3268-521: The Sui dynasty, with the conquest of the rival Chen dynasty in southern China. Simocatta correctly placed these events within the reign period of Byzantine ruler Maurice . Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China , its division by the Yangzi River and its capital Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan , i.e. Chang'an) along with its customs and culture , deeming its people " idolatrous " but wise in governance. He noted that
3354-528: The Sui. The Sui court pursued a pro-Taoist policy. The first reign of the dynasty saw the state promoting the Northern Louguan school of Taoism, while the second reign instead promoted the Southern Shangqing school of Taoism, possibly due to Emperor Yang's preference for Southern culture. Buddhism was popular during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern and Southern dynasties period that preceded
3440-439: The administrative activities of the department. Real paperwork became the purview of clerks, whose increasing influence frightened Emperor Wu of Liang . Emperor Wu decreed that only nobility should become clerks, but none of the nobles were willing to assign their sons to such a lowly position. Members of the department refused to cooperate with Emperor Wu and resisted any changes to administration. The Department of State Affairs in
3526-525: The apexes in the two millennium imperial period of Chinese history. The Sui emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and they cited as their ancestors the Yang of Hongnong 弘農楊氏 , a Han clan. They emphasised their Han ancestry, and claimed descent from the Han official Yang Zhen. The New Book of Tang traces their patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin . The Li of Zhaojun and
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3612-576: The associated titles were purely honorifics. The Chancellery only continued to exist in name during the Song dynasty (960–1279) while its functions were carried out by the Central Secretariat and the Department of State Affairs. For example, the Left Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs was concurrently Director of the Chancellery. The Chancellery was reorganized into several different sections: personnel, revenue, military, rites, justice, works,
3698-421: The capital and military logistics—including the transportation of troops —the new, reliable inland route would ultimately facilitate domestic trade, the flow of people, and cultural exchange for centuries. These mega-projects were led by an efficient centralised bureaucracy, but forcibly conscripted millions of workers at a heavy human cost. After a series of disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo on
3784-529: The central administrative office and abolished the Department of State Affairs in 1292 (revived 1309–1311). The post of Director was held by an imperial prince or left vacant, however real work went to the right and left Grand Chancellors. Under the Grand Chancellors were four managers of governmental affairs ( pingzhang zhengshi 平章政事) and a right and left aide ( you cheng 右丞, zuo cheng 左丞), who were collectively known as state counsellors ( zaizhi 宰執). Below
3870-648: The conquest of Chen. The emperor presented himself as a Cakravartin king, a Buddhist monarch who would use military force to defend the Buddhist faith. In the year 601 AD, Emperor Wen had relics of the Buddha distributed to temples throughout China, with edicts that expressed his goals, "all the people within the Four Seas may, without exception, develop enlightenment and together cultivate fortunate karma, bringing it to pass that present existences will lead to happy future lives, that
3956-466: The early Song dynasty (960–1279), the Central Secretariat was formally demoted and its function reduced to processing less important documents like memorials, resubmitted documents, or lists of examinations. The Central Secretariat no longer had a Director and its office was merged with that of the Chancellery, called Secretariat-Chancellery ( zhongshu menxia 中書門下, shortened zhongshu 中書) or Administration Chamber ( zhengshitang ). Drafting documents became
4042-510: The economic centres to the east and south of the empire. Emperor Wen initiated the construction of the Grand Canal , with completion of the first (and the shortest) route that directly linked Chang'an to the Yellow River (Huang He) . Later, Emperor Yang enormously enlarged the scale of the Grand Canal construction. Externally, the emerging Turkic Khaganate in the north posed a major threat to
4128-458: The elephants causing them to turn around and trample their own soldiers. Although Sui troops were victorious many succumbed to disease as northern soldiers did not have immunity to tropical diseases such as malaria . The Sui dynasty led a series of massive expeditions to invade Goguryeo , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Emperor Yang conscripted many soldiers for the campaign. This army
4214-472: The emperor, empress, and their entourage escaped to the commandery seat at present-day Daixian . The Turks besieged them there on September 11. Resources within the seat were little, and the emperor was reported to cry out of fear seeing Yuwen suggested Emperor Yang select a few thousand elite cavalry soldiers to attempt a break out, but Su Wei and Fan Zigai (樊子蓋) persuaded Emperor Yang not to attempt this. Emperor Yang put Xiao Yu and Pei Ju in charge of planning
