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66-634: The statue was discovered on April 20, 1863, during archaeological excavations directed by Giuseppe Gagliardi at the Villa of Livia owned by Augustus' third and final wife, Livia Drusilla in Prima Porta . Livia had retired to the villa after Augustus's death in AD ;14. The statue was discovered in 1863 and first publicized by the German archeologist Wilhelm Henzen in the same year. Crafted by skilled Greek sculptors,

132-569: A Parthian returning standards to a Roman, symbolizes peace along the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire. The statue stands 2.08 metres (6 ft 10 in) tall and weighs 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). The Augustus of Prima Porta is now displayed in the Braccio Nuovo (New Arm) of the Vatican Museums . Since its discovery, it has become the best known of Augustus' portraits and one of

198-455: A Roman, symbolizes peace along the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire. The fact that Augustus is depicted barefooted is intended to be a divine representation, as this was a standard depiction of gods or heroes in classical iconography. The date of the marble copy would presumably fall between that date and Livia's death in AD 29. The statue might have been commissioned by Tiberius, the son of Livia and successor to Augustus. This hypothesis

264-479: A civilian aspect to an otherwise military portrait. Being barefoot was only previously allowed on images of the gods, but it may also imply that the statue is a posthumous copy set up by Livia of a statue from the city of Rome in which Augustus was not barefoot. The small Cupid (son of Venus) at his feet (riding on a dolphin, Venus's patron animal) is a reference to the claim that the Julian family were descended from

330-475: A fear of lightning and often hid in 'an underground vaulted room', which she theorizes was likely the underground complex, particularly as during the time of Augustus laurels were thought to provide protection from lightning. Scholars who disagree with the theory have argued that although the pot remnants could have been used to plant laurel, such pots were also used for other plants such as lemons. They also state that according to an 1891 drawing made 25 years after

396-431: A hen with a laurel branch onto Livia's lap, which the religious authorities of Rome took as a sign of blessing and divinity. The plant was ordered to be planted with great religious care at what is now known as the villa surbana, where it grew into a grove. According to Jane Clark Reeder, when Julio-Claudians experienced military success they would take a laurel branch from the villa. The monumental memorial to Francis II ,

462-472: A laurel grove on the south-east corner of Prima Porta hill. Scholars have stated that the last one is relatively unconvincing compared with the first three. The theory that Augustus's statue was found in the underground complex of the villa is based on a hypothesis that Augustus holds a laurel branch instead of a spear in his left hand. Scholars have noted that if this hypothesis is correct, then Villa of Livia must have been decorated with laurel groves and that

528-484: A statue of the time is unfinished without its "chora"—skin—or layer, applied to the statue to render it complete. The specific implications of each color chosen for the Prima Porta are unknown; assumedly red for the military and royalty. The haircut is made up of divided, thick strands of hair, with a strand directly over the middle of Augustus's forehead framed by other strands over it. From the left two strands stray onto

594-416: Is based on the fact that Tiberius, who served as an intermediary in the recovery of the eagles, is also depicted on the cuirass. As this act was the greatest service he had performed for Augustus, the breastplate imagery would remind viewers of Tiberius's connection to the deified emperor and suggest continuity between both reigns. It is also possible that it was commissioned by Livia herself, Augustus's wife at

660-461: Is the Parthian king, implying that everything else is divinely desired and ordained. During his lifetime, Augustus did not wish to be depicted as a god (unlike the later emperors who embraced divinity), but this statue has many thinly-veiled references to the emperor's "divine nature", his genius . Augustus is shown barefoot, which indicates that he is a hero and perhaps even a divus, and also adds

726-521: Is the clear and rigorous transfer of unique features of the model, while still keeping the general style very similar. Unlike the ancient Greek portraits that strived for idealization (the Greeks believed that a good man must be beautiful), Roman portrait sculpture was far more natural and is still considered one of the most realistic samples of the genre in the history of art. Portraiture in Republican Rome

