Traditional
64-605: Shaivism/Tantra/Nath New movements Kashmir Shaivism Gaudapada Adi Shankara Advaita-Yoga Nath Kashmir Shaivism Neo-Vedanta Inchegeri Sampradaya Contemporary Shaivism/Tantra/Nath Neo-Advaita Hinduism Buddhism Modern Advaita Vedanta Neo-Vedanta Antiquity Medieval Early modern Modern Iran India East-Asia Neo-Vedanta , also called Hindu modernism , neo-Hinduism , Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism , are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in
128-564: A Greater Advaita Vedānta , which developed since the medieval period. Drawing on this broad pool of sources, after Muslim rule in India was replaced by that of the East India Company , Hindu religious and political leaders and thinkers responded to Western colonialism and orientalism , contributing to the Indian independence movement and the modern national and religious identity of Hindus in
192-705: A universalistic interpretation of Hinduism. He rejected Hindu mythology, but also the Christian trinity. He found that Unitarianism came closest to true Christianity, and had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians. He founded a missionary committee in Calcutta, and in 1828 asked for support for missionary activities from the American Unitarians. By 1829, Roy had abandoned the Unitarian Committee, but after Roy's death,
256-419: A "historic past", which is "largely facticious." Brown and Leledaki see these newly emerging traditions as part of western Orientalism , the fascination of western cultures with eastern cultures, but also the reduction of "Asian societies, its people, practices and cultures to essentialist images of the 'other'". Brown and Leledaki also note that this Orientalism is not a one-way affair, but that "there has been
320-633: A center of inter-faith, inter-cultural dialogue and their home amidst a population of middle-class intelligentsia. For many years, their periodical, Darśan Cakra , attracted keen professors of philosophy and other intellectuals. But Shanti Bhavan was above all a centre of friendly conversations, music, songs, bhajans and Eucharistic liturgy. From there Antoine produced his ten books (Sanskrit manual, Bengali hymn book, translations, Indological essays, ecumenical dialogue, etc.) and as many articles. Special mention must be made of Religious Hinduism , which Antoine, with some other Jesuit friends, had planned, first as
384-462: A dynamic interaction between Asian and Western representatives of various religious traditions over the last 150 years," and that this "blending of thought and practice" is a co-creation from modernist religious movements in both East and West. According to Arthur Versluis , neo-Advaita is part of a larger religious current which he calls immediatism , "the assertion of immediate spiritual illumination without much if any preparatory practice within
448-588: A guru, never claimed to have disciples, and never appointed any successors. Despite this, there are numerous contemporary teachers who assert, suggest, or are said by others, to be in his lineage. These assertions have been disputed by other teachers, stating that there is no lineage from Ramana Maharshi. Critics have also noted that Ramana and like-minded teachers like Nisargadatta Maharaj did not charge fees or donations. Robert Antoine Robert Antoine (1914 in Belgium – 1981 Calcutta , India )
512-708: A master's degree from the University of Calcutta in Sanskrit philology. Besides this, he held a Licentiate in Philosophy, a Licentiate in Theology, a B.A. Classics. Antoine arrived in India in 1939 and became an Indian citizen in 1950. His untimely death from liver cancer occurred in 1981. During the 42 years he spent in India, mainly in Calcutta , he contributed much to the Bengali culture,
576-544: A motif of both the Greek Tragedy and Sanskrit drama, the world views shaped the plots in different tone. In the world of Kalidasa, curse could be mitigated. So, even when Dushyanta forgot due to Dushyanta's curse, the ring could bring back recognition of Shakuntala. Whereas in the Greek world, the curse wrecked Oedipus' s life, no matter how far he tried to escape from the oracle. Oedipus' strive to escape, rather brought him closer to
640-603: A particular religious tradition." Its origins predate American Transcendentalism . In American Gurus: From Transcendentalism to New Age Religion , Versluis describes the emergence of immediatist gurus: gurus who are not connected to any of the traditional religions, and promise instant enlightenment and liberation. These include Eckhart Tolle , and Andrew Cohen . "Immediatism" refers to "a religious assertion of spontaneous, direct, unmediated spiritual insight into reality (typically with little or no prior training), which some term 'enlightenment'." According to Versluis, immediatism
704-471: A process in which spiritual paradises are bound together", as exemplified in American Transcendentalism, New Age , transpersonal psychology and the works of Ken Wilber are examples: Brown and Leledaki place this "hybridization" in a "structurationist" approach, pointing out that this is an "invented tradition", which is a response to a novel situation, although it claims a continuity with
