Divisions
118-458: Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas Originating in historical Vedic religion , ' Pravargya' ( Sanskrit प्रवर्ग्य), also known as ' Ashvina-pravaya', is an introductory or preliminary ceremony to the Soma Yajña (of which there are several kinds, including but not limited to, the five-day Agnishtoma Soma Yagya forming
236-558: A 'ceremony preliminary to the Soma Yagya'. The term seems to be derived from 'Pravarga' (प्रवर्ग), which means 'a large earthenware pot (used in the Pravargya ceremony)'. 'Pravargya' also means 'distinguished' and 'eminent'. Both words seem to be formed from the roots: According to A.B. Keith and A.A. Macdonell 'Mahāvīra' (महावीर) 'is the name in the later Samhitās and the Brāmaṇas of
354-539: A 2005 translation of Manusmriti published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in postmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes (abridged), The MDh [Manusmriti] was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. ... All the editions of the MDh , except for Jolly's, reproduce
472-570: A Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population. Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar , structured their criticism along similar lines. Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit , are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas , but
590-413: A better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism, led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism. The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of modern Hinduism , but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two. These include
708-414: A form of the ancient Vedic religion. It has also been suggested by Michael Witzel that Shinto , the native religion of Japan , contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion. Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to
826-460: A girl, she should obey and seek protection of her father, as a young woman her husband, and as a widow her son; and that a woman should always worship her husband as a god and a man should consider his wife an embodiment of goddess. In verses 3.55–3.56, Manusmriti also declares that women must be honored, and "[w]here women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, no rite bears any fruit". Elsewhere, in verse 5.148, states Olivelle,
944-402: A large earthenware pot which could be placed on the [sacrificial] fire, and which was especially employed at the introductory Soma ceremony called Pravargya'. 'Mahāvīra' literally translates to 'great hero', 'thunderbolt', and 'white horse' (which seem to relate to GodKing Indra ). It also translates to 'archer', which is particularly notable as two (linked) legends relating to this pot in
1062-484: A later era. The closing verses of Manusmriti declares, एवं यः सर्वभूतेषु पश्यत्यात्मानमात्मना । स सर्वसमतामेत्य ब्रह्माभ्येति परं पदम् ॥ He who thus recognizes in his individual soul (Self, Atman ), the universal soul that exists in all beings, becomes equal-minded towards all, and enters the highest state, Brahman . The structure and contents of the Manusmriti suggest it to be a document predominantly targeted at
1180-840: A long period. Olivelle states that the various ancient and medieval Indian texts claim revisions and editions were derived from the original text with 100,000 verses and 1,080 chapters. However, the text version in modern use, according to Olivelle, is likely the work of a single author or a chairman with research assistants. Manusmriti, Olivelle states, was not a new document - it drew on other texts, and reflects "a crystallization of an accumulated knowledge" in ancient India. The root of theoretical models within Manusmriti rely on at least two shastras that pre-date it: artha (statecraft and legal process) and dharma (an ancient Indian concept that includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others discussed in various Dharmasutras , older than Manusmriti). Its contents can be traced to Kalpasutras of
1298-555: A man: the milk-pots are the head, on which a tuft of sacred grass represents the hair; two milking-pails represent the ears, two little gold leaves the eyes, two cups the heels, the flour sprinkled over the whole the marrow, a mixture of milk and honey the blood, and so on. The prayers and formulae naturally correspond with the mysterious ceremonies'. The Shrautasutras have not been cited in this article, in part due to difficulty in finding English translations. Instead, English translations of Brahmanas and Aranyakas containing details of
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#17328477697811416-513: A person in two passages of the Rigveda [9.101.13. where the Bhrgus are mentioned as chasing Makha], but in neither passage does the context explain who he was. Probably a demon of some kind is meant. In the later Samhitas [ Vajasaneyi Samhita (White Yajurveda ) 11.57; 37.7; Taittiriya Samhita , 1.1.8.1, 3.2.4.1] mention is also made of the 'head of Makha,' an expression which has become unintelligible to
1534-553: A separate people in the early 2nd millennium BCE. From the BMAC Indo-Aryan tribes migrated to the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent , and the Vedic religion developed there during the early Vedic period ( c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a variant of Indo-Aryan religion, influenced by the remnants of the late Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE). During the late Vedic period ( c. 1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of
1652-547: A single Bahrvea text... the Soma Yagya alone forms the real subject of the [Aitareya] book'. The above-quoted verse itself explains why the Ashvins are offered an oblation in the Pravargya ceremony (i.e. putting together or 'healing' the Mahāvīra Pot from the clay dug up), and the process of gathering itself may link to the name 'Pravargya' (i.e. as above, the root-word ' √vrj' , means 'to pull up, pluck, gather'). The Pravargya Yagya
1770-496: A throne for the pot. The pot is heated, the milk of a cow and a goat is poured in. Finally, the hot drink is offered to the Asvins , and two Rauhina cakes are also offered in the morning to the day, in the evening to the night. At the outset of the ceremony the wife of the conductor is made to cover her head, but she joins with the rest at the close in the finale of the Saman which is sung. At