4300-430: The fall of the dynasty. The dynasty is often compared to the earlier Qin dynasty . Both dynasties unified China after a prolonged period of division, undertook wide-ranging reforms and construction projects to consolidate the newly unified state, and collapsed after a brief period, leaving behind long-lasting legacies. During the late Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Xianbei -ruled Northern Zhou conquered
4386-545: The fight against Chen, Emperor Wen also employed the service of people from southeastern Sichuan , which Sui had recently conquered. In 588, the Sui had amassed 518,000 troops along the northern bank of the Yangtze River, stretching from Sichuan to the East China Sea . The Chen dynasty could not withstand such an assault. By 589, Sui troops entered Jiankang (now Nanjing ) and the last emperor of Chen surrendered. The city
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#17328588594904472-414: The four military expeditions ended in failure, incurring a substantial financial and manpower deficit from which the Sui would never recover. One of the major work projects undertaken by the Sui was construction activities along the Great Wall of China ; but this, along with other large projects, strained the economy and angered the resentful workforce employed. During the last few years of the Sui dynasty,
4558-662: The function of a new Document Drafting Office ( sherenyuan 舍人院). A reform during the Yuanfeng reign-period (1078–1085) restored the Central Secretariat to its former functions and the Document Drafting Office was renamed the Secretariat Rear Section ( zhongshu housheng 中書後省). However the title of Director remained an honorific while real leadership of the Central Secretariat went to the Right Vice Director of
4644-431: The imperial diary and proof-reading documents. In the Sui dynasty, the Central Secretariat Director was sometimes the same person as the Grand Chancellor ( zaixiang 宰相). In the Tang, the Director was also master of court assemblies, and often where Grand Chancellors started their careers. The Central Secretariat Director took part in conferences with the emperor alongside the directors of the Department of State Affairs and
4730-399: The institution of Chancellery was formalized. The Chancellery was led by a Director ( menxia shizhong 門下侍中), with assistance from a gentleman attendant at the palace gate ( Huangmen shilang 黃門侍郎 or jishi Huangmen shilang 給事黃門侍郎), later called Vice Director ( menxia shilang 門下侍郎). They were responsible for advising the emperor and providing consultation prior to the issuing of edicts. During
4816-399: The khagan, to the point of changing his orders. In the fall of 615, when Emperor Yang of Sui was visiting Yanmen Commandery on the northern frontier, the khagan launched a surprise attack on the area, overrunning most of its Chinese settlements. Warned by the khagan's wife Princess Yicheng — a member of the imperial family who had been well treated by Empress Xiao during an earlier visit —
4902-431: The list. The Directorate of Astronomy was added during the Song dynasty . The Central Secretariat originated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BC) to handle documents. The chief steward for writing ( shangshu 尚書), aided by eunuch secretary-receptionists ( zhongshu yezhe 中書謁者)), forwarded documents to the inner palace. This organization was headed by a Secretariat Director ( zhongshu ling 中書令) assisted by
4988-406: The local prefectural level, and each directly reported to their respective ministries in the central government. In addition to the Six Ministires, the Department of State Affairs was also in charge of the Nine Courts and Three Directorates. The Department of State Affairs was one of the largest employers in the government and provided income and posts for many officials. The institution lasted until
5074-399: The major public works initiated, such as the Great Wall and the Great Canal, but also the political system developed by Sui, which was adopted by Tang with little initial change other than at the top of the political hierarchy. Other cultural developments of the Sui dynasty included religion and literature, particular examples being Buddhism and poetry. Rituals and sacrifices were conducted by
5160-403: The massive conscription of labour and allocation of resources for the Grand Canal project resulted in challenges for Sui dynastic continuity. The eventual fall of the Sui dynasty was also due to the many losses caused by the failed military campaigns against Goguryeo. It was after these defeats and losses that the country was left in ruins and rebels soon took control of the government. Emperor Yang
5246-473: The mid-Tang period as it competed in political power with the Central Secretariat. Ultimately control over the flow and content of court documents shifted over to the Central Secretariat. By the 9th century, the Chancellery was only responsible for the imperial seals, court ceremonies and the imperial altars. Some of its officials took care of lists of state examinees and household registers of state officials, while others were assigned to resubmit documents. Many of
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#17328588594905332-419: The mid-Tang period the Grand Chancellors had regained their predominance, and Vice Directors of the department were required to have special designations to participate in policy making discussions. Thereafter the department became a purely executive institution. The six sections of government were formally divided into the Six Ministries, each headed by a Minister ( shangshu ). The six divisions were replicated at