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#1732847658763768-488: A rapid growth. Ramana Maharshi's teachings have been further popularized in the west via H. W. L. Poonja and his students. Poonja, better known as Papaji, "told, inferred, or allowed hundreds of individuals to believe they were fully enlightened simply because they'd had one, or many, powerful experiences of awakening." It was those students who initiated the "neo-Advaita", or "satsang" movement, which has become an important constituent of popular western spirituality . It
832-678: A series of 24 monthly letters which appeared from June 1957 to June 1959, then, with Joseph Neuner and Richard De Smet as editors, as an enlarged book in 1964. Antoine contributed himself nine of the chapters of this book; a 'third' revised edition was produced in 1968, and a fourth in 1997. Most of his articles are archived by the Jadavpur Journal of Comparative Literature, published by the Department of Comparative Literature, Jadavpur University, annually. In Volume 6 (1966), edited by Naresh Guha, Father Antoine's article titled "The Vision of Dante"
896-455: A vague umbrella term such as "Neo-Vedanta" fails to capture the nuances of the specific Vedantic views of different modern figures.... Second, the term "Neo-Vedanta" misleadingly implies novelty.... Third, and most problematically, the term "Neo-Vedanta" is indelibly colored by German indologist Paul Hacker's polemical use of the term. The term "neo-Hinduism" was used by a Jesuit scholar resident in India, Robert Antoine (1914–1981), from whom it
960-520: A western context. Ramana Maharshi himself did not demand a shift in religious affiliation, and was himself acquainted with western religions, using quotes from the Bible. Neo-Advaita teachers have further deemphasized the traditional language and worldframe of Advaita, using a modern, psychologized worldframe to present their teachings as a form of self-help, which is easily accessible to a larger audience. The western approach to "Asian enlightenment traditions"
1024-493: Is a central theme in these reform-movements. The earliest of these reform-movements was Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj , who strived toward a purified and monotheistic Hinduism. Neo-vedanta's main proponents are the leaders of the Brahmo Samaj, especially Ram Mohan Royis the main proponents of neo-Hinduism. The Brahmo Samaj was the first of the 19th century reform movements. Its founder, Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833), strived toward
1088-490: Is being spread by websites and publishing enterprises, which give an easy access to its teachings. Lucas has called the popularisation of Ramana Maharshi's teachings in the west "the Ramana effect". According to Lucas, Ramana Maharshi was the greatest modern proponent of Advaita Vedanta, well known for emphasizing the enquiry of the question "Who am I?" as a means to attain awakening. According to Lucas, following Thomas Csordas,
1152-458: Is highly eclectic, drawing on various Asian traditions, as well as "numerous Western discourses such as psychology, science, and politics." Neo-Advaita uses western discourses, such as " New Age millennialism , Zen , self-empowerment and self-therapy" to transmit its teachings. It makes little use of the "traditional language or cultural frames of Advaita Vedanta," and is framed in a western construction of experiential and perennial mysticism, "to
1216-405: Is quite different from the neo-Advaita claims. Classical Advaita Vedanta uses the "fourfold discipline" ( sādhana-catustaya ) to train students and attain moksha . Years of committed practice is needed to sever or destroy the "occlusion" the so-called " vasanas , samskaras , bodily sheaths and vrittis ", and the "granthi or knot forming identification between Self and mind," and prepare
1280-550: Is typical for Americans, who want "the fruit of religion, but not its obligations." Although immediatism has its roots in European culture and history as far back as Platonism , and also includes Perennialism , Versluis points to Ralph Waldo Emerson as its key ancestor, who "emphasized the possibility of immediate, direct spiritual knowledge and power." Neo-Advaita has been called a "controversial movement," and has been criticized, for its emphasis on insight alone, omitting
1344-516: The Brahmos , whom they partly admired for their courage in abandoning traditions of polytheism and image worship but whom they also scorned for having proffered to other Hindus a viable alternative to conversion". Halbfass wrote that "it seems likely" that the term "Neo-Hinduism" was invented by a Bengali, Brajendra Nath Seal (1864–1938), who used the term to characterise the literary work of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838–1894). The term "neo-Vedanta"