1888-575: Is also the name of a nakshatra (star). The class or 'Varna' (वर्ण) system also influenced the proceedings of the Pravargya ceremony. According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, 'Varna' has many different meanings. Generally, it is used to refer to the forms, shapes, appearances, categorisations and arrangements of things. This includes of physical objects, living beings, letters, words, sounds, musical notes, and arrangements of songs and poems. A more specific definition given by
2006-453: Is called Mahâvîra, i.e. the great man or hero, and Samrâ g , or sovereign lord, and is made the object of fervid adoration as though it were a veritable deity of well-nigh paramount power. Although the history of this ceremony is somewhat obscure, the place assigned to it in the Soma-ritual would lead one to suppose that its introduction must have taken place at a time when the main procedure of
2124-561: Is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion , and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture , from which the Indo-Aryan people descended. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between
2242-827: Is decapitated in a legend relating to the Mahāvīra earthen Pot used in the Pravargya Yagya (e.g. Shatapatha Brahmana 14.1.1). Synonymous with Krishna , Vishnu is the "preserver" in the Hindu triad ( Trimurti ) and is revered as the supreme being In Vaishnavism . Also stated to be synonymous with the Yagya (e.g. in the Shatapatha Brahmana, see below), Vishnu is particularly notable for adopting various incarnations ( avatars such as Varaha , Rama , and Krishna ), time to time in every Yug to preserve and protect dharmic principles whenever
2360-657: Is false, and the various manuscripts of Manusmriti discovered in India are inconsistent with each other. The metrical text is in Sanskrit , is dated to the 1st to 3rd century CE, and presents itself as a discourse given by Manu (Svayambhuva) and Bhrigu on dharma topics such as duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others. The text's influence had historically spread outside India. The text influenced Hindu kingdoms in Cambodia and Indonesia . In 1776, Manusmriti became one of
2478-560: Is itself is detailed in Pancika (book) 1, Adhyaya (chapter) 4, verses 1-22. The overall placement of the Pravargya as an early or introductory ceremony of the overall Soma Yagya is (Pancika II, Adhyaya III onwards is not detailed here): The Mahāvīra is the head of the Yagya... it is the self of the Yagya; verily thus with the self he completes the Yagya. The Mahāvīra is he yonder that gives heat; verily thus he delights him... The man of whom men speak in
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#17328477697812596-442: Is no fault in eating meat, in drinking liquor, or in having sex; that is the natural activity of creatures. Abstaining from such activity, however, brings greatest rewards." Manusmriti offers an inconsistent and internally conflicting perspective on women's rights. The text, for example, declares that a marriage cannot be dissolved by a woman or a man, in verse 8.101–8.102. Yet, the text, in other sections, allows either to dissolve
2714-496: Is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the Rigveda . The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade. Manusmriti Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas The Manusmṛti ( Sanskrit : मनुस्मृति ), also known as
2832-490: Is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles. The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism. With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including;
2950-591: Is significantly different from the historical Vedic religion. The Vedic religion has roots in the Indo-Iranian culture and religion of the Sintashta ( c. 2200–1750 BCE) and Andronovo ( c. 2000–1150 BCE) cultures of Eurasian Steppe . This Indo-Iranian religion borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the non-Indo-Aryan Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC; 2250–1700 BCE) of south of Central Asia , when pastoral Indo-Aryan tribes stayed there as
3068-559: Is similar to the modern contrast between informal moral concerns to birth out of wedlock in the developed nations, along with simultaneous legal protection for children who are born out of wedlock. Personal behaviours covered by the text are extensive. For example, verses 2.51–2.56 recommend that a monk must go on his begging round, collect alms food and present it to his teacher first, then eat. One should revere whatever food one gets and eat it without disdain, states Manusmriti, but never overeat, as eating too much harms health. In verse 5.47,
3186-429: Is stated to become the sun (see below). R.L. Kashyap states that ' Somayaga is a general name for those Yagya in which libations of the soma juice are offered in the duly consecrated fire. There are seven types of Soma Yajnas namely, agnishtoma, atyagnishtoma, ukthya, shodashi, vajapeya, atirata and aptoryama... Agnishtoma is a typical Somayaga, forming the prakriti or model for other Soma Yagya'. Kashyap also details
3304-509: Is that after attempting and failing twice to take away Sukanya , the young wife of an elderly Rishi called Chyavana , she tells the Ashvins one of the reasons she won't leave her husband for them is because they are imperfect, but will only tell them why after they make her husband young again. They agree, and so she 'tells the Asvins that they are imperfect because they have not been invited to join
3422-578: Is the (first) source of the sacred law, next the tradition and the virtuous conduct of those who know the (Veda further), also the customs of holy men, and (finally) self-satisfaction ( Atmana santushti ). Translation 2: The root of the dharma is the entire Veda, and (then) the tradition and customs of those who know (the Veda), and the conduct of virtuous people, and what is satisfactory to oneself. वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद् धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥ Translation 1: The Veda,
3540-612: Is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India. The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals", which survives in
3658-421: Is very near on the whole to the original text." This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings. Other scholars point to the inconsistencies and have questioned the authenticity of verses, and the extent to which verses were changed, inserted or interpolated into
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3776-571: The Manusmṛti written in the medieval period. Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti . Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century, Olivelle places him in the 8th century, and Derrett places him between 600 and 800 CE. From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. Bhāruci's commentary, titled Manu-sastra-vivarana , has far fewer number of verses than
