113-622: Emma Robarts (died 1 May 1877) was a British Christian activist who formed a group known as the Prayer Union . The organisation combined in 1877 with an organisation created by Mary Jane Kinnaird to form the Young Women's Christian Association . Robarts was the daughter of Nathaniel Robarts, a London woollen draper , and was one of six daughters, five of whom remained unmarried and lived together in Barnet, Hertfordshire. In 1855, she decided to form
226-568: A Government, by its very nature, must put in the place of the highest, eternal, religious law (not written in books but in the hearts of men, and binding on every one) its own unjust, man-made laws, the object of which is neither justice nor the common good of all but various considerations of home and foreign expediency. More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism . The foundation of Christian anarchism
339-504: A Roman aristocrat and a governor, it is clear that Ambrose retained the attitudes and practices of Roman governance even after becoming a bishop. His acts and writings show he was quite clear about the limits of imperial power over the church's internal affairs including doctrine, moral teaching, and governance. He wrote to Valentinian: "In matters of faith bishops are the judges of Christian emperors, not emperors of bishops." ( Epistle 21.4). He also famously said to an Arian bishop chosen by
452-465: A bit from place to place at this time, and as the bishop, Ambrose could have required that everyone adapt to his way of doing things. It was his place to keep the churches as united as possible in both ritual and belief. Instead, he respected local customs, adapting himself to whatever practices prevailed, instructing his mother to do the same. As bishop, Ambrose undertook many different labours in an effort to unite people and "provide some stability during
565-535: A brief extract from one of the three emperors ruling in 339, Constantine II , Constantius II , or Constans , in the Codex Theodosianus , book XI.5). What does seem certain is that Ambrose was born in Trier and his father was either the praetorian prefect or part of his administration. A legend about Ambrose as an infant recounts that a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind
678-569: A drop of honey. His father is said to have considered this a sign of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. Bees and beehives often appear in the saint's symbology . Ambrose's mother was a woman of intellect and piety. It was probable that she was a member of the Roman family Aurelii Symmachi , which would make Ambrose a cousin of the orator Quintus Aurelius Symmachus . The family had produced one martyr (the virgin Soteris ) in its history. Ambrose
791-557: A duty to participate in politics to improve the world. The Catholic Church does not officially take political stances and encourages followers to come to their own political decisions, but it also states that these decisions must be made in accordance with natural law . The Catholic Church in the United States has sought to discipline Catholic politicians that take pro-choice stances on abortion , most notably President Joe Biden . Conservative, moderate, and liberal Catholics all have
904-590: A group that could pray for other women. The first group consisted of 23 Christian women who met in Barnet in Middlesex . The idea of offering prayers was popular and within four years, there were brackets throughout the United Kingdom . Robarts intended to appeal to all classes of women in order that their combined prayers could provide for the "eternal salvation" of other young women. The group had initially called themselves
1017-399: A large number of books and letters of theology and spiritual commentary dedicated to the emperor. The sheer volume of these writings and the effusive praise they contain has led many historians to conclude that Gratian was dominated by Ambrose, and it was that dominance that produced Gratian's anti-pagan actions. McLynn asserts that effusive praises were common in everyone's correspondence with
1130-473: A major presence in the United States. Catholics historically have had a wide variety of positions on issues of war and peace. The historical peace churches are now the chief exponents of Christian pacifism , but this was an issue that first came to light during the Roman Empire. Soldiers in the Roman military who converted to Roman Catholicism were among the first who had to face these issues. Catholics in
1243-457: A martyr and create a scandal embarrassing the emperor. Ambrose, referring to a prior incident where Magnus Maximus issued an edict censuring Christians in Rome for burning down a Jewish synagogue, warned Theodosius that the people, in turn, exclaimed "the emperor has become a Jew", implying that Theodosius would receive the same lack of support from the people. Theodosius rescinded the order concerning
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#17328488899991356-472: A pagan senator sentenced to die. After years of acquaintance, this indicates that Ambrose could not take for granted that Gratian would see him, so instead, Ambrose had to resort to such manoeuvrings to make his appeal. Gratian was personally devout long before meeting Ambrose. Modern scholarship indicates Gratian's religious policies do not evidence capitulation to Ambrose more than they evidence Gratian's own views. Gratian's devotion did lead Ambrose to write
1469-408: A period of religious, political, military, and social upheavals and transformations". Brown says Ambrose "had the makings of a faction fighter". While he got along well with most people, Ambrose was not averse to conflict and even opposed emperors with a fearlessness born of self-confidence and a clear conscience and not from any belief he would not suffer for his decisions. Having begun his life as
1582-498: A personal friendship, putting Ambrose in the dominant role of spiritual guide, but modern scholars now find this view hard to support from the sources. The ancient Christian historian Sozomen ( c. 400 – c. 450 ) is the only ancient source that shows Ambrose and Gratian together in any personal interaction. In that interaction, Sozomen relates that, in the last year of Gratian's reign, Ambrose intruded on Gratian's private hunting party in order to appeal on behalf of