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792-436: Is the most famous example, became the prevailing representational style for him. This type was introduced around 27 BC to visually express the title Augustus and was copied full-length and in busts in various versions throughout the empire up until his death in AD 14. The copies never showed Augustus looking older, however, but represented him as forever young, in line with the aims of his propaganda, i.e. to display

858-455: Is thought to have connected the statue to a wall. This is likely due to the back being unfinished None of these interpretations are undisputed. The gods, however, probably all symbolize the continuity and logical consistency of the events - just as the sun and moon forever rise, so Roman successes are certain and divinely sanctioned. Furthermore, these successes are connected with the wearer of this breastplate, Augustus. The only active person

924-624: The Ara Pacis , for example. Another full-size statue of Augustus with these "Primaporta type" features is the Augustus of Via Labicana , portraying Augustus in the role of Pontifex Maximus, now in the Museo Nazionale Romano . The face is idealized, but not as those of Polykleitos ' statues. Augustus's face is not smoothed and shows details to indicate the individual features of Augustus. Art underwent important changes during Augustus's reign, with

990-620: The Palatine Hill in Rome. Remarkable frescoes of garden views were found which have since been removed to the Palazzo Massimo museum in Rome. The villa occupied the height dominating the view down the Tiber Valley to Rome. Some of the walling that retained the villa's terraces can still be seen. The location was strategically important due to the iron-rich cliffs of red tuff that approach

1056-540: The Palazzo Massimo . The vault above the fresco was covered with stucco reliefs, some of which survive. A new series of more meticulous modern excavations was initiated in 1970. More modern scientific work began at the site in 1995, carried out by the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma and directed by Professor Gaetano Messineo, in tandem with the Swedish Institute in Rome. The purpose and layout of

1122-493: The Via Flaminia . It may have been part of Livia Drusilla 's dowry that she brought when she married Octavian (later called the emperor Augustus ), her second husband, in 39 BC. However, it may also have been a gift given to her by Octavian upon their betrothal. The ancient sources (e.g. Suetonius) tell us that Livia returned to this villa following the marriage. It was her sumptuous country residence complementing her house on

1188-527: The patrician elite. Portrait sculpture from the Republican era tends to be somewhat more modest, realistic, and natural compared to early Imperial works. A typical work might be one like the standing figure "A Roman Patrician with Busts of His Ancestors" (c. 30 B.C.). By the imperial age, though they were often realistic depictions of human anatomy, portrait sculpture of Roman emperors were often used for propaganda purposes and included ideological messages in

1254-605: The Great himself. Such a statue's political function was very obvious—to show Rome that the emperor Augustus was an exceptional figure, comparable to the heroes worthy of being raised to divine status on Olympus, and the best man to govern Rome. It is almost certain that the Augustus was originally painted , but so few traces remain today (having been lost in the ground and having faded since discovery) that historians have had to fall back on old watercolors and new scientific investigations for evidence. Vincenz Brinkmann of Munich researched

1320-523: The Greeks. The apparent indifference toward perfection in physical appearance seems to have led to the eventual abandonment of realism altogether, as we see in the very late Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs . Development of the Roman portrait was associated with increased interest in the individual, with the expansion of the social circle portrayed. At the heart of the artistic structure of many Roman portraits

1386-644: The Imperial period includes works created throughout the provinces, often combining Greek, Roman, and local traditions, as with the Fayum mummy portraits . Hellenistic Greek style and leadership expectations carried over into Roman leadership portraiture. One significant example is the Severan Period marble portrait of the emperor Caracalla . Nearly all representations of Caracalla reflect his military prowess through his frighteningly aggressive expression. Caracalla borrowed

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1452-684: The Roman emperors became instruments of governmental propaganda, is a central part of the Augustan ideological campaign, a shift from the Roman Republican era iconography where old and wise features were seen as symbols of solemn character. Therefore, the Prima Porta statue marks a conscious reversal of iconography to the Greek classical and Hellenistic period, in which youth and strength were valued as signs of leadership, emulating heroes and culminating in Alexander