3894-613: The Mānava-Dharmaśāstra or the Laws of Manu , is one of the many legal texts and constitutions among the many Dharmaśāstras of Hinduism . Over fifty manuscripts of the Manusmriti are now known, but the earliest discovered, most translated and presumed authentic version since the 18th century has been the " Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary". Modern scholarship states this presumed authenticity
4012-507: The Rigveda . He is celebrated for his powers, and the one who kills the great symbolic evil (malevolent type of Asura) named Vritra who obstructs human prosperity and happiness. Indra destroys Vritra and his "deceiving forces", and thereby brings rains and the sunshine as the friend of mankind. 'The Rudras , having gathered together the earth', he says; these deities first gathered him together; verily with them he gathers him together. 'Thou art
4130-564: The BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda , are found in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta , meaning "cosmic order and truth",
4248-496: The Brahmanas [ Shatapatha Brahmana 14.1.2.17]. In regards to this ambiguity, S. Shrava states that 'Innumerable manuscripts of the valuable [Vedic] literature have been lost due to atrocities of the rulers and invaders, ravages of time, and utter disregard and negligence. These factors contributed to the loss of hundreds of manuscripts. Once their number was more than a few hundred. Had these [including Brahmanas] been available today
4366-553: The Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and some of the older Upanishads are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism. Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? — Nasadiya Sukta , Rig Veda , 10:129-6 The idea of reincarnation , or saṃsāra ,
4484-592: The Brahmo Samaj and the Neo-Vedanta in the late 19th and early 20th century rejected the 'superstitions' of Puranic Hinduism, which in their view had deviated from the Vedic heritage, instead propagating a return to the Vedas and to restore an "imagined" original, rational and monotheistic ancient Hinduism with an equal standing as Protestant Christianity. In the 20th century, the neo-Hindu emphasis on Vedic roots, and
4602-539: The Hindu religion , treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism , and using it interchangeably. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads , as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era. The concept of Brahman
4720-637: The Kuru-Pancala realm , and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults. The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century. Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to
4838-580: The Shatapatha Brahmana (White Yajurveda ) and the Taittiriya Aranyaka (Black Yajurveda) where it is Vishnu that completes the Yagya and is decapitated, although He is still referred to as Makha in the Pravargya ritual. Second (again, as detailed below), the head is symbolically the highest, best, or most important, and thus the Pravargya ceremony as the head of the (Soma) Yagya is the highest, best, or most important part of it. And third, again,
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4956-677: The Shatapatha Brahmana of the White Yajurveda are particularly notable in Vaishnavism as the likely origin of the Varaha (boar) avatar of the Rigvedic God Vishnu . 'Pravargya' ( Sanskrit प्रवर्ग्य) means ' a ceremony introductory to the Soma Yagya (at which fresh milk is poured into a heated vessel called, mahā-viira or gharma, or into boiling ghee)'. It is also similarly defined as
5074-685: The Sramanic movement , the conquests of eastern empires from Magadha including the Nanda Empire and the Mauryan Empire , and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities. This was overcome by providing new services and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism . This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to
5192-530: The Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan ) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements" which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC). This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and
5310-660: The 'slayer of Makha' in the Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajurveda (3.2.4). Should the Mahāvīra be broken during the Yajña, Indra is invoked for atonement (Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa, see below). In the Vedas , Indra is the king of Svarga (Heaven) and the Devas . He is the deity of the heavens, lightning, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. Indra is the most referred to deity in
5428-480: The 5-day Agnishtoma rite, in which the Pravargya ceremony within it is performed on the third and fourth days. The Somyagyas are still performed. Here is the list of various somyagyas held in recent time. The Pravargya rite is complex and involves following numerous strict rules in regards to timing, objects used, placements, movements, actions, and what is said. The summaries given below are very much simplified. Kashyap states that 'The Pravargya must be commenced on
5546-521: The Adhvaryus; therefore the two Adhvaryus gather together the cauldron [Mahāvīra pot]. Having gathered it together they say, 'O Brahman, we shall proceed with the Pravargya offering; O Hotṛ, do though recite.' A.B. Keith states it 'is certainly the case that the two Brahmanas [the Aitareya and Kausitaki] represent for us the development of a single tradition, and there must have been a time when there existed
5664-649: The Aryan fold after performing the Vratyastoma Yagya'. In terms of content, the Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa seems to focus on numerous other sacrificial rites (e.g. the Vratyastoma), rather than the Soma Yagya, of which the Pravargya ritual is an early part. However, of the two direct references found, the above-quoted verse from prapathaka (chapter) 9, Adhyaya (section) 10 entitled 'Expiations for various occasions' instructs
5782-499: The Ashvins. Wilkins relates another legend in the Shatapatha Brahmana (4.1.5) that leads to the Ashvins joining the Yagya, and as physicians, using their power to replace the head of Vishnu/Makha as the head of the Yagya (i.e. the Pravargya, itself). Their request to the gods for this was to be granted oblations at the Yagya, which was accepted (hence boiled milk is offered to them in the Pravargya Yagya). The story related by Wilkins