1695-485: A representation of actual history. The view of a pious Theodosius submitting meekly to the authority of the church, represented by Ambrose, is part of the myth that evolved within a generation of their deaths. In April 393 Arbogast ( magister militum of the West) and his puppet Emperor Eugenius marched into Italy to consolidate their position against Theodosius I and his son, Honorius , now appointed Augustus to govern
1808-405: A substantial collection of writings, of which the best known include the ethical commentary De officiis ministrorum (377–391), and the exegetical Exameron [ it ] (386–390). His preaching, his actions and his literary works, in addition to his innovative musical hymnography, made him one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. Ambrose was serving as
1921-521: A theological and a practical level, and Ambrose exercised crucial influence at a crucial time. Ambrose had good relations and varying levels of influence with the Roman emperors Gratian , Valentinian II and Theodosius I , but exactly how much influence, what kind of influence, and in what ways, when, has been debated in the scholarship of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. It has long been convention to see Gratian and Ambrose as having
2034-403: A visit to Milan. The bishop made a good impression on Gratian and his court, which was pervasively Christian and aristocratic – much like Ambrose himself. The emperor returned to Milan in 380 to find that Ambrose had complied with his request for a statement of his faith – in two volumes – known as De Fide : a statement of orthodoxy and of Ambrose' political theology, as well as a polemic against
2147-717: Is remembered in the calendar of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church on 7 December, and is also honoured in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 7 December. In 1960, Neil B. McLynn wrote a complex study of Ambrose that focused on his politics and was intended to "demonstrate that Ambrose viewed community as a means to acquire personal political power". Subsequent studies of how Ambrose handled his episcopal responsibilities, his Nicene theology and his dealings with
2260-597: Is a frequently mentioned interpretation of the Book of Daniel , frequently interpreted by secular scholars as a second-century diatribe against Antiochus IV Epiphanes , who persecuted the Jews and provoked the revolt of the Maccabees . The Book of Revelation contains even more vehement imagery, which many secular scholars believe was directed against the Roman empire. The empire, or the city of Rome itself, are identified by these scholars as
2373-498: Is a rejection of violence, with Leo Tolstoy 's The Kingdom of God Is Within You regarded as a key text. Tolstoy takes the viewpoint that all governments who wage war, and churches who in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles of nonviolence and nonresistance . Christians have interpreted Romans 13:1–7 to mean they should support the state and wield
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#17328488899992486-566: Is difficult "not to posit a deep spirituality in a man" who wrote on the mystical meanings of the Song of Songs and wrote many extraordinary hymns. Despite an abiding spirituality, Ambrose had a generally straightforward manner, and a practical rather than a speculative tendency in his thinking. De Officiis is a utilitarian guide for his clergy in their daily ministry in the Milanese church rather than "an intellectual tour de force ". Christian faith in
2599-635: Is involved with the politics of the Republican Party in the United States. Lutheranism is influential in the politics of the Nordic countries . The Church of Denmark , the Church of Iceland , and the Church of Norway are all Lutheran state churches, while the Church of Sweden was a state church until 2000. Calvinism was the official religion of the Netherlands while the Dutch Reformed Church
2712-411: Is required that our patients may be induced to submit willingly to the treatment prescribed by the physicians, and not only this, but that they may be grateful also for the cure. For if any one when he is bound becomes restive (which it is in his power to be), he makes the mischief worse; and if he should pay no heed to the words which cut like steel, he inflicts another wound by means of this contempt, and
2825-842: Is typically limited. Conservatism in Europe and the Americas is heavily influenced by Christianity. The Christian right within evangelical Christianity has formed many of its political views on social issues such as abortion , homosexuality and public education from passages in both the Old Testament and the New Testament . In the Epistle to the Romans , chapter 13:1-7, Paul instructs Roman Christians to submit to government. See also 1 Peter 2:13-17 and Titus 3:1 for parallels. Mainstream theologians and
2938-650: The Antichrist . Anglicanism was developed when King Henry VIII established the Church of England as the state church of the Kingdom of England. The Church of England is still closely involved in British politics and disputes sometimes take place over its role. The Hawaiian Kingdom also had an Anglican church as its official state church, the Church of Hawaii in the late 19th century. Southern Baptism leans heavily conservative and
3051-852: The Baltic Sea area (1147-1410). In Spain , the Crusader mindset continued for several centuries after the last crusade in the Middle East, in the form of the Reconquista , a series of wars (711-1492) fought to recover the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors . The Reformation caused a political backlash in the Holy Roman Empire. In response, the Diet of Worms was assembled, and promotion of Lutheranism
3164-544: The Christian left have interpreted passages in Acts to mean that an ideal society would be based on Christian socialism or Christian communism . However, passages that have far greater influence for Christians who actively care for the poor are the words of Jesus, usually found in red in most bibles, which appear to give priority to the poor as a Christian obligation. There are some intentional Christian communities that, inspired by
