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61-652: Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation ( Potawatomi : Mshkodéniwek , formerly the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians ) is a federally recognized tribe of Neshnabé ( Potawatomi people), headquartered near Mayetta, Kansas . The Mshkodésik ("People of the Small Prairie") division of the Potawatomi were originally located around the southern portions of Lake Michigan , in what today is southern Wisconsin , northern Illinois and northwestern Indiana . Due to their name in

122-674: A voicing distinction per se but what is better termed a "strong"/"weak" distinction. "Strong" consonants, written as voiceless ( ⟨p t k kw⟩ ), are always voiceless, often aspirated , and longer in duration than the "weak" consonants, which are written as voiced ( ⟨b d g gw⟩ ) and are often voiced and are not aspirated. Nasals before another consonant become syllabic , and /tː/ , /t/ , and /n/ are dental : [t̪ː t̪ n̪] . Lenis type consonants can frequently be voiced in various surroundings as [b d dʒ ɡ ɡʷ] for plosives and affricates, and [z ʒ] for fricatives. Though no standard orthography has been agreed upon by

183-526: A Central Algonquian language, with languages such as Ojibwe , Cree , Menominee , Miami-Illinois , Shawnee and Fox . The label Central Algonquian signifies a geographic grouping rather than the group of languages descended from a common ancestor language within the Algonquian family. Of the Central languages, Potawatomi is most similar to Ojibwe, but it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary from

244-475: A democratically elected tribal council. 39°20′34″N 95°50′21″W  /  39.34278°N 95.83917°W  / 39.34278; -95.83917 Potawatomi language Potawatomi ( / ˌ p ɒ t ə ˈ w ɒ t ə m i / , also spelled Pottawatomie ; in Potawatomi Bodwéwadmimwen , Bodwéwadmi Zheshmowen , or Neshnabémwen ) is a Central Algonquian language . It

305-456: A different system called BWAKA is used. It too is both based on the Roman alphabet and phonemic, with each letter or digraph representing a contrastive sound. The letters used are ' a b c d e e' g h i I j k m n o p s sh t u w y z zh. The traditional system used in writing Potawatomi is a form of syllabic writing. Potawatomi, Ottawa , Sac , Fox and Winnebago communities all used it. Derived from

366-545: A number of years, taking photographs and exchanging correspondence from 1914 to 1918, which is housed in the Special Collections Department at Augustana College. In 1916, he visited Minnie and Jesse at her allotment, because according to custom, men lived with the wife's family after marriage and his allotment was in Oklahoma. Hauberg described a tidy farm, with all buildings in use, a typical painted farmhouse with

427-509: A sitting room, bed room, kitchen, photographs on the wall and a piano. He also noted that Minnie was raising about 200 chickens and that the farm "was exactly like any white man's farm". As the years after World War I came to a close, the seeming prosperity which had existed, evaporated in the Great Depression . A false sense of Native American prosperity based on glowing reports and images of fancily costumed Indians, caused many to reject

488-505: A traditional council with their leader Mich-no, but Snyder discouraged them. It may be that Minnie's father served on an advisory council, but accounts that indicate he was the headman and she inherited the position from him are inaccurate. Census records confirm Snyder's statements that Shough-nas-see (Shough-nes-see) was followed by Mich-no (Mish-no). Further, Minnie was not the oldest child and Minnie' father died nearly 35 years before she came to prominence in tribal politics. Throughout

549-844: A tribe meant the immediate withdrawal of all federal aid, services, and protection, as well as the end of reservations. A memo issued by the Department of the Interior on January 21, 1954, clarified that the reference to "Potawatomi" in the Resolution meant the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Nation, the Kickapoo , the Sac and Fox and the Iowa tribes in Kansas. Because jurisdiction over criminal matters had already been transferred to

610-476: The /h/ , written ⟨ A ⟩ , is optional. Potawatomi has six parts of speech: noun, verb, pronoun, prenoun, preverb, and particle. There are two main types of pronoun: personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns. As nouns and verbs use inflection to describe anaphoric reference , the main use of the free pronouns is for emphasis. Personal pronouns, because of vowel syncope , resemble those of Odaawaa but structurally resemble more those in

671-492: The Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, Pub. L. No. 79-726, ch. 959, passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five-year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at

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732-532: The Indian termination policy was enforced, four Kansas tribes, including the Potawatomi, were targeted for termination. One of the first pieces of legislation enacted during this period was the Kansas Act of 1940 which transferred all jurisdiction for crimes committed on or against Indians from federal jurisdiction to the state of Kansas. It did not preclude the federal government from trying native people, but it allowed