5900-466: The Asvins reply, "Invite us to join you, and we will tell you." To this the gods consented'. Just as in the Rigveda , Indra is stated to become 'Makhavan' (1.3.43), in the Shatapatha Brahmana it is also stated that Indra 'became Makhavat (possessed of makha)' in a legend relating to the Mahāvīra earthen pot made in the Parvargya Yajña (i.e. the decapitation of Vishnu). Indra is also stated to be
6018-612: The Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class). The text dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of Brahmins, and 971 verses for Kshatriyas. The statement of rules for the Vaishyas (merchant class) and the Shudras (artisans and working class) in the text is extraordinarily brief. Olivelle suggests that this may be because
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#17328477697816136-583: The Ganges valley. Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras , which gave prominence to the priestly ( Brahmin ) class of the society, Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti ( Puranas and the Epics), which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition . The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology in
6254-449: The Gharma, which the Yagya has to take, after oblations have been made thereof to various deities, the whole rite is treated with a considerable amount of mystic solemnity calculated to impart to it an air of unusual significance. A special importance is, however, attached to the rough clay pot, used for boiling the draught, and manufactured and baked in the course of the performance itself; it
6372-556: The Kullūka-Calcutta vulgate version in circulation since the British colonial era, and it refers to more ancient texts that are believed to be lost. It is also called Raja-Vimala , and J. Duncan M. Derrett states Bharuci was "occasionally more faithful to his source's historical intention" than other commentators. Medhātithi 's commentary on Manu Smṛti has been widely studied. Scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat believe he
6490-504: The Pravargya ceremony concerns Makha and Vishnu respectively being decapitated by their bows (i.e. in the Shatapatha Brahmana , the Mahāvīra earthen pot represents the severed head of Vishnu). According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, 'Makha' (मख) means 'cheerful, sprightly, vigorous, active, restless', or ' a feast, festival, any occasion of joy or festivity', or 'a Yajña, sacrificial oblation'. Makha
6608-621: The Pravargya ceremony have been cited; these constitute Sruti literature of the Vedas as much as the Samhitas (hymns and mantras). The Samhitas of the Vedas are generally concerned with hymns and mantras , recited during sacrificial ceremonies such as the pravargya. The Brahmanas are generally commentaries on the Samhitas and provide instructions on the performance of the sacrificial ceremonies. Sharva states that in 'the brahmana literature this word ['brahmana'] has been commonly used as detailing
6726-860: The Soma-Yagya had already been definitely settled'. Seemingly self-contained rather than presented as a part of the Soma Yagya, the structure of Khanda 14 (the last book) of the Shatapatha Brahmana is: Historical Vedic religion Traditional Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The historical Vedic religion , also called Vedicism or Vedism , and sometimes ancient Hinduism or Vedic Hinduism , constituted
6844-456: The Vedic era, which led to the development of Smartasutras consisting of Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras . The foundational texts of Manusmriti include many of these sutras, all from an era preceding the common era. Most of these ancient texts are now lost, and only four have survived: the law codes of Apastamba , Gautama , Baudhayana and Vasishtha . The ancient version of the text has been subdivided into twelve Adhyayas (chapters), but
6962-567: The Vedic religion include, among others: the Soma rituals; Fire rituals involving oblations ( havir ); and the Ashvamedha ( horse sacrifice ). The rites of grave burials as well as cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period. Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion include Dyaus , Indra , Agni , Rudra and Varuna , and important ethical concepts include satya and ṛta . Vedism refers to
7080-514: The Vedic religion, as an ideology of the Kuru - Panchala realm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm and the domination of the non-Vedic Magadha cultural sphere. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporary Hinduism , when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism ), and with local religious traditions. Specific rituals and sacrifices of
7198-459: The ambiguity in the interpretation of Vedic hymns could not have crept in'. Notably, according to the Brihat Parasara Hora Sastra (an important book on Vedic Astrology ), Makha is a nakshatra (star). The presiding deity of that star is also stated to be the Sun , which is notable given the sun is regarded as the 'soul of all' (i.e. 'best', as in best of or 'head' of the Yagya), and the decapitated head of Vishnu in various Brahmanic legends
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#17328477697817316-436: The ancient Vedic religion. According to Heinrich von Stietencron , in 19th century western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. Instead, Hinduism was thought to be linked to the Hindu epics and the Puranas through sects based on purohita , tantras and Bhakti . In response to western colonialism and (Protestant) proselytizing, Hindu reform movements like
7434-457: The authority of non-Vedic textual sources. The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated with voluminous Vedic literature, including the early Upanishads , preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools. The religion existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from c. 1500–1100 BCE, and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period ( c. 1100–500 BCE). The eastern Ganges plain
7552-484: The basic model). In the Pravargya Yajña, an earthen pot is fashioned from clay dug up from the ground, placed on a fire-altar , and used to boil milk which is offered to the Ashvins , the twin Rigvedic gods of Ayurvedic medicine. As with all Vedic Period sacrificial ceremonies, the Pravargya Yajña is mystical in nature insofar as items, positions, actions, and words have indirect, symbolic meanings, rather than direct (i.e. exoteric ) literal meanings (e.g.