3277-497: The Christian right have interpreted Romans 13:1–7 to mean Christians should support the state and wield the sword when necessary, as God has instituted the idea of governments to be his main tool to preserve social order. The first Jewish Christian communities, as described in the Acts of the Apostles , were organized along a principle of communal ownership of goods. Some expressions of
3390-556: The Crimean War but which had widened its base to provide housing for Christian women. They merged their organisations to form what would become the Young Women's Christian Association . The founding date of the YWCA has been given as 1876 or 1877. Kinnaird and Robarts had met in 1876 and an agreement was made in January 1877. Robarts died on 1 May 1877, before the merger was announced at the end of
3503-527: The Edict of Thessalonica , a decree addressed to the city of Constantinople , determining that only Christians who did not support Arian views were catholic and could have their places of worship officially recognized as "churches". The Edict opposed Arianism , and attempted to establish unity in Christianity and to suppress heresy. German ancient historian Karl Leo Noethlichs [ de ] writes that
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3616-783: The Fatherland Front in Austria, the Iron Guard in Romania, and the Rexist Party in Belgium. Ambrose Ambrose of Milan ( Latin : Aurelius Ambrosius ; c. 339 – 4 April 397), venerated as Saint Ambrose , was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promoting Roman Christianity against Arianism and paganism . He left
3729-517: The Radical Reformation and Jacoub Hutter, but respect and adhere to government authority. The Bruderhof , another church community in the Anabaptist tradition, respects the god-given authority of the state, while acknowledging that their ultimate allegiance is to God. Separation of church and state is a prominent idea in liberalism , so direct influence of Christianity in liberal politics
3842-575: The Roman governor of Aemilia - Liguria in Milan when he was unexpectedly made Bishop of Milan in 374 by popular acclamation. As bishop, he took a firm position against Arianism and attempted to mediate the conflict between the emperors Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus . Tradition credits Ambrose with developing an antiphonal chant, known as Ambrosian chant , and for composing the " Te Deum " hymn, though modern scholars now reject both of these attributions. Ambrose's authorship on at least four hymns, including
3955-533: The Roman imperial authorities. At least to outward appearances, Jesus was at the periphery of political life and power in the Roman province of Judea . The Catholic Church is deeply intertwined with the history of European politics. It developed alongside the status of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire and persisted through the Middle Ages as one of the most powerful political forces in Europe. In 2015, Pope Francis stated that Catholics have
4068-573: The Western and Eastern empires. Although the western Emperor Gratian ( r. 367–383 ) supported orthodoxy, his younger half brother Valentinian II , who became his colleague in the empire in 375, adhered to the Arian creed. Ambrose sought to refute Arian propositions theologically, but Ambrose did not sway the young prince's position. In the East, Emperor Theodosius I ( r. 379–395 ) likewise professed
4181-555: The Whore of Babylon , and the Roman emperor becomes the Beast or Antichrist . Both divine punishment and economic and military catastrophe are prophesied against " Babylon ", which most scholars agree is John's code name for Rome. No call to arms is contained within the Christian apocalypse. Instead, the calamities that doom the oppressive regime represented by these allegorical figures are expected from divine intervention alone. Nevertheless, if
4294-728: The fall of the Western Roman Empire , the Pope effectively served as the political leader of the region. The Byzantine Empire continued to be the center of the church in the East. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III as the Emperor of the Romans, establishing a precedent of interdependence of the church with the Carolingian Empire , and eventually, the Holy Roman Empire . The church also maintained strong influence over
4407-527: The libertarian philosophy . The governing maxim for many natural-rights libertarians , including those of faith, is the non-aggression principle , which forbids the initiation of force but does not preclude the restrained, proportional use of defensive or disciplinary violence against the initiator. It has been compared to the Golden Rule and its converse, the Silver Rule . Christian libertarians often defend
4520-537: The "Young Women's Christian Association" echoing the YMCA which had been formed in 1844, however in 1855, they settled on the name of the "Prayer Union". By 1872, there were 130 branches in Britain supplying Bible study, group prayer and social events. There were a few places where women could stay. Robarts met Mary Jane Kinnaird who had also created an organisation in 1855 to provide accommodation for nurses travelling to and from
4633-592: The Arian heresy – intended for public discussion. The emperor had not asked to be instructed by Ambrose, and in De Fide Ambrose states this clearly. Nor was he asked to refute the Arians. He was asked to justify his own position, but in the end, he did all three. It seems that by 382 Ambrose had replaced Ausonius to become a major influence in Gratian's court. Ambrose had not yet become the "conscience" of kings he would in
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4746-453: The Arians challenged the succession . Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place to prevent an uproar which seemed probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call, "Ambrose, bishop!", which was taken up by the whole assembly. Ambrose, though known to be Nicene Christian in belief, was considered acceptable to Arians due to the charity he had shown concerning their beliefs. At first, he energetically refused