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#17328476587631408-574: The Indian subcontinent was gradually replaced with that of the East India Company , leading to a new era in Indian history . Prior to the establishment of Company rule, Mughal rule in Northern India had a drastic effect on Hinduism (and Buddhism ) through various acts of persecution . While Indian society was greatly impacted by Mughal rule, the Mughal economy however continued to remain one of
1472-504: The Republic of India . This societal aspect is covered under the term of Hindu reform movements . Among the main proponents of such modern interpretations of Hinduism were Vivekananda , Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan , who to some extent also contributed to the emergence of Neo-Hindu movements in the West . Neo-Vedanta has been influential in the perception of Hinduism , both in the west and in
1536-421: The "traditional language or cultural frames of Advaita Vedanta ", and some have criticised it for its lack of preparatory training, and regard enlightenment-experiences induced by Neo-Advaita as superficial. The basic practice of neo-Advaita is self-inquiry , via the question "Who am I?", or simply the direct recognition of the non-existence of the "I" or "ego." This recognition is taken to be equal to
1600-511: The 'orthodox' Advaita Vedanta of the eighth century Shankara." The term "Neo-Vedanta" appears to have arisen in Bengal in the 19th century, where it was used by both Indians and Europeans. Brian Hatcher wrote that "the term neo-Vedanta was first coined by Christian commentators, some of whom were firsthand observers of developments in Brahmo theology... engaged in open, sometimes acrimonious debates with
1664-573: The 19th century in response to Western colonialism, it has deeper origins in the Muslim period of India. Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedanta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period." Well before the advent of British influence, with beginnings that some scholars have argued significantly predate Islamic influence, hierarchical classifications of
1728-436: The 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist Paul Hacker , in a pejorative way, to distinguish modern developments from "traditional" Advaita Vedanta . Scholars have repeatedly argued that these modern interpretations incorporate Western ideas into traditional Indian religions, especially Advaita Vedanta , which is asserted as central or fundamental to Hindu culture . Other scholars have described
1792-578: The Advaita Vedanta recognition of the identity of Atman and Brahman , or the recognition of the "Formless Self." According to neo-Advaitins, no preparatory practice is necessary, nor prolonged study of religious scriptures or tradition: insight alone suffices. Poonja, who is credited as one of the main instigators of the neo-Advaita movement, saw this realization as in itself liberating from karmic consequences and further rebirth. According to Poonja "karmic tendencies remained after enlightenment, [but]
1856-530: The Brahmo Samaj kept close ties to the Unitarian Church, who strived towards a rational faith, social reform, and the joining of these two in a renewed religion. The Unitarians were closely connected to the Transcendentalists , who were interested in and influenced by Indian religions early on. Rammohan Roy's ideas were "altered ... considerably" by Debendranath Tagore , who had a Romantic approach to
1920-678: The Hindu path to liberation, making the Hindu path available to both genders and all castes, incorporating "notions of democracy and worldly improvement". Neo-Advaita Shaivism/Tantra/Nath New movements Kashmir Shaivism Gaudapada Adi Shankara Advaita-Yoga Nath Kashmir Shaivism Neo-Vedanta Inchegeri Sampradaya Contemporary Shaivism/Tantra/Nath Neo-Advaita Hinduism Buddhism Modern Advaita Vedanta Neo-Vedanta Antiquity Medieval Early modern Modern Iran India East-Asia Neo-Advaita , also called
1984-765: The Satsang-movement is a new religious movement , emphasizing the direct recognition of the non-existence of the "I" or "ego," without the need of preparatory practice. Its teachings are derived from, but not authorised by, the teachings of the 20th century sage Ramana Maharshi , as interpreted and popularized by H. W. L. Poonja and several of his western students. It is part of a larger religious current called immediatism by Arthur Versluis , which has its roots in both western and eastern spirituality. Western influences are western esoteric traditions like Transcendentalism, and " New Age millennialism , self-empowerment and self-therapy". Neo-Advaita makes little use of
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2048-469: The absolute with another disciple of his teacher, wherein they both worked out the concepts he put forward in the book “I Am That.” He did not accept students for another 13 years, in 1951. You see, he was still maturing, learning, changing, even though he already had a firm grasp on the absolute. Western critics object to the perceived relation between Ramana Maharshi and Neo-Advaita, noting that Ramana never promoted any lineage, did not publicize himself as