7670-467: The belief in an afterlife instead of the later developed reincarnation and samsāra concepts. Nevertheless, while "it is usually taught that the beginnings of historical Hinduism date from around the beginning of the Common Era," when "the key tendencies, the crucial elements that would be encompassed in Hindu traditions, collectively came together," some scholars have come to view the term "Hinduism" as encompassing Vedism and Brahmanism, in addition to
7788-450: The broken Mahāvīra (pot). This is therefore the atonement. C. Majumdar states that the Panchavimsha Brahmana 'is one of the oldest and most important of Brahmanas... and includes the Vratyastoma , a ceremony by which people of non-Aryan stock could be admitted into the Aryan family'. R. Pandey elaborates, adding that 'According to the scriptures, persons [also] outcasted for nonperformance [i.e. of Yagya ] were eligible to re-admission into
7906-524: The brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." During the late Vedic period, the Brahmanas and early Upanishads were composed. Both Vedism and Brahmanism regard the Veda as sacred, but Brahmanism is more inclusive, incorporating doctrines and themes beyond the Vedas with practices like temple worship, puja, meditation, renunciation, vegetarianism, the role of the guru, and other non-Vedic elements important to Hindu religious life. The terms ancient Hinduism and Vedic Hinduism have also been used when referring to
8024-436: The central concept of the Rig Veda , was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra , were also known in the Mitanni kingdom. The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley civilization . It
8142-402: The ceremony is used as the symbolic head of a man's body (see below). The above quote from the Taittiriya Samhita concerns a Soma Yajña to Rudra . Other references to the head of Makha are all in the Taittiriya Samhita (e.g.1.1.8, 1.1.12, and 4.1.5, as well as that quoted above), and all seem to be in relation to Agni , the fire god. A.A. Macdonell states that 'Makha appears to designate
8260-450: The colonial era created a legal fiction around Manusmriti's historic role as a scripture in matters relating to women in South Asia. Chapter 7 of the Manusmriti discusses the duties of a king, what virtues he must have, what vices he must avoid. In verses 7.54–7.76, the text identifies precepts to be followed in selecting ministers, ambassadors and officials, as well as the characteristics of well fortified capital. Manusmriti then lays out
8378-411: The day of the new or full moon, or on a day in the wane when the moon is in an auspicious nakshatra '. U.M. Vesci states that the Pravargya ritual has two distinct parts: A.B. Keith states that from 'clay chosen from a pit east of the Ahavaniya fire, to which a horse leads the way, a Mahavira pot is made, a span high, two spare pots, and various other utensiles. A stool of Munja grass is also made as
8496-480: The dictionary is also ' class of men, tribe , order , caste ... [which is] properly applicable to the four principal classes described in Manu's code , viz. Brāhmans , Kshatriyas , Vaiśyas , and Sūdras ; the more modern word for 'caste' being jāti '. The relation between the varna and caste systems is discussed in more detail below. Vishnu, stated to be synonymous with the Yagya (Yagyo Vai Vishnuh Yajurveda ),
8614-467: The discussion of the Soma Yagya with occupies the rest of the book'. The extensive and elaborate Soma Yagya is thus detailed throughout Adhyayas 7-30 (i.e. 23 of 30 chapters); the Pravargya Yagya is itself is detailed Adhyaya 8, verses 3–7. The overall placement of the Pravargya as an introductory part of the overall Soma Yagya is (Adhyaya IX onwards is not detailed here): If the Mahāvīra (the pot used at
8732-618: The end of the bow, springing upwards, cut off his head. This (head) became the pravargya; Makha, forsooth, is the Yagya; by holding the pravargya (ceremony), they put the head on the Yagya. This seems to be made in reference to Indra slaying Makha as mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita (3.2.4) of the Black Yajurveda. The above-quote from the Panchavimsha Brahmana is particularly notable for three reasons (all detailed below). First, altered versions of this exact legend are contained in
8850-411: The end the offering utensils are arranged so as to make up the semblance of a man, the three Mahavira vessels marking the head, and so on... The pot is covered with a golden plate, which can be nothing else than a symbol of fire or the sun, the pot glows, the milk, which in its whiteness is a sun symbol, boils with heat. The Yagya by drinking as usual a share of the milk thus gains power at the same time as
8968-426: The exposition of recensions by [ Vyasa ] were called as old brahmanas and those which had been expounded by his disciples were known as new brahmanas'. J. Dowson states that 'Aranyaka' means 'belonging to the forest' as this type of text is intended to 'expound the mystical sense of the [ sacrificial ] ceremonies, discuss the nature of God [etc.]. They are attached to the Brahmanas , and [are] intended for study in
9086-482: The first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English, by British philologist Sir William Jones . Manusmriti was used to construct the Hindu law code for the East India Company -administered enclaves. The title Manusmriti is a relatively modern term and a late innovation, probably coined because the text is in a verse form. The over-fifty manuscripts discovered of the text never use this title, but state
9204-529: The forest by brahmanas who have retired from the distractions of the world'. Although the Aranyaka texts are generally best known for containing Upanishads , the Taittiriya Aranyaka is notable for also providing details on the performance of the Parvargya ceremony, which have been published separately as the 'Pravargya Brahmana'. The Yagya went away from the gods (saying), 'I shall not be your food.' 'No', replied