1518-485: The Villa Livia are important to the understanding of both the purpose and layout of the space. The Roman activity of "[d]ining was much more than the satisfaction of human need — it was a ritual of great social and political significance." In terms of layout, the room is underground and dimensionally 40 feet long by 20 feet wide. There are no separating moldings, no painted architecture, and no visible structural elements —

1584-447: The activities of the people are attached to the sides of the pillar. The pillar is flanked by four colossal statues symbolizing Faith, Strength, Peace and Justice. Various copies exist throughout other museums and public places. In German In Italian Villa of Livia The Villa of Livia ( Latin : Ad Gallinas Albas ) is an ancient Roman villa at Prima Porta , 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) north of Rome , Italy , along

1650-491: The atrium. As visitors would enter the atrium from the fauces at the northeastern corner, the statue would be the first thing that they would see and that they would view it from the left, which fits Kähler's idea that it should be seen from this position. When the visitor walked across the atrium their eyes would meet with Augustus's right hand, thus "receiving" the address that Augustus made. The story of gallina alba narrates that after Livia married Octavian an eagle dropped

1716-483: The authority of the Roman emperors through conventional styles and stories of the culture. At its best, in Roland R. R. Smith's view, this "type achieves a sort [of] visual paradox that might be described as mature, ageless, and authoritative youthfulness". The statue of Augustus of Prima Porta was discovered within the Villa of Livia in 1863, however little is known about the discovery itself and its immediate aftermath, as

1782-547: The centre, according to the most common interpretation, is the subjected Parthian king ( Phraates IV ) returning Crassus's standard to an armored Roman (possibly Tiberius , or symbolically Mars Ultor or the incarnation of the ideal legionary). Other theory sees in the male figure the ideal incarnation of the Roman legions. This was a very popular subject in Augustan propaganda, as one of his greatest international successes, and had to be especially strongly emphasized, since Augustus had been deterred by Parthian military strength from

1848-515: The chariot of the Sun illuminates Augustus's deeds. The statue is an idealized image of Augustus showing a standard pose of a Roman orator and based on the 5th-century BC statue of the Spear Bearer or Doryphoros by the sculptor Polykleitos . The Doryphoros' s contrapposto stance, creating diagonals between tense and relaxed limbs, a feature typical of classical sculpture, is adapted here. The pose of

1914-539: The distant and tranquil expression of his face has been idealized, as have the conventional contrapposto, the anatomical proportions and the deeply draped paludamentum or "cloth of the commander". On the other hand, Augustus's barefootedness and the inclusion of Cupid riding a dolphin as structural support for the statue reveals his mythical connection to the goddess Venus (Cupid's mother) by way of his adopted father Julius Caesar. The clear Greek inspiration in style and symbol for official sculptural portraits, which under

1980-614: The extreme realism that dominated the Republican era giving way to Greek influence, as seen in the portraits of the emperors - idealizations summarizing all the virtues that should be possessed by the exceptional man worthy of governing the Empire. In earlier portraits, Augustus allowed himself to be portrayed in monarchical fashion, but amended these with later more diplomatic images that represented him as " primus inter pares ". The head and neck were produced separately in Parian marble and inserted to

2046-404: The first excavation, Prima Porta Augustus was found at the bottom of the staircase leading to the underground complex, not the complex itself. Alan Klynne and Peter Liljenstolpe have further noted that the statue could have been brought to the basement from another location such as the atrium, where it would have stood on a rectangular structure that stands right on the axis against the south wall of

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2112-452: The forehead, and from the right three strands, a hairstyle first found on this statue. This hairstyle also marks this statue out as Augustus from comparison with his portrait on his coinage, which can also give a date to it. This particular hairstyle is used as the first sign identifying this portrait type of Augustus as the Prima Porta type, the second and most popular of three official portrait types: other hairstyles of Augustus may be seen on

2178-412: The goddess Venus , made by both Augustus and by his great uncle Julius Caesar - a way of claiming divine lineage without claiming the full divine status. The dolphin which Cupid rides has a political significance.  It suggests that Augustus has won the battle of Actium and defeated one of his primary rivals, Mark Antony. The Prima Porta-type of statues of Augustus, of which Augustus of Prima Porta