5418-520: The military counteroffensive, but was only able to get the siege lifted after he followed the advice of the empress's brother Xiao Yu and sent messengers to Princess Yicheng, who was directing military affairs at the Turkic capital in her husband's absence. She falsely informed Shibi Khagan that the Turks were under attack from the north, and so the khagan lifted the siege. She was inherited by Chuluo Qaghan in 619, another step-son from her first marriage. Yicheng greeted Empress Xiao and Yang Zhengdao ,
5504-427: The most part, and when it was filled, it was by the heir apparent like Li Shimin (r. 626–649) or Li Shi (r. 779–804). To weaken the power of the Vice Director, who was de facto head of the institution, the position was divided into left and right Vice Directors, with the former being the senior. At times the Vice Directors were comparable in power with the Grand Chancellor and sometimes even superseded him. However, by
5590-399: The newly founded dynasty. With Emperor Wen's diplomatic manoeuvre, the Khaganate split into Eastern and Western halves. Later the Great Wall was consolidated to further secure the northern territory. In Emperor Wen's late years, the first war with Goguryeo , ended with defeat. Nevertheless, the celebrated "Reign of Kaihuang" (era name of Emperor Wen) was considered by historians as one of
5676-471: The personnel ranged from princes and high ranking family members to professional writers. The position and responsibilities of the Central Secretariat varied greatly in this period, sometimes even being put in charge of judicial and entertainment matters. The Central Secretariat was known by a variety of names during the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty . The Sui called it neishisheng (內史省) or neishusheng (內書省). Emperor Gaozong of Tang (r. 618–626) called it
5762-453: The rebellion that rose against it took many of China's able-bodied men from rural farms and other occupations, which in turn damaged the agricultural base and the economy further. Men would deliberately break their limbs in order to avoid military conscription , calling the practice "propitious paws" and "fortunate feet." Later, after the fall of Sui, in the year 642, Emperor Taizong of Tang made an effort to eradicate this practice by issuing
5848-475: The reign of Emperor Wen of Wei (r. 220–226), the Central Secretariat was formally created to draft imperial edicts and to balance out the powerful Department of State Affairs The office of the Chancellery was first instituted during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and carried on throughout the Northern and Southern Dynasties period (420–589), where it often became the most powerful office in the central government. The Department of State Affairs originated as one of
5934-430: The ruler was named "Taisson", which he claimed meant "Son of God", perhaps Chinese Tianzi ( Son of Heaven ) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong of Tang . Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618) ascended the throne after his father's death, possibly by murder. He further extended the empire, but unlike his father, did not seek to gain support from the nomads. Instead, he restored Confucian education and
6020-471: The same functions as the later three departments were already in existence. The Department of State Affairs originated in the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) in an archival capacity. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BC), the department's office was instituted as a channel of communications between the Emperor's advisors and the government as a whole. By the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220), an office of advisors and reviewers had also been set up. Under
6106-417: The secretary's office, the office for ministerial routine memorandums, and finally the proclamations archive. In 1129, the Chancellery was merged with the Central Secretariat and became the Secretariat-Chancellery ( zhongshu menxia 中書門下, shortened zhongshu 中書) or Administration Chamber ( zhengshitang ). The Chancellery was also used in the Liao dynasty and the Jurchen Jin dynasty . In the Jin dynasty, it
6192-426: The state counsellors there were four consultants ( canyi zhongshusheng shi 參議中書省事) responsible for paperwork and took part in decisions. The Central Secretariat controlled the Six Ministries and was thus functionally the heart of the government. The regions of what are now Shandong , Shanxi , Hebei and Inner Mongolia were directly subordinate to the Central Secretariat. In the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644),
6278-521: The sustained creation of good causation will carry us one and all up to wondrous enlightenment". Ultimately, this act was an imitation of the ancient Mauryan Emperor Ashoka of India . Confucian philosopher Wang Tong wrote and taught during the Sui dynasty, and even briefly held office as Secretary of Shuzhou. His most famous (as well as only surviving) work, the Explanation of the Mean (Zhongshuo, 中說)