4859-493: The Arians in his episcopate, his pastoral care, his commitment to community, and his personal asceticism, have mitigated this view. All of Ambrose's writings are works of advocacy for Nicene Christianity, and even his political views and actions were closely related to his religion. He was rarely, if ever, concerned about simply recording what had happened; he did not write to reveal his inner thoughts and struggles; he wrote to advocate for his God. Boniface Ramsey writes that it
4972-584: The Balkans when his uncle and the "cream of the eastern army" were destroyed at Adrianople. Gratian withdrew to Sirmium and set up his court there. Several rival groups, including the Arians, sought to secure benefits from the government at Sirmium. In an Arian attempt to undermine Ambrose, whom Gratian had not yet met, Gratian was "warned" that Ambrose's faith was suspect. Gratian took steps to investigate by writing to Ambrose and asking him to explain his faith. Ambrose and Gratian first met, after this, in 379 during
5085-466: The Christian values of returning good for evil , Christian anarchists neither support, nor participate in, the state. Christian eschatology and various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul , have identified the State and political power as the Beast in the Book of Revelation . Apocalyptic texts frequently coach radical criticism of existing regimes under the form of allegory ; this, at least,
5198-432: The Church in 1298. He is considered a saint by the Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , Anglican Communion , and various Lutheran denominations, and venerated as the patron saint of Milan and beekeepers . Legends about Ambrose had spread through the empire long before his biography was written, making it difficult for modern historians to understand his true character and fairly place his behaviour within
5311-499: The Church's societal roles may be to promote righteousness in service and humble obedience to God, equal liberty is the highest or only political value. The state's raison d'être is to prevent rights violations, to quarantine or punish justly, and ideally to restore offenders so they can again peaceably dwell and participate in civil society . After the onset of fascism in the 1920s and 1930s, several fascist movements adopted Christian ideas. Notable Christian fascist movements include
5424-597: The Edict of Thessalonica was neither anti-pagan nor antisemitic ; it did not declare Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; and it gave no advantage to Christians over other faiths. Liebeschuetz and Hill indicate that it was not until after 388, during Theodosius' stay in Milan following the defeat of Maximus in 388, that Theodosius and Ambrose first met. After the Massacre of Thessalonica in 390, Theodosius made an act of public penance at Ambrose's behest. Ambrose
5537-481: The Frankish general Arbogast to keep an eye on the young emperor. By May of the following year, Arbogast's ward was dead amidst rumours of both treachery and suicide... While Ambrose was writing De Fide , Theodosius published his own statement of faith in 381 in an edict establishing Nicene Catholic Christianity as the only legitimate version of the Christian faith. There is unanimity amongst scholars that this represents
5650-503: The Nicene creed; but there were many adherents of Arianism throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this state of religious ferment, two leaders of the Arians, bishops Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum , confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that Gratian complied without hesitation. However, Ambrose feared
5763-603: The Roman military had to confront a number of issues, that go beyond the obvious one about whether war could be reconciled with the Christian religion. Paganism saturated Roman military institutions. Idols of the Greco-Roman gods appeared on the legionary standards. Military service involved oaths of loyalty that might contradict Catholic teachings even if they did not invoke pagan gods. The duties of Roman military personnel included law enforcement as well as defense, and as such Roman soldiers were sometimes obliged to participate in
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#17328488899995876-543: The Son , indicating that the Son was a lesser being who was not eternal and of a different "essence" from God the Father. This Christology , though contrary to tradition, quickly spread through Egypt, Libya and other Roman provinces. Bishops engaged in the dispute, and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other. Arianism appealed to many high-level leaders and clergy in both
5989-418: The State's influence." Ambrose was also well aware of the limits of his power. At the height of his career as a venerable, respected and well-loved bishop in 396, imperial agents marched into his church, pushing past him and his clergy who had crowded the altar to protect a political suspect from arrest, and dragged the man from the church in front of Ambrose who could do nothing to stop them. "When it came to
6102-536: The authority of government, as government authority is instituted by the authority of God. The Hebrew Bible contains a complex chronicle of the Kings of Israel and Judah , written over the course of many generations by authors whose relationships and intimacy with the rulers of the several kingdoms fluctuated widely in both intimacy and respect. Some historical passages of the Hebrew Bible contain intimate portrayals of
6215-491: The benefit of others, constitutes a violation of his or her human dignity as an image-bearer of God. Thus, most forms of taxation and all laws that prevent or distort free and nonviolent exchange are unacceptable. The classical doctrine of original or ancestral sin furthermore suggests to Christian libertarians that political (and for some left-libertarians , economic) power ought to be democratically distributed and decentralized to guard against government oppression and
6328-507: The bishop, as a divine representative, as guardian of his god's property. Subsequently, while Ambrose was performing the Liturgy of the Hours in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give it up to the Arians. Ambrose again refused. Certain deans (officers of the court) were sent to take possession of the basilica by hanging upon it imperial escutcheons. Instead, soldiers from