2244-401: The houses of male descendants in memory of the ancestors once they had passed. These masks served as a sort of family track record, and could get the descendants positions and perks, similar to a child of two alumni attending their alma mater . Republican Rome embraced imperfection in portraiture because they sought to embrace the individuality of each portrait sitter. Roman portraiture of

2310-471: The idea that monochromy is the natural condition for classical sculpture; but surface treatment is now recognized as integral to the overall effect of the sculpture. The writings of second-century polymath Lucian provide a good example of how color functioned for a work of that time, "I Fear I stand in the way of her most important feature!... the rest of the body let Apelles represent.. not too white but diffused with blood." The quote continues to state that

2376-449: The incomplete archaeological journals leave ambiguous evidence for modern historians. The statue was first publicized by the German archeologist Wilhelm Henzen in 1863 the Bulletino dell'Instituto di Corrispondenza Archaeologica . The exact location of the statue within the villa is unknown. Suggested sites are the underground complex, a placement near a staircase, the villa's atrium, or in

2442-574: The last Holy Roman emperor, was created by the sculptor Pompeo Marchesi at the behest of Emperor Ferdinand I and unveiled on June 16, 1846 in the inner courtyard of the Hofburg Palace in Vienna. It depicts the emperor on an octagonal pillar in the same pose as the Augustus, however wearing a toga and his head carrying a corona triumphalis , a laurel wreath with dangling ribbons. Bronze reliefs depicting

2508-412: The marble statue is believed to be a copy of a lost original bronze piece displayed in Rome. It blends Greek and Roman elements to craft an official image of Augustus, showcasing his grasp of visual influence. While the head portrays a realistic youthful Augustus, the body diverges from reality; despite its clothed form, it resembles the heroic stance found in Greek statues. The detailed armor, depicting

2574-419: The most famous sculptures of the ancient world. The imagery on the lorica musculata cuirass (typical of legates ) refers to the Parthian restitution of the Roman eagles, or insignia, in 20 BC, one of Augustus' most significant diplomatic accomplishments. The date of the (hypothetical) bronze original is therefore later than 20 BC. The detailed armor, depicting a Parthian returning standards to

2640-450: The one on the other side with an unsheathed sword personifies the subjected peoples (the Celts). From the top, clockwise, we see: The cuirass is not solely frontal; there is a backside to the armor as well. On the bottom right side of the back of the cuirass, there is a helmeted trophy with a wing above, a carnyx on the left hip, and greaves against a tree trunk. There was an iron peg that

2706-473: The original Prima Porta of Augustus and the painted recreation. However, due to the ongoing disagreement on the statue's pigmentation there is little information or exploration on the usage of these colors. Another copy was painted with a different color scheme for the Tarraco Viva 2014 Festival. Since at least the 18th century, the familiar sight of Roman sculptures that lack their original paint has encouraged

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2772-480: The pose, accoutrements, or costume of the figure. Since most emperors from Augustus on were deified, some images are idealized. In the portraiture of Augustus, for example the Blacas Cameo , he is always shown as a man of perhaps about 35, although some images were made when he was in his seventies, The Romans also depicted warriors and heroic adventures, in the spirit of the Greeks who came before them. The origin of

2838-436: The precedent Alexander set; the piercing gaze. His arresting confidence exudes from his features to show that he is not a man to be trifled with. The intense sculptural execution of this piece in particular reflects a shift toward more geometric renderings of the human face to better convey messages to the public, often strong implications of power and authority to keep peace in the Roman Empire. Emperors coming after Caracalla saw

2904-492: The previous emperors. Presenting variance in the appearance of the tetrarchs may have contributed to viewers favoring one ruler over the others. Instead, the Tetrarchy chose to show themselves as visually synonymous in this particular piece to show their ontological equality and show the unity and strength of the empire through this representation of all four together. Using near-identical geometric forms to represent their likenesses