793-566: The Mississippi River . Here, the phonology of the Northern dialect is described, which differs somewhat from that of the Southern dialect, spoken in Kansas. There are five vowel phonemes , four diphthongs , and nineteen consonant phonemes. ⟨é⟩ , which is often written as ⟨e'⟩ , represents an open-mid front unrounded vowel, / ɛ / . ⟨e⟩ represents

854-721: The Potawatomi Tribe of Indians of the Prairie . In the 1830s, Chief Shab-eh-nay , the leader of tribal residents on 1,300 acres (530 ha) of land in Illinois, went to visit members of his family who had been forced west to Kansas. While he was gone, the United States seized the property and auctioned it off to others. Under the Indian Removal Act , the Prairie Band were forcibly relocated west, first to Missouri 's Platte County in

915-658: The Potawatomi language , the Mshkodésik were often confused with another tribe, the Mascoutens . As part of the Council of Three Fires , the Prairie Band were signatories to the 1829 Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (7  Stat.   320 ). Independently of the Council of Three Fires, the Prairie Band were also signatories to the 1832 Treaty of Tippecanoe (7  Stat.   378 ) as

976-515: The Powers Bluff , Wisconsin, area, has a series of Potawatomi videos, a website, and books available to preserve the language. The federally recognized Pokégnek Bodéwadmik Pokagon Band of Potawatomi started a master-apprentice program in which a "language student (the language apprentice) will be paired with fluent Potawatomi speakers (the language masters)" in January 2013. In addition, classes in

1037-665: The Sauk . Generally, in developments since Indian Removal in the 19th century, Potawatomi has become differentiated in North America among separated populations. It is divided between Northern Potawatomi, spoken in Ontario, Canada; and Michigan and Wisconsin of the United States; and Southern Potawatomi, which is spoken in Kansas and Oklahoma, where certain Pottawatomi ancestors were removed who had formerly lived in Illinois and other areas east of

1098-563: The Swampy Cree language : The relatively-recent split from Ojibwe makes Potawatomi still exhibit strong correspondences, especially with the Odaawaa (Ottawa) dialect. Cecelia Miksekwe Jackson , one of the last surviving native speakers of Potawatomi, died in May 2011, at the age of 88. She was known for working to preserve and teach the language. Donald Neaseno Perrot, a native speaker who grew up in

1159-540: The schwa , /ə/ , which has several allophonic variants. Before /n/ , it becomes [ɪ] ; before /kː/ , /k/ , /ʔ/ and word-finally, it becomes [ʌ] . ⟨o⟩ is pronounced /u/ in Michigan and /o/ elsewhere. When it is in a closed syllable, it is pronounced [ʊ] . There are also four diphthongs, /ɛj ɛw əj əw/ , spelled ⟨éy éw ey ew⟩ . Phonemic /əj əw/ are realized as [ɪj ʌw] . Obstruents , as in many other Algonquian languages, do not have

1220-630: The Mayetta community. She attended the Haskell Institute in Lawrence, Kansas, where she learned to speak English and write. At the time period, Haskell was an industrial boarding school, where students learned domestic skills and were punished if they spoke their native tongue. The allotment of the Prairie Potawatomi began in 1887 and was not completed until around 1905 due to fierce opposition by

1281-646: The Nation as it existed in the Treaty of 1846." Congress stipulated that the appropriation could be used as authorized by the tribal governing body with the approval of the Interior Secretary. The tribal council, elected under the rules of the 1961 constitution, declared that those who should share in the judgment were those who were listed as members of the Prairie Band as of midnight 1 December 1960. The traditionalists strongly opposed this interpretation, believing instead that

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1342-567: The Potawatomi communities, the system most commonly used is the "Pedagogical System" developed by the Wisconsin Native American Languages Program (WNALP). As the name suggests, it was designed to be used in language teaching. The system is based on the Roman alphabet and is phonemic, with each letter or digraph representing a contrastive sound. The letters used are a b ch d e é g ' h i j k m n o p s sh t w y z zh. In Kansas,

1403-644: The Potawatomi language are available, including those at the Hannahville summer immersion camp, with webcast instruction and videoconferencing. There are also free online language courses on Mango Languages from the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi, released in October 2022. and on Memrise from the Citizen Potawatomi Nation in Oklahoma. Minnie Evans (Potawatomi leader) Ke-waht-no-quah Wish-Ken-O

1464-696: The Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation broke ground on the construction of the Prairie Band Casino & Resort to generate revenue for the tribe. The establishment opened on January 12, 1998, under the management of Harrah's Entertainment (an outside commercial entity). Tribal management subsequently assumed control of the establishment in July 2007. The tribe purchased a corner of the original reservation in DeKalb County, Illinois in 2006 and leased