6441-423: The bishop. That was not enough for Ambrose, however, and when Theodosius next visited Milan Ambrose confronted him directly in an effort to get him to drop the entire case. McLynn argues that Ambrose failed to win the emperor's sympathy and was mostly excluded from his counsels thereafter. The Callinicum affair was not an isolated incident. Generally speaking, however, while McLynn says it makes Ambrose look like
6554-485: The books are properly read in this way, they seem to evidence deep hostility to the Roman government, no doubt a reaction to the persecution of Christians by the Roman state. An emerging tradition of political thought, Christian libertarians maintain that state intervention to promote piety or generosity can be unethical and counterproductive. Coercion by threat of violence robs otherwise moral acts of their virtue, inspires resentment and disrespect even for just laws on
6667-526: The central functions of the Roman state, even the vivid Ambrose was a lightweight". Ambrose is recorded on occasions as taking a hostile attitude towards Jews, for example in 388, when the Emperor Theodosius I was informed that a crowd of Christians had retaliated against the local Jewish community by destroying the synagogue at Callinicum on the Euphrates . The synagogue most probably existed within
6780-424: The church exercising influence over the kingdoms were the Crusades , when it called the Christian kingdoms to arms to fight religious wars . Some Crusades aimed to recover and secure Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims (1095-1291); other Crusades attacked the Cathari (1209-1229), and the Teutonic Knights and their supporters fought against non-Catholics (including Eastern Orthodox Christians ) in
6893-414: The church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it." By Thursday, the emperor gave in, bitterly responding: "Soon, if Ambrose gives the orders, you will be sending me to him in chains." In 386, Justina and Valentinian II received the Arian bishop Auxentius
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#17328488899997006-407: The city (the Basilica of the Apostles), the other in the suburbs (St Victor's). Ambrose refused to surrender the churches. He answered by saying that "What belongs to God, is outside the emperor's power." In this, Ambrose called on an ancient Roman principle: a temple set apart to a god became the property of that god. Ambrose now applied this ancient legal principle to the Christian churches, seeing
7119-478: The consequences and prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. Accordingly, a synod composed of thirty-two bishops was held at Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined. A vote was then taken and Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from their episcopal offices. Ambrose struggled with Arianism for over half of his term in
7232-411: The context of antiquity. Most agree he was the personification of his era. This would make Ambrose a genuinely spiritual man who spoke up and defended his faith against opponents, an aristocrat who retained many of the attitudes and practices of a Roman governor , and also an ascetic who served the poor. Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family in the year 339. Ambrose himself wrote that he
7345-409: The crown. He adds that Gratian's actions were determined by the constraints of the system as much as "by his own initiatives or Ambrose's influence". McLynn asserts that the largest influence on Gratian's policy was the profound change in political circumstances produced by the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Gratian had become involved in fighting the Goths the previous year and had been on his way to
7458-416: The emperor's own beliefs. The aftermath of the death (378) of Valens (Emperor in the East from 364 to 378) had left many questions for the church unresolved, and Theodosius' edict can be seen as an effort to begin addressing those questions. Theodosius' natural generosity was tempered by his pressing need to establish himself and to publicly assert his personal piety. On 28 February 380, Theodosius issued
7571-447: The emperor, "The emperor is in the church, not over the church." ( Sermon Against Auxentius , 36). Ambrose's acts and writings "created a sort of model which was to remain valid in the Latin West for the relations of the Church and the Christian State. Both powers stood in a basically positive relationship to each other, but the innermost sphere of the Church's life--faith, the moral order, ecclesiastical discipline--remained withdrawn from
7684-400: The episcopate. Ecclesiastical unity was important to the church, but it was no less important to the state, and as a Roman, Ambrose felt strongly about that. Conflict over heresies loomed large in an age of religious ferment comparable to the Reformation of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Orthodox Christianity was determining how to define itself as it faced multiple challenges on both
7797-445: The family moved to Rome. There Ambrose studied literature , law , and rhetoric . He then followed in his father's footsteps and entered public service. Praetorian Prefect Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus first gave him a place as a judicial councillor, and then in about 372 made him governor of the province of Liguria and Emilia , with headquarters in Milan. In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius , an Arian, died, and
7910-486: The first Christian church as described in Acts 2 and 4, share all their possessions in an effort to put into action Christ's command to love God and neighbour. The Simple Way , the Bruderhof communities , and the Hutterites are all inspired, to some degree, by the model of church community described in Acts. More common expressions of Christian love and commitment to the poor are churches of all denominations that fund localised soup kitchens, charity shops and shelters for
8023-420: The fortified town to serve the soldiers stationed there, and Theodosius ordered that the offenders be punished and that the synagogue be rebuilt at the expense of the bishop. Ambrose wrote to the emperor arguing against this, basing his argument on two assertions: first, if the bishop obeyed the order, it would be a betrayal of his faith, and second, if the bishop instead refused to obey the order, he would become