2970-500: The realism of Roman portraiture . The reason for this style shift is the acquisition of Greek art. Following each conquest, the Romans brought back large amounts of Greek art. This flow of Greek artifacts changed Romans' aesthetic tastes, and these art pieces were regarded as a symbol of wealth and status for the Roman upper class. Despite the accuracy with which Augustus' features are depicted (with his somber look and characteristic fringe),

3036-577: The realism of Roman portraits may be, according to some scholars, because they evolved from wax death masks . These death masks were taken from bodies and kept in a home altar. Besides wax, masks were made from bronze, marble and terracotta. The molds for the masks were made directly from the deceased, giving historians an accurate representation of typically Roman features. In the days of the Republic, full-size statues of political officials and military commanders were often erected in public places. Such an honor

3102-451: The reason of the decoration is the omen of the gallina alba. Recent excavations have discovered the remnants of pots used to plant laurel on the edge of the Prima Porta hill in front of the underground complex, which Reeder believes suggests the possibility of the existence of laurel groves in the villa and makes it likely that the statue was located in the underground complex. She rationalized this by stating that per Suetonius, Augustus had

3168-432: The respect he commanded of his subordinate governing party as well as the Roman population as a whole. Seeing his success as a ruler, subsequent emperors sought to have portraits similar to Caracalla's to suggest that they were on the same level as him, both in terms of military tenacity and authoritarian control. This facilitated more and more geometric, less idealized figural representations of leaders to constantly emphasize

3234-461: The river Tiber at this point, the confluence of several roads, and the northern entrance to Rome. The name Prima Porta ("First Door") came from an arch of the aqueduct over the Via Flaminia, which brought water to the villa and which travelers saw as the first indication of having reached Rome. It was built and modified in four stages. The earliest stage is of a Republican date, the latest of

3300-439: The room unexpectedly transports the viewer "outside" in a completely enclosed underground space with a barrel-vaulted ceiling. The enclosure is striking because of the spatial play of the room itself with its illusionistic quality, there is incredible accuracy of plant species, and the variety provides a landscape that in reality cannot exist as one garden. A low stone wall contains the thickest and largest plantings, and in between

3366-594: The ruler's strength and image. This geometric style proved to be useful to the Roman Tetrarchs that divided rule of the empire among themselves after the reign of the emperors. The geometric style of the Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs is not realistic, but the style applied to all four figures sent a message of steadiness and agreements between the four rulers, reassuring Roman citizens while simultaneously sending an unmistakable message of power and authority reminiscent of

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3432-512: The site. On April 20 1863, the famous heroic marble statue of Augustus, the Augustus of Prima Porta , was found at the villa; it is now in the Vatican Museums ( Braccio Nuovo ). The magisterial Augustus is a marble copy of a bronze statue that celebrated the return in 20 BC of the military standards captured by the Parthians in 53 BC after the defeat of Crassus at Carrhae . In the 19th century,

3498-463: The statue's legs is similar to Doryphoros . The right leg is taut, while the left leg is relaxed, as if the statue is moving forward. The misidentification of the Doryphoros in the Roman period as representing the warrior Achilles made the model all the more appropriate for this image. Despite the Republican influence in the portrait head, the overall style is closer to Hellenistic idealization than to

3564-450: The time of Constantine the Great . Its Latin name, Villa Ad Gallinas Albas , referred to its breed of white chickens, which was said by Suetonius to have auspiciously omened origins. The site was rediscovered and explored as early as 1596, but it was not recognized as the Villa of Livia until the 19th century. In 1863–1864, a marble krater carved in refined low relief was discovered at

3630-404: The time of his death. Augustus is shown in his role of imperator , the commander of the army, as thoracatus —or commander-in-chief of the Roman army (literally, thorax -wearer)—meaning the statue should form part of a commemorative monument to his latest victories; he is in military clothing, carrying a consular baton and raising his right hand in a rhetorical adlocutio pose, addressing