9322-503: The gods, 'Verily thou shalt be our food.' The gods crushed it; it being taken apart was not sufficient for them. The gods said 'It will not be sufficient for us, being taken apart; come, let us gather together the Yagya.' (They replied) 'Be it so'. They gathered it together; having gathered it together they said to the Açvins , 'Do ye two heal it', the Açvins are the physicians of the gods, the Açvins
9440-471: The head of Makha', he says; Makha is the Yagya, the firepan is his head; therefore he says thus. In the Parvargya Yajña, the Mahāvīra earthen pot made from clay is referred to as 'Makha'. In a legend relating to the Mahāvīra, Makha (in the Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa) or Makha- Vishnu (in the Shatapatha Brahmana and Taittiriya Aranyaka) is decapitated. The pot is referred to as Makha's head, which at the end of
9558-403: The laws of just war, stating that first and foremost, war should be avoided by negotiations and reconciliations. If war becomes necessary, states Manusmriti, a soldier must never harm civilians, non-combatants or someone who has surrendered, that use of force should be proportionate, and other rules. Fair taxation guidelines are described in verses 7.127–7.137. Patrick Olivelle, credited with
9676-491: The legal rights of the children so born. The text also provides for a situation when a married woman may become pregnant by a man other than her husband, and dedicates verses 8.31–8.56 to conclude that the child's custody belongs to the woman and her legal husband, and not to the biological father. Manusmriti provides a woman with property rights to six types of property in verses 9.192–9.200. These include those she received at her marriage, or as gift when she eloped or when she
9794-485: The marriage. For example, verses 9.72–9.81 allow the man or the woman to get out of a fraudulent or abusive marriage and remarry.The text also provides legal means for a woman to remarry when her husband has been missing or has abandoned her. While preaching chastity to widows such as in verses 5.158–5.160, and opposing a woman marrying someone outside her own social class in verses 3.13–3.14, in other verses, such as 2.67–2.69 and 5.148–5.155, Manusmriti preaches that as
9912-402: The notes to this section, in both the presumed vulgate version and the critical edition. The verses 12.1, 12.2 and 12.82 are transitional verses. This section is in a different style than the rest of the text, raising questions whether this entire chapter was added later. While there is evidence that this chapter was extensively redacted over time, it is unclear whether the entire chapter is of
10030-460: The observed inconsistencies within Manusmriti as follows: I hold Manusmriti as part of Shastras. But that does not mean that I swear by every verse that is printed in the book described as Manusmriti. There are so many contradictions in the printed volume that, if you accept one part, you are bound to reject those parts that are wholly inconsistent with it. ... Nobody is in possession of the original text. There are numerous classical commentaries on
10148-461: The oldest form of the Vedic religion , when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of the Indus River in multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE. Brahmanism refers to the further developed form of the late Vedic period which took shape at the Ganges basin around c. 1000 BCE. According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on
10266-467: The original text had no such division. The text covers different topics, and is unique among ancient Indian texts in using "transitional verses" to mark the end of one subject and the start of the next. The text can be broadly divided into four, each of different length. and each further divided into subsections: The text is composed in metric Shlokas (verses), in the form of a dialogue between an exalted teacher and disciples who are eager to learn about
10384-481: The original, at a later date. Sinha, for example, states that less than half, or only 1,214 of the 2,685 verses in Manusmriti, may be authentic. Further, the verses are internally inconsistent. Verses such as 3.55–3.62 of Manusmriti, for example, glorify the position of women, while verse such as 9.3 and 9.17 do the opposite. Other passages found in Manusmriti, such as those relating to Ganesha , are modern era insertions and forgeries. Robert E. Van Voorst states that
10502-407: The other gods in a great Yagya that was to be celebrated at Kurukshetra (where Vishnu/Makha is later decapitated). The Asvins proceed to this Yagya, and, asking to be allowed to join in it, are told they cannot do so, because they have wandered familiarly among men, performing cures. In reply to this, the Asvins declared that the gods were making a headless Yajña. The gods inquiring how this can be,
10620-504: The performers of the Pravargya ritual of what to do should one or more of the Mahāvīra pot(s) break in order to atone and continue the Yagya. The Gods Agni , Indra , Vayu , and Makha, desirous of glory, performed a sacrificial session. They said: 'The glory that will come to (one of) us, must be in common to (all of) us'. Of them it was Makha to whom the glory came. He took it and stepped forth. They tried to take it from him by force and hemmed him in. He stood there, leaning on his bow, but
10738-447: The pot represents the head of Vishnu which in turn represents the Sun ). It is also typical in that numerous and complex rules must be strictly followed by participants to the smallest detail. Although explanations of and instructions for the performance of the Pravargya Yagya are provided by various Vedic literature such as the Brahmanas , Aranyakas and Shrautasutras , those provided by