8136-417: The governing of cities. Origen confirms this description and adds that Christians do more for the good of the empire by forming an "army of piety" that prays for the well-being of the emperor and the safety of the empire. It has been argued that Christianity made a significant positive contribution to the development of modern democracy. Christianity dominated European politics in the Middle Ages. During
8249-461: The homeless as well as mission programs overseas. In Roman Catholic circles the doctrine of preference for the poor has been important since 1979 and it still drives the church's practice of hospitality to those in any kind of need. Not only does the action of Governments not deter men from crimes; on the contrary, it increases crime by always disturbing and lowering the moral standard of society. Nor can this be otherwise, since always and everywhere
8362-496: The inner workings of the royal households of Saul , David and Solomon . The accounts of subsequent monarchs are frequently more distanced and less detailed and frequently begin with the judgment that the monarch "did evil in the sight of the Lord". The Christian New Testament instead begins with the story of Jesus , crucified as a criminal who had offended both the Jewish priesthood and
8475-464: The institution of private property by pointing to the many Biblical injunctions against theft, to the voluntary nature of faith and the sharing of goods in early Christian communities, and to the fact that Jesus never advocated the redistribution of income and wealth by political means. According to Christian libertarianism, to seize the life, liberty, or legitimately acquired property of an individual by coercion, even for that person's well-being or for
8588-504: The intention to heal only becomes the occasion of a worse disorder. For it is not possible for any one to cure a man by compulsion against his will. While Christian libertarians disagree over whether and to what extent agents of the state possess the moral authority to intervene in the lives of citizens, government involvement is generally viewed with skepticism and suspicion. As with the Christian left, war and nation-building are common targets of ethical scrutiny from Christians espousing
8701-562: The lasting enmity of Valentinian II's mother, the Empress Justina , in the winter of 379 by helping to appoint a Nicene bishop in Sirmium. Not long after this, Valentinian II, his mother, and the court left Sirmium; Sirmium had come under Theodosius' control, so they went to Milan which was ruled by Gratian. In 383 Gratian was assassinated at Lyon , in Gaul (France) by Magnus Maximus . Valentinian
8814-437: The late-twentieth century. McLynn argues that Theodosius's anti-pagan legislation was too limited in scope for it to be of interest to the bishop. The fabled encounter at the door of the cathedral in Milan, with Ambrose as the mitred prelate braced, blocking Theodosius from entering, which has sometimes been seen as evidence of Ambrose' dominance over Theodosius, has been debunked by modern historians as "a pious fiction". There
8927-472: The later 380s, but he did speak out against reinstating the Altar of Victory . In 382, Gratian was the first to divert public financial subsidies that had previously supported Rome's cults. Before that year, contributions in support of the ancient customs had continued unchallenged by the state. The childless Gratian had treated his younger brother Valentinian II like a son. Ambrose, on the other hand, had incurred
9040-490: The law, show their authority to be great, and prevent them even against their will from following their own devices: but in our case the wrong-doer must be made better, not by force, but by persuasion. For neither has authority of this kind for the restraint of sinners been given us by law, nor, if it had been given, should we have any field for the exercise of our power, inasmuch as God rewards those who abstain from evil by their own choice, not of necessity. Consequently much skill
9153-483: The name of the Holy Roman Empire bears witness to its claims to sanctity as well as to universal rule. An apocryphal apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius , written during the seventh century, depicts a saintly Last Roman Emperor who holds his earthly kingdom in anticipation of Christ's return. According to Pseudo-Methodius, the Last Emperor will wage war in the last days against God's enemies, including Gog and Magog and
9266-459: The natural human tendency to corruption. In opposition to centralized political authority, Christian libertarians frequently cite the eighth chapter of the Biblical book of 1 Samuel (1 Kings LXX ), in which God tells the prophet Samuel that the children of Israel have rejected Him by demanding a king to reign over them, and He describes the many ways such a king will oppress the people. While one of
9379-536: The now Catholic Empire with the Church militant . The Latin word Christianitas originally meant the body of all Christians conceived as a political body, or the territory of the globe occupied by Christians, something akin to the English word Christendom . Apocalyptic texts were reinterpreted. The idea of a Christian empire continued to play a powerful role in Western Europe even after the collapse of Roman rule there;
9492-461: The office of bishop, for which he felt he was in no way prepared: Ambrose was a relatively new Christian who was not yet baptized nor formally trained in theology . Ambrose fled to a colleague's home, seeking to hide. Upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals worthy of holy positions, Ambrose's host gave him up. Within a week, he
9605-482: The other kingdoms of Europe. Secular rulers would support missionary efforts in order to enlarge their realms. Bishops and abbots were not only church leaders, but often also large land-owning princes and thus vassals of secular feudal lords. The line dividing church and state interests was not always clear. The church also ruled its own territory directly in the form of the Papal States . The most notable instances of