2112-461: The characters like Sita or Shakuntala. Antoine, critically commented on the use of these images and similes. The 11th Volume was edited by Amiya Dev. It has an essay named "Calliope and the Epic of Ravana". Here he discussed oral epic tradition of Ramayana and Homeric epics, and how those symbolically represented multiple strands of culture and practice of their roots. Substantiating how Calliope's language
2176-712: The development of these new doctrines, and questioned central Hindu beliefs like reincarnation and karma, and rejected the authority of the Vedas . Tagore also brought this "neo-Hinduism" closer in line with Western esotericism , a development which was furthered by Keshubchandra Sen. Sen was influenced by Transcendentalism , an American philosophical-religious movement strongly connected with Unitarianism, which emphasized personal religious experience over mere reasoning and theology. Sen strived to "an accessible, non-renunciatory, everyman type of spirituality", introducing "lay systems of spiritual practice" which can be regarded as prototypes of
2240-544: The diffusion of Sanskrit and the life of the Church in Bengal. In the words of Felix Raj, "he was an eminent priest, a scholar, an accomplished teacher, a gifted musician and singer and a dear friend". From 1956, he was lecturer in the Department of Comparative Literature of the Jadavpur University . He also taught at St. Xavier's College, Calcutta . In 1950 he founded the dialogue center Shanti Bhavan with Pierre Fallon as
2304-499: The disregard of its social, ethical and political aspects." This "modern experiential and perennialist mystical framework" emphasizes Perennialism , the idea that there is a common, mystical core to all religions, which can be empirically validated by personal experience . It has pervaded the western understanding of Asian religions, and can be found in Swami Vivekananda and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 's Neo-Vedanta , but also in
2368-476: The dominance of Western culture, Hindu reform movements developed, propagating societal and religious reforms, exemplifying what Percival Spear has called ... the 'solution of synthesis'—the effort to adapt to the newcomers, in the process of which innovation and assimilation gradually occur, alongside an ongoing agenda to preserve the unique values of the many traditions of Hinduism (and other religious traditions as well). Neo-Vedanta, also called "neo-Hinduism"
2432-678: The emphasis should be on the materials and messages of the long oral tradition, abandoning the concept of 'original'. JJCL 13th Voulme published his article titled "From Aristotle to Roland Barthes", that was part of the annual lectures at the Amal Bhattacharjee Memorial Centre for European Studies in Calcutta. In this article he stated how Aristotle's ideas of plot structure and evaluation of plot can be interpreted with reference to Russian Formalism, Linguistic Analogies and Levels of Narratives. He stated that when Aristotle's propositions would be scrutinized in these critical approaches,
2496-539: The enlightened person was no longer identified with them and, therefore, did not accrue further karmic consequences." According to Cohen, Poonja "insisted that the realization of the Self had nothing to do with worldly behavior, and he did not believe fully transcending the ego was possible." For Poonja, ethical standards were based on a dualistic understanding of duality and the notion of an individual agent, and therefore were not indicative of "non-dual enlightenment: "For Poonja,
2560-532: The eventual dismantlement of the dominant decentralized education systems in India in the tail end of the 18th century. The new education system drafted by the East India Company emphasized Western culture at the expense of Indian cultures. The East India Company was also involved in supporting the activities of Protestant missionaries in India, particularly after 1813. These missionaries frequently expressed anti-Hindu sentiments, in line with their Christian ways of thinking. In response to Company rule in India and
2624-673: The fulfillment of the oracle. From Volume 20 to 24 of JJCL, his article titled " The Technique of Oral Composition in the Ramayana", was published, part by part. While the first part elucidated the shift from one literary level to the other and the juxtaposed or intermingled levels of composition in The Ramayana, the second part was on how 'maha compounds' with metrical patterns, use of dhimat, tejas, cetas, ojas, adjectives ending in –in, and compounds ending with atman were used. The profuse use of patronymics were discussed too, by him. As continuation of