6364-516: The term "Six Ministries" obsolete. The Nine Courts throughout most of history were: The Three Directorates, or sometimes five, were originally the Directorates of Waterways, Imperial Manufactories, and Palace Buildings. In the Sui dynasty , the Directorate of Armaments or Palace Domestic Service was sometimes counted as one. The Sui and Tang dynasties also added the Directorate of Education to
6450-572: The titles of Court Gentleman of the Chancellery ( menxia shilang 門下侍郎) and Grand Chancellor concurrently. Policy decisions were made by the Grand Chancellor before the edicts and documents were drafted and issued. In the Southern Song period (1127–1279), the Central Secretariat was merged with the Chancellery again. The Right Vice Director became Grand Chancellor of the Right while the Court Gentleman of
6536-500: Was a child. After crushing an army in the eastern provinces, Yang Jian usurped the throne from the Northern Zhou rulers, and became Emperor Wen of Sui . While formerly the Duke of Sui when serving at the Zhou court, where the character 隨 literally means 'to follow', implying loyalty, Emperor Wen created a unique character 隋 , morphed from that in his former title, as the name of his new dynasty. In
6622-637: Was also used by Balhae (698–926) and Goryeo (918–1392) and various other kingdoms in Manchuria, Korea and Vietnam. The Three Departments were three top-level administrative structures in imperial China. They were the Central Secretariat , responsible for drafting policy, the Chancellery , responsible for reviewing policy and advising the emperor, and the Department of State Affairs , responsible for implementing policy. The former two were loosely joined as
6708-461: Was assassinated in 618. He had gone South after the capital being threatened by various rebel groups and was killed by his Yuwen clan advisors. Meanwhile, in the North, the aristocrat Li Yuan ( 李淵 ) held an uprising after which he ended up ascending the throne to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang . There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in
6794-462: Was assisted by two Vice-Ministers or Secretaries ( Chinese : 侍郎 ; pinyin : shìláng ; Manchu : [REDACTED] ). Each ministry was divided into four bureaus ( si si 四司) responsible for local administration, each headed by a director ( langzhong 郎中), who was assisted by a vice director ( yuanwailang 員外郎). The Six Ministries structure was purely administrative. Sometimes they shared administrative duties with parallel structures such as
6880-465: Was compiled shortly after his death in 617. Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while others disappeared from the landscape, the brief Sui dynasty, in terms of the development of Chinese poetry, lacks distinction, though it nonetheless represents a continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang. Sui dynasty poets include Yang Guang (580–618), who
6966-647: Was during the late Six dynasties and Sui dynasty that local Chinese schools of Buddhist thoughts started to flourish. Most notably, Zhiyi founded the Tiantai school, and completed the Great treatise on Concentration and Insight , within which he taught the principle of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single moment of Life" as the essence of Buddhist teaching outlined in the Lotus Sutra . Emperor Wen and his empress had converted to Buddhism to legitimise imperial authority over China and
7052-502: Was eventually assassinated by his own ministers. Both Emperors Yang and Wen sent military expeditions into Vietnam as Annam in northern Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire over 600 years earlier during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). However the Kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam became a major counterpart to Chinese invasions to its north . According to Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais, these invasions became known as
7138-511: Was killed in confusion when Tang general Li Jing attacked the khagan's encampment with Li Shiji in March 630, during the Battle of Yinshan . Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( [swěɪ] , pinyin : Suí cháo ) was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to
7224-423: Was razed to the ground, while Sui troops escorted Chen nobles back north, where the northern aristocrats became fascinated with everything the south had to provide culturally and intellectually. Although Emperor Wen was famous for bankrupting the state treasury with warfare and construction projects, he made many improvements to infrastructure during his early reign. He established granaries as sources of food and as
7310-456: Was so enormous it recorded in historical texts that it took 30 days for all the armies to exit their last rallying point near Shanhaiguan before invading Goguryeo. In one instance the soldiers—both conscripted and paid—listed over 3000 warships, up to 1.15 million infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 5000 artillery, and more. The army stretched to 1000 li , or about 410 km (250 mi), across rivers and valleys, over mountains and hills. Each of
7396-451: Was the last Sui emperor (and a sort of poetry critic ); and also, the Lady Hou, one of his consorts. Three Departments and Six Ministries The Three Departments and Six Ministries ( Chinese : 三省六部 ; pinyin : Sān Shěng Liù Bù ) system was the primary administrative structure in imperial China from the Sui dynasty (581–618) to the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It
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