9718-454: The part of the coerced, and has a spiritually deleterious effect upon the coercers. As John Chrysostom , late 4th-century Church Father and Archbishop of Constantinople , writes in his work On the Priesthood (Book II, Section 3), For Christians above all men are not permitted forcibly to correct the failings of those who sin. Secular judges indeed, when they have captured malefactors under
9831-441: The persecution of Christians themselves. Sexual licentiousness was considered to be a moral hazard to which military personnel were exposed. See Imperial cult (ancient Rome) . The conversion of Constantine I transformed the relationship of the Christian churches with the Roman military even as it transformed the relationship of the churches with the Roman state. A strongly contrary idea, sometimes called " caesaropapism ", identified
9944-611: The plate of the church melted for the relief of the poor. After defeating the usurper Maximus at Aquileia in 388 Theodosius handed the western realm back to the young Valentinian II, the seventeen-year-old son of the forceful and hardy Pannonian general Valentinian I and his wife, the Arian Justina. Furthermore, the Eastern emperor remained in Italy for a considerable period to supervise affairs, returning to Constantinople in 391 and leaving behind
10057-505: The power to do so, and probably did not solely because of Ambrose's popularity with the people and what they might do. When Magnus Maximus usurped power in Gaul (383) and was considering a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him, and the embassy was successful (384). A second, later embassy was unsuccessful. Magnus Maximus entered Italy (386–387) and Milan was taken. Justina and her son fled, but Ambrose remained and had
10170-431: The ranks the emperor had placed around the basilica began pouring into the church, assuring Ambrose of their fidelity. The escutcheons outside the church were removed, and legend says the children tore them to shreds. Ambrose refused to surrender the basilica, and sent sharp answers back to his emperor: "If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray
10283-546: The relationship between Christianity and politics , with many arguing that Christianity directly supports a particular political ideology or philosophy. Along these lines, various thinkers have argued for Christian communism , Christian socialism , Christian nationalism , Christian anarchism , Christian libertarianism , Christian democracy , the divine right of kings , or tsarist autocracy . Others believe that Christians should have little interest or participation in politics or government, or none at all. Early Christianity
10396-482: The separation is absolute and the church has no right to interfere in the affairs of the state any more than the state in the church. This viewpoint is still held by the most religiously conservative Anabaptist groups, such as the Amish , Old Order Mennonites , Conservative Mennonites , and Old Order River Brethren . Not all Anabaptist churches subscribe to anarchist ideologies. The Hutterite church traces its roots back to
10509-406: The sword when requested, as God has sanctified the state to be his main tool to preserve social order. Christian anarchists do not share this interpretation of Romans 13 but given Paul's declaration to submit to authorities they do not attempt to overthrow the state. However anarchists still describe the state as an evil power executing wrath and vengeance . As wrath and vengeance are opposite to
10622-510: The third century developed the monastic lifestyle which subsequently spread into the rest of Roman society in a general practice of virginity, voluntary poverty and self-denial for religious reasons. This lifestyle was embraced by many new converts, including Ambrose, even though they did not become actual monks. The bishops of this era had heavy administrative responsibilities, and Ambrose was also sometimes occupied with imperial affairs, but he still fulfilled his primary responsibility to care for
10735-536: The two are less about personal friendship than they are about negotiations between two formidable leaders of the powerful institutions they represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church. Cameron says there is no evidence that Ambrose was a significant influence on the emperor. For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. This view
10848-498: The undisputed possession of the Roman Empire , Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and Ambrose gave the eulogy. Two years later (4 April 397) Ambrose also died. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician . Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of Saint Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated – along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Saints Gervase and Protase . Ambrose
10961-498: The well-being of his flock. He preached and celebrated the Eucharist multiple times a week, sometimes daily, and dealt directly with the needs of the poor, as well as widows and orphans, "virgins" (nuns), and his own clergy. He replied to letters personally, practised hospitality, and made himself available to the people. Ambrose had the ability to maintain good relationships with all kinds of people. Local church practices varied quite
11074-599: The well-known " Veni redemptor gentium ", is secure; they form the core of the Ambrosian hymns , which includes others that are sometimes attributed to him. He also had a notable influence on Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whom he helped convert to Christianity. Western Christianity identified Ambrose, along with Augustine , Jerome and pope Gregory the Great , as one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers , declared Doctors of
11187-539: The western portion of the empire. Arbogast and Eugenius courted Ambrose's support by very obliging letters; but before they arrived at Milan, he had retired to Bologna, where he assisted at the translation of the relics of Saints Vitalis and Agricola . From there he went to Florence, where he remained until Eugenius withdrew from Milan to meet Theodosius in the Battle of the Frigidus in early September 394. Soon after acquiring