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2688-456: The goal was the realization of the self; the illusory realm of relative reality was ultimately irrelevant." According to Lucas and Frawley , the spiritual root of neo-Advaita is Ramana Maharshi, whose teachings, and method of self-inquiry could easily be transposed to North America’s liberal spiritual subculture. Popular interest in Indian religions goes as far back as the early 19th century, and
2752-686: The hidden dynamism of narratives would unfold the working of story-telling and synchronic character of its language. In the JJCL 16–17th Volume, his article titled " Bharata and Aristotle" explained how Greek Tragedy and Sanskrit comedy weren't merely two conceptions of dramatic action, but also be scrutinized if testified with the tenets by Bharata regarding 'five avasthas' and Aristotle's ideas on 'Complex Plot' as he discussed in his Poetics. The 20–21st Volume printed his essay " The Curse in Oedipus Rex and Abhijnanashakuntalam". Here he discussed how despite 'curse' being
2816-408: The higher educated classes in India. It has received appraisal for its "solution of synthesis", but has also been criticised for its Universalism. The terms "Neo-Hindu" or "Neo-Vedanta" themselves have also been criticised for its polemical usage, the prefix "Neo-" then intended to imply that these modern interpretations of Hinduism are "inauthentic" or in other ways problematic. According to Halbfass,
2880-571: The kind of Yoga-exercises which Vivekananda populurized in the west. The theology of the Brahmo Samaj was called "neo-Vedanta" by Christian commentators, who "partly admired [the Brahmos] for their courage in abandoning traditions of polytheism and image worship, but whom they also scorned for having proffered to other Hindus a viable alternative to conversion". Critics accused classical Vedanta of being "cosmic self-infatuation" and "ethical nihilism". Brahmo Samaj leaders responded to such attacks by redefining
2944-549: The largest in the world, thanks in large part to its proto-industrialization . Muslim rule over Southern India was also relatively short-lived before the 17th century. The policies of the East India Company coincided with the decline of proto-industrialization in former Mughal territories. The economic decline caused in part by restrictive Company policies in their Indian territories and the Industrial Revolution in Europe led to
3008-562: The measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedanta, the living Advaita Vedanta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the Yoga Vasistha and the Bhagavata Purana . The Yoga Vasistha became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedanta tradition in the 14th century, while Vidyāraņya's Jivanmuktiviveka (14th century)
3072-487: The mind for the insight into non-duality. After awakening, "post awakening sadhana," or post-satori practice is necessary: "all of the great ones had a post awakening sadhana, including Ramana Maharishi, who spent many years sitting alone in Samadhi before he ever accepted his first student." After realization, further practice is necessary 'to ripen the fruit', as stated by Nisargadatya Maharaj: "the fruit falls suddenly, but
3136-426: The origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other", which started well before 1800. Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers. Within these so-called doxologies Advaita Vedanta was given the highest position, since it
3200-654: The preparatory practices. It has also been criticised for its references to a "lineage" of Ramana Maharshi, whereas Ramana never claimed to have disciples and never appointed any successors. Some critics say that seeing through the 'illusion of ego' is the main point of neo-Advaita, and that this does not suffice. According to Caplan, the enlightenment-experiences induced by these teachers and their satsangs are considered to be superficial. According to Dennis Waite, neo-Advaita claims to remove ignorance, but does not offer help to remove ignorance. According to Caplan, traditional Advaita Vedanta takes years of practice, which
3264-460: The ripening takes time." Ed Muzika refers to Nisargadatta Maharaj, stating He met his teacher in 1933 and had his awakening in 1936. He then traveled as a wandering monk for two years visiting many shrines, temples, and teachers across India, until he recognized there was no difference in his beingness no matter where he was. So he returned home to his wife and business in 1938. Apparently he spend many years discussing all aspects of consciousness and
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#17328476587633328-483: The success of this movement is due to a "portable practice" and a "transposable message". Ramana Maharshi's main practice, self-inquiry via the question "Who am I?", is easily practiceable in a non-institutionalized context. His visitors and devotees did not have to adopt the Vedantic culture, nor to commit themselves to an institution or ideology, to be able to practice self-inquiry. Ramana's teachings are transposable into