3696-492: The torso. The statue's iconography is frequently compared to that of the carmen saeculare by Horace , and commemorates Augustus's establishment of the Pax Romana . The breastplate is carved in relief with numerous small figures depicting the return, thanks to the diplomacy of Augustus, of the Roman legionary eagles or aquilae lost to Parthia by Mark Antony in the 40s BC and by Crassus in 53 BC. The figure in

3762-406: The troops. The bas-reliefs on his armored cuirass have a complex allegorical and political agenda, alluding to diverse Roman deities, including Mars, god of war , as well as the personifications of the latest territories he conquered: Hispania , Gaul , Germania , Parthia (that had humiliated Crassus, and here appears in the act of returning the standards captured from his legions); at the top,

3828-600: The use of color on ancient sculpture in the 1980s using ultraviolet rays to find traces of color. Today, the Vatican Museums have produced a copy of the statue so as to paint it in the theorized original colors, as confirmed when the statue was cleaned in 1999. However, an art historian of the University of St Andrews in Scotland , Fabio Barry, has criticized this reconstitution as unsubtle and exaggerated, while other critics have argued that there are many notable differences between

3894-506: The viewer and the space rests another fence with a narrow grass walkway. The garden layout encompasses a "perfect combination of variety and abundance with stylization and order" as nature grows freely while simultaneous evidence of human activity is present, specifically as some birds exist in cages and a neatly manicured lawn is visible closest to the dining room space. [REDACTED] Media related to Villa di Livia (Rome) at Wikimedia Commons Roman portraiture Roman portraiture

3960-519: The villa belonged to the Convent of Santa Maria in Via Lata. The villa and gardens have been excavated and can be visited. There are three vaulted subterranean rooms, the largest of which contained superb illusionistic frescoes of garden views in which all the plants and trees flower and fruit at once. These have since been removed to Rome, where, following cleaning and restoration, they have been reinstalled in

4026-535: The war which the Roman people had expected and had instead opted for diplomacy. Below the armed figure we can see a dog, or probably a wolf or, according to archaeologist Ascanio Modena Altieri, a she-wolf , nurse of Romulus and Remus . To the left and right sit mourning female figures; the figure on the one side with a sheathed sword personifies the peoples in the East (and possibly the Teutons) forced to pay tribute to Rome, and

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4092-459: Was a way of establishing societal legitimacy and achieving status through one's family and background. Exploits wrought by one's ancestors earned them and their families public approbation, and more; a pompous state funeral paid for by the state. Wax masks would be cast from the family member while they were still living, which made for hyper-realistic visual representations of the individual literally lifted from their face. These masks would be kept in

4158-472: Was a way of showing confidence and of placing a value on strength and leadership above superficial beauty. This type of portraiture sought to show what mattered to the Romans; powerful character valued above appearances. Similarly to Greek rulers, Roman leaders borrowed recognizable features from the appearances of their predecessors. For instance, rulers coming after Alexander the Great copied his distinct hairstyle and intense gaze in their own portraits. This

4224-437: Was commonly practiced to suggest their likeness to them in character and their legitimacy to rule; in short, these fictitious additions were meant to persuade their subjects that they would be as great and powerful a leader as the previous ruler had been, even if they did not see eye to eye on all issues. Choosing to proudly display imperfections in portraiture was an early departure from the idealistic tradition handed down from

4290-630: Was one of the most significant periods in the development of portrait art. The surviving portraits of individuals are almost entirely sculptures, covering a period of almost five centuries. Roman portraiture is characterised by unusual realism and the desire to convey images of nature in the high quality style often seen in ancient Roman art . Some busts even seem to show clinical signs. Several images and statues made in marble and bronze have survived in small numbers. Roman funerary art includes many portraits such as married couple funerary reliefs , which were most often made for wealthy freedmen rather than

4356-510: Was provided by the decision of the Senate, usually in commemoration of victories, triumphs and political achievements. These portraits were usually accompanied by a dedicatory inscription. If the person commemorated with a portrait was found to have committed a crime, the portrait would be destroyed. Roman leaders favored the sense of civic duty and military ability over beauty in their portraiture. Veristic portraits, including arguably ugly features,

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