1525-586: The Roman alphabet, it resembles handwritten Roman text. However, unlike the Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics or the Cherokee alphabet , it has not yet been incorporated into the Unicode standards. Each Potawatomi syllabic block in the system has at least two of the seventeen alphabetic letters, which consist of thirteen consonants and four vowels. Of the thirteen phonemic consonantal letters,

1586-578: The Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs was also unsuccessful in limiting those who participated in the settlement to descendants of tribal members in 1846. With the loss of the second suit, and the US government backing the legitimacy of the new tribal business council, Minnie was nudged out of tribal politics. When the claims that she had fought so hard to win were finally distributed, she

1647-620: The Tribal Council had stopped regular meetings and the BIA disbanded the local agency in 1903, stopping tribal annuities in 1909. Tribal leadership was reduced to an advisory council for the Bureau of Indian Affairs though attempts were made to reinstate a traditional council. In 1917, Superintendent A. R. Snyder acknowledged that the Agency had reopened in a new location in 1913 and that headmen wished to reform

1708-463: The approach of the 5-year deadline in August, 1951. In 1946, the Potawatomi established a Tribal Council Claims Committee and Evans served as tribal chair of that committee. Ironically, the claims commission created a resurgence of "Indian identity." Up until that time, many more progressive tribal members had moved off the reservation and increasingly worked to assimilate into the larger society, but with

1769-486: The area BIA office, the progressives drafted a new constitution. For a brief while in the early 1960s there were two tribal business committees and two tribal rolls. Remembering the allotment period, when individuals with dubious claims were awarded land and tribal status, the conservatives believed that only members with at least 1/4 or more Prairie Band descent could be tribal members and were in favor of restricting voting rights and office holding to only those who lived on

1830-596: The attention of the rest of the Congress. However, it is significant, as one of the letters points out, that "The Business Committee of the Prairie Band Potawatomi tribe of Indians represents eleven-hundred of the sixteen-hundred Indians of Kansas," which means that the majority of native people were not in favor of passage. On 1 August 1953, the US Congress passed House Concurrent Resolution 108 which called for

1891-532: The claims involved only the Prairie Band and others involved multiple bands of Potawatomi people. For example, in one case, at issue was the amount paid to the Potawatomi for lands ceded west of the Mississippi in the removal first to Iowa and later to Kansas. In 1956, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi and its co-claimant the Citizen Band of Potawatomi Indians were awarded $ 3.2 million by the claims commission. An appeal

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1952-473: The dire need that developed for aid. In addition to the economic issues, Kansas was in the midst of a severe drought, known as the Dust Bowl . Temperatures topped 100 °F throughout the summer months of the mid-1930s, and in 1936 Kansas experienced the second hottest year on record. The reservation wells dried up, livestock had to be sold or given away as there was no way to hydrate them, gardens, which had been

2013-630: The early decades of the 20th century, the Tribal Advisory Board was dominated by progressive, Christianized farmers, who validated agency decisions and were often not representative of the much larger conservative elements on the reservation. In the early part of the 1930s the conservative faction organized as a reform movement, adopted a constitution, and reorganized the Tribal Advisory Council to an elected Business Committee. Minnie first served as an appointed adviser beginning in 1933 but

2074-417: The elected council. But Minnie was tenacious. She believed that tribal unity was important and she worked hard to understand the complexities of the situation. She attended committee hearings, court sessions, and council meetings, called unofficial meetings in her home, and refused to give in on negotiations if she felt that it would jeopardize the potential benefit to the tribe. In 1961, with much support from

2135-558: The first pieces of legislation enacted during this period was the Kansas Act of 1940 which transferred all jurisdiction for crimes committed on or against Indians from federal jurisdiction to the State of Kansas. It did not preclude the federal government from trying native people, but it allowed the state into an area of law in which had historically belonged only to the federal government. On January 5, 1939, when House Resolution 3048 and Senate Bill 372 were introduced, lawmakers were advised that

2196-478: The government and multiple delegations went to testify at congressional meetings in Washington, DC. In February 1954, tribal chair Minnie Evans, along with James Wahbnosah and John Wahwassuck, testified before a joint hearing of the house and Senate Subcommittees on Indian Affairs in Washington, DC in conjunction with the neighboring Kansas Kickapoo, enabling the Kansas tribes to escape termination. On 13 August 1946

2257-524: The government and multiple delegations went to testify at congressional meetings in Washington, DC. Tribal Council members Vestana Cadue, Oliver Kahbeah, and Ralph Simon of the Kickapoo Tribe in Kansas traveled at their own expense to testify as well. The strong opposition from the Potawatomi and Kickapoo tribes helped them, as well as the Sac & Fox and the Iowa Tribe , avoid termination. In May 1997,