3392-464: The terms "Neo-Vedanta" and "Neo-Hinduism" refer to "the adoption of Western concepts and standards and the readiness to reinterpret traditional ideas in light of these new, imported and imposed modes of thought". Prominent in Neo-Vedanta is Vivekananda , whose theology, according to Madaio, is often characterised in earlier scholarship as "a rupture from 'traditional' or 'classical' Hindusim, particularly
3456-525: The various orthodox schools were developed. According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century, ... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" ( saddarsana ) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Mikel Burley . Lorenzen locates
3520-476: The works of D.T. Suzuki and his "decontextualized and experiential account" of Zen Buddhism . It can also be found in the Theosophical Society , and the contemporary New Age culture, with influences like Aldous Huxley's The Perennial Philosophy and The Doors of Perception , and writers like Ken Wilber . Gregg Lahood also mentions Neo-Advaita as an ingredient of "cosmological hybridization,
3584-582: The ‘ critical taste of refined audience'. The 9th Volume of JJCL , published his article titled "Classical Forms of the Simile". He studied two different techniques in the use of literary images. He took the examples of Greek literature and Dante, and explained that when in West, literary images were taken as an analogy, in East, poets like Kalidasa preferred using images as alamkaras, extolling virtues. In used padas, succession of images can be traced, each describing virtues of
3648-462: Was a Belgian Jesuit priest, missionary in India. Professor of Comparative Literature at the Jadavpur University , he was a Sanskritist and musician. He was co-founder, with Pierre Fallon , of Shanti Bhavan, a dialogue centre at Calcutta . Antoine entered the Society of Jesus in 1932, was sent to Calcutta in 1939, dedicated himself to the study of Sanskrit , and became the first Jesuit to obtain
3712-428: Was a language of myth and 'quest of a society', while the multiple layers of narration in The Ramayana played with narrative motifs, Antoine unpacked how the narrative voice and position had significant role in the oral narratives. The 12th Volume published his article titled "Calliope and Rama’s Initiation". With reference to The Ramayana and The Iliad, he argued that to fathom the framework and richness of epic tradition,
3776-494: Was borrowed by Paul Hacker, who used it to demarcate these modernist ideas from "surviving traditional Hinduism," and treating the Neo-Advaitins as "dialogue partners with a broken identity who cannot truly and authentically speak for themselves and for the Indian tradition". Hacker made a distinction between "Neo-Vedanta" and "neo-Hinduism", seeing nationalism as a prime concern of "neo-Hinduism". Although neo-Vedanta developed in
3840-473: Was influenced by the (Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha , which in turn was influenced by Kashmir Shaivism . Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis on nirvikalpa samadhi was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedanta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, some Nath and hatha yoga texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedanta tradition. The influence of the Islamic Mughal Empire on
3904-468: Was published. Here he discussed critically the approaches to Dante's The Divine Comedy, analyzing the role of Virgil and allegories used by Dante. The Volume 8 ( 1968), edited by Amiya Dev, have his article titled "Greek Tragedy and Sanskrit Drama". Here he discussed how both Greek Tragedies and Sanskrit literary pieces were inspired by their respective epic traditions, yet when the Greek literary pieces were meant for competition, Sanskrit pieces were to satisfy
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#17328476587633968-437: Was regarded to be most inclusive system. Vijnanabhiksu , a 16th-century philosopher and writer, is still an influential proponent of these doxologies. He's been a prime influence on 19th century Hindu modernists like Vivekananda, who also tried to integrate various strands of Hindu thought, taking Advaita Vedanta as its most representative specimen. While Indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as
4032-632: Was stimulated by the American Transcendentalists and the Theosophical Society . In the 1930s Ramana Maharshi's teachings were brought to the west by Paul Brunton , a Theosophist, in his A Search in Secret India . Stimulated by Arthur Osborne , in the 1960s Bhagawat Singh actively started to spread Ramana Maharshi's teachings in the USA. Since the 1970s western interest in Asian religions has seen
4096-461: Was used by Christian missionaries as well as Hindu traditionalists to criticize the emerging ideas of the Brahmo Samaj , a critical usage whose "polemical undertone [...] is obvious". Ayon Maharaj regards the continued scholarly use of the term "Neo-Vedanta" as only a "seemingly benign practice". Maharaj asserts that the term Neo-Vedanta "is misleading and unhelpful for three main reasons": First,
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