10856-605: The pravargya-ceremony) breaks, he should touch, when it is broken (muttering the three verses): 'He, who, even without a clamp, before the piercing of the neck-ropes, makes the combination, he, the bountiful, the one of much good, removes again what is spoiled. - Let us not fear as strangers, o Indra , as removed from thee! O God with the thunderbolt, we thought ourselves ill-famed, as trees that are devoid (of leaves). - We thought ourselves slow and weak, o Slayer of Vrtra! May we once more, O Hero, through thy great liberality be gladdened after our praise', (with these verses) he should touch
10974-663: The present-day srauta -ritual, and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself, akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition. Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta are practiced in Kerala and coastal Andhra . The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice
11092-459: The property of others. Similarly, in verse 4.204, states Olivelle, some manuscripts of Manusmriti list the recommended virtues to be, "compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, non-injury, self-control, not desiring, meditation, serenity, sweetness and honesty" as primary, and "purification, sacrifices, ascetic toil, gift giving, Vedic recitation, restraining the sexual organs, observances, fasts, silence and bathing" as secondary. A few manuscripts of
11210-587: The recent synthesis. The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes, the aryas , who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation . The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism, center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from Agamic , Tantric and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to
11328-537: The religious ideas and practices prevalent amongst some of the Indo-Aryan peoples of the northwest Indian subcontinent ( Punjab and the western Ganges plain) during the Vedic period ( c. 1500–500 BCE). These ideas and practices are found in the Vedic texts , and some Vedic rituals are still practiced today. The Vedic religion is one of the major traditions which shaped modern Hinduism , though present-day Hinduism
11446-436: The ritual drink Soma . According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from
11564-402: The ritualism related to the different Yagya or yajnas ... The known recensions [i.e. schools or Shakhas ] of the Vedas , all had separate brahmanas. Most of these brahmanas are not extant .... [ Panini ] differentiates between the old and the new brahmanas... [he asked] Was it when Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa had propounded the Vedic recensions? The brahmanas which had been propounded prior to
11682-680: The sacred tradition, the customs of virtuous men, and one's own pleasure, they declare to be the fourfold means of defining the sacred law. Translation 2: The Veda, tradition, the conduct of good people, and what is pleasing to oneself – they say that is four-fold mark of dharma. This section of Manusmriti, like other Hindu law texts, includes fourfold sources of Dharma , states Levinson, which include Atmana santushti (satisfaction of one's conscience), Sadachara (local norms of virtuous individuals), Smriti and Sruti . The verses 6.97, 9.325, 9.336 and 10.131 are transitional verses. Olivelle notes instances of likely interpolation and insertions in
11800-423: The slow and backward; the devoted friends of elderly women who are unmarried. They are said to preside over love and marriage, and are implored to being together hearts that love... the Asvins are invoked for "offspring, wealth, victory, destruction of enemies, the preservation of the worshippers themselves, of their houses and cattle'. In the legend of Vishnu's decapitation, the Yagya is stated to have begun without
11918-408: The sun is strengthened'. S. Ketkat agrees, elaborating that at the Pravargya ceremony 'a cauldron [i.e. the Mahāvīra earthen pot] is made red-hot on the sacrificial fire, to represent symbolically the sun; in this cauldron milk is then boiled and offered to the Asvins . The whole celebration is regarded as a great mystery . At the end of it the sacrificial utensils are so arranged that they represent
12036-644: The sun us Indra , is Prajapati , is the holy power; thus herein the conductor attains identity if [the] world and union with all the deities. A.B. Keith states about the Kauṣītaki Brahmana that 'the first four Adhyayas cover fully enough for a Brahmana the Agnyadhana, the Agnihotra , the new and full moon Yagyas, and then follows a section on the function of the Brahman priest before the seventh Adhyaya carries us to
12154-428: The supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide, and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE. Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism , is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from
12272-489: The text as found in the [Calcutta] manuscript containing the commentary of Kulluka. I have called this as the " vulgate version". It was Kulluka's version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) and Doniger (1991). ... The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is then no doubt that the textus receptus, viz., that of Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars,
12390-434: The text contain a different verse 4.204, according to Olivelle, and list the recommended virtues to be, "not injuring anyone, speaking the truth, chastity, honesty and not stealing" as central and primary, while "not being angry, obedience to the teacher, purification, eating moderately and vigilance" to desirable and secondary. In other discovered manuscripts of Manusmriti , including the most translated Calcutta manuscript,