11300-449: The year that created " The London Young Women's Institute Union and Christian Association ". Christian activist The relationship between Christianity and politics is a historically complex subject and a frequent source of disagreement throughout the history of Christianity , as well as in modern politics between the Christian right and Christian left . There have been a wide variety of ways in which thinkers have conceived of
11413-446: The younger , and Ambrose was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and again the imperial order was rescinded. There was an attempted kidnapping, and another attempt to arrest him and to force him to leave the city. Several accusations were made, but unlike in the case of John Chrysostom , no formal charges were brought. The emperor certainly had
11526-512: Was made the official religion of the Roman Empire by Theodosius I . The first major instance of Christianity wielding power in politics took place in 390. After the Massacre of Thessalonica , the bishop of Milan forbade Emperor Theodosius the Eucharist until he repented, and Theodosius complied. Early Christians were described by Celsus as those who refused military service and would not accept public office, nor assume any responsibility for
11639-727: Was 53 years old in his letter number 49, which has been dated to 392. He began life in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier ) the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica in what was then northeastern Gaul and is now in the Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. Scholars disagree on who exactly his father was. His father is sometimes identified with Aurelius Ambrosius, a praetorian prefect of Gaul ; but some scholars identify his father as an official named Uranius who received an imperial constitution dated 3 February 339 (addressed in
11752-804: Was away from court during the events at Thessalonica, but after being informed of them, he wrote Theodosius a letter. In that still-existing letter, Ambrose presses for a semi-public demonstration of penitence from the emperor, telling him that, as his bishop, he will not give Theodosius communion until it is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion". Formerly, some scholars credited Ambrose with having an undue influence over Emperor Theodosius I, from this period forward, prompting him toward major anti-pagan legislation beginning in February of 391. However, this interpretation has been heavily disputed since
11865-455: Was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated as the new bishop of Milan . This was the first time in the West that a member of the upper class of high officials had accepted the office of bishop. As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, donating all of his land, making only provision for his sister Marcellina . This raised his standing even further; it
11978-414: Was his popularity with the people that gave him considerable political leverage throughout his career. Upon the unexpected appointment of Ambrose to the episcopate, his brother Satyrus resigned a prefecture in order to move to Milan, where he took over managing the diocese's temporal affairs. Arius (died 336) was a Christian priest who around the year 300 asserted that God the Father must have created
12091-510: Was made illegal. The English Reformation was deeply influenced by English politics. When the church refused to grant an annulment to the marriage of Henry VIII , he formed the Anglican tradition through the Church of England under the political rule of the crown. Politics is addressed directly or indirectly in several parts of the Bible. Romans 13:1 and 1 Peter 2:13-14 say that all should follow
12204-563: Was most prominent in the Roman Empire , where it was illegal to practice Christianity and persecution of Christians took place. The first state to recognize Christianity as its official religion was the Kingdom of Armenia in 301. Christianity gained prominence in Roman politics during the reign of Constantine the Great , who favored Christianity and legalized its practice in the empire in 313. Christians were also appointed to government positions at this time. In 380, Trinitarian Christianity
12317-416: Was no encounter at the church door. The story is a product of the imagination of Theodoret , a historian of the fifth century who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record". The twenty-first-century view is that Ambrose was "not a power behind the throne". The two men did not meet each other frequently, and documents that reveal the relationship between
12430-504: Was recorded by Theodoret, who is recognized as an unreliable historian, in the century following their deaths. Theodosius's predecessors Constantine ( r. 306–337 ), Constantius ( r. 337–361 ), and Valens had all been semi-Arians . Therefore, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. Modern scholars see this as an interpretation of history by orthodox Christian writers more than as
12543-523: Was the state church. The United Methodist Church advocates political activism among Methodists. Methodists in the United States tend to lean conservative or moderate. Anabaptism adheres to a two kingdom concept. This is the belief that the kingdom of heaven or of Christ (the Church) is different and distinct from the kingdoms of this world. It essentially means the separation of church and state but differs from other Protestant approaches in their belief that
12656-450: Was the youngest of three children. His siblings were Satyrus , the subject of Ambrose's De excessu fratris Satyri , and Marcellina , who made a profession of virginity sometime between 352 and 355; Pope Liberius himself conferred the veil upon her. Both Ambrose's siblings also became venerated as saints. Sometime early in the life of Ambrose, his father died. At an unknown later date, his mother fled Trier with her three children, and
12769-467: Was twelve years old, and the assassination left his mother, Justina, in a position of something akin to a regent. In 385 (or 386) the emperor Valentinian II and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy , the laity , and the military, professed Arianism. Conflict between Ambrose and Justina soon followed. The Arians demanded that Valentinian allocate to them two churches in Milan : one in
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