12508-555: The text declares in verse 4.204 that the ethical precepts under Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-violence) are paramount while Niyamas such as Ishvarapranidhana (contemplation of personal god) are minor, and those who do not practice the Yamas but obey the Niyamas alone become outcasts. Manusmriti has various verses on duties a person has towards himself and to others, thus including moral codes as well as legal codes. Olivelle states that this
12626-518: The text declares, "[a woman] must never seek to live independently". Simultaneously, states Olivelle, the text enumerates numerous practices such as marriages outside one's varna (see anuloma and pratiloma ), such as between a Brahmin man and a Shudra woman in verses 9.149–9.157, a widow becoming pregnant by a man she is not married to in verses 9.57–9.62, marriage where a woman elopes with her lover, and then grants legal rights in these cases such as property inheritance rights in verses 9.143–9.157, and
12744-466: The text states that work becomes without effort when a man contemplates, undertakes and does what he loves to do and when he does so without harming any creature. Numerous verses relate to the practice of meat eating, how it causes injury to living beings, why it is evil, and the morality of vegetarianism. Yet, the text balances its moral tone as an appeal to one's conscience, states Olivelle. For example, verse 5.56 as translated by Olivelle states, "there
12862-491: The text was composed to address the balance "between the political power and the priestly interests", and because of the rise in foreign invasions of India in the period it was composed. Manusmriti lists and recommends virtues in many verses. For example, verse 6.75 recommends non-violence towards everyone and temperance as key virtues, while verse 10.63 preaches that all four varnas must abstain from injuring any creature, abstain from falsehood and abstain from appropriating
12980-505: The text which must be later than the late Vedic texts such as the Upanishads , themselves dated a few centuries later, around 500 BCE. Later scholars shifted the chronology of the text to between the 1st or 2nd century CE. Olivelle adds that numismatic evidence and the mention of gold coins as a fine suggest the text may date to the 2nd or 3rd century CE. Most scholars consider the text a composite produced by many authors put together over
13098-403: The title as Manava Dharmashastra (Sanskrit: मानव धर्मशास्त्र) in their colophons at the end of each chapter. In modern scholarship, these two titles refer to the same text. Philologists Jones and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel , in the 18th century, dated Manusmriti to around 1250 BCE and 1000 BCE respectively, which, from later linguistic developments, is untenable due to the language of
13216-565: The various aspects of dharma . The first 58 verses are attributed by the text to Manu , while the remaining more than two thousand verses are attributed to his student Bhrigu . Olivelle lists the subsections as follows: The Dharmasya Yonih (Sources of the Law) has twenty-four verses and one transition verse. These verses state what the text considers as the proper and just sources of law: वेदोऽखिलो धर्ममूलं स्मृतिशीले च तद्विदाम् । आचारश्चैव साधूनामात्मनस्तुष्टिरेव च ॥ Translation 1: The whole Veda
13334-604: The verses from 3.55–60 may be about respect given to a woman in her home, but within a strong patriarchal system. Nelson in 1887, in a legal brief before the Madras High Court of British India, had stated, "there are various contradictions and inconsistencies in the Manu Smriti itself, and that these contradictions would lead one to conclude that such a commentary did not lay down legal principles to be followed but were merely recommendatory in nature." Mahatma Gandhi remarked on
13452-601: The wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society. The term is frequently used by anti-Brahmin opponents , who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology. They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from
13570-523: The word 'Mahāvīra' can also be translated as 'archer' (see above), hence the possible presence of a bow. J. Eggeling states that 'The fourteenth kâ nd a, up to the beginning of the Brihad-âra n yaka, is entirely taken up with the exposition of the Pravargya, an important, though optional and subsidiary, ceremony performed on the Upasad-days of Soma-Yagya... the preparation of a hot draught of milk and ghee,
13688-404: The world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces. In the Pravargya ceremony, a Mahāvīra earthen pot is made and used to boil milk as an oblation to the Ashvins . W.J. Wilkins states that the ' Asvins are regarded as the physicians of the gods; and are declared to be able to restore to health, the sick, the lame, and the emaciated amongst mortals. They are the special guardians of
13806-691: Was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology and gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism , and the Maurya Empire . The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture , which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes . The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age
13924-530: Was taken away, or as token of love before marriage, or as gifts from her biological family, or as received from her husband subsequent to marriage, and also from inheritance from deceased relatives. Flavia Agnes states that Manusmriti is a complex commentary from women's rights perspective, and the British colonial era codification of women's rights based on it for Hindus, and from Islamic texts for Muslims, picked and emphasised certain aspects while it ignored other sections. This construction of personal law during
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