2318-526: The immediate termination of the Flathead , Klamath , Menominee , Potawatomi , and Turtle Mountain Chippewa , as well as all tribes in the states of California , New York , Florida , and Texas . Termination of a tribe meant the immediate withdrawal of all federal aid, services, and protection, as well as the end of reservations. A memo issued by the Department of the Interior on 21 January 1954 clarified that

2379-526: The issues objected to by the Potawatomi was the rigidity of written law. Once something was written down, with a specific violation and penalty defined, it eliminated the ability for flexibility and consensus. The Potawatomi had never had a ruling body and creation of one was strongly objected to. Even worse, from the native perspective, was the oversight granted to the Secretary of the Interior or Commissioner of Indian Affairs regarding tribal governance. Bureau approval had to be obtained for all decisions regarding

2440-485: The land for farming. The United States Department of the Interior formally placed the 130 acres (53 ha) into trust for the benefit of the tribal band in 2024, thereby giving the Prairie Band tribal sovereignty over the land. The Prairie Band Potawatomi became the first and only federally recognized tribal nation in Illinois , since Native Americans were dispossessed in the 19th century. The Prairie Band are governed by

2501-493: The main food source, withered. Kansas officials refused to provide welfare assistance to Native people, claiming inadequate funds, and federal programs to provide assistance to Indians were consistently delayed or blocked. To survive, the Prairie Potawatomi hunted, trapped and traded goods and services with each other. The occasional surplus skins or chicks or produce might be sold in Topeka for more ammunition, but most everything that

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2562-465: The mid-1830s and then to the vicinity of Council Bluffs, Iowa , in the 1840s, where they were known as the Bluff Indians . The tribe controlled up to five million acres (20,000 km) at both locations. After 1846, the tribe moved to present-day Kansas. At that time, the reservation was thirty square miles which included part of present-day Topeka . During the period from the 1940s - 1960s, in which

2623-442: The only members entitled to share in the judgement were those who were identifiable as descendants of those Potawatomi who constituted the Nation in 1846. Minnie and other traditionalists filed suit in 1963 against the tribal council but the case, which went all the way to the 10th Circuit Court determined that the tribal council had the authority to specify who was to participate in the settlement. A second action filed in 1964 against

2684-626: The potential for sharing in damages, those elements began reclaiming their Potawatomi roots. On 16 September 1947, Evans was elected by a general council of the tribe as the tribal chairwoman. Evans recommended that the Potawatomi hire Stone McClure Webb Johnson Oman firm from Topeka, Kansas to assist in preparing their claim. There were ten treaties in which the tribe felt terms had not been met, which required meticulous review of both title and evaluation of damages. Ultimately, there were 19 cases filed for treaty breaches and under/improper-valuations, and 2 cases filed for reclaiming attorney fees. Some of

2745-535: The proposal was supported by the Indian tribes. This may not have been the case with all of the tribes as both telegrams and letters indicate that correspondence between Potawatomi Business Council Chairman Wahbnosah and Representative W. Rogers shows the Potawatomi were objecting. The correspondence is not part of the legislative record, but instead housed in the National Archives and may or may not have been brought to

2806-680: The reference to "Potawatomi" in the Resolution meant the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Nation, the Kickapoo , the Sac and Fox and the Iowa tribes in Kansas. Because jurisdiction over criminal matters had already been transferred to the State of Kansas by the passage of the Kansas Act of 1940 the government targeted the four tribes in Kansas for immediate termination. Evans spearheaded the battle against termination, calling meetings at her home and building strategies for consensus. They planned ways to raise funds taking up donations, selling livestock and other goods to get their leadership to Congressional hearings. Tribal members sent petitions of protest to

2867-491: The reservation. The progressives, on the other hand, wanted all members who had received an allotment under the Dawes Act regardless of their degree of descent to be granted membership, voting rights and the right to hold office, regardless of whether they lived on the reservation. In part, Minnie's group was spurred by the award on the first Indian Claims case, which stated that the fund was to make reparations for "descendants of

2928-412: The state into an area of law in which had historically belonged only to the federal government. On August 1, 1953, the US Congress passed House Concurrent Resolution 108 which called for the immediate termination of the Flathead , Klamath , Menominee , Potawatomi , and Turtle Mountain Chippewa , as well as all tribes in the states of California , New York , Florida , and Texas . Termination of

2989-502: The state of Kansas by the passage of the Kansas Act of 1940 , the government targeted the four tribes in Kansas for immediate termination. In February 1954, joint hearings for the Kansas tribes were held by the House and Senate Subcommittees on Indian Affairs. The Prairie Band of Potawatomi Nation tribal leader, Minnie Evans (Indian name: Ke-what-no-quah Wish-Ken-O) led the effort to stop termination. Tribal members sent petitions of protest to

3050-537: The tribe. Their experience with their local superintendent, who had called off-reservation meetings with progressive factions on two occasions to oust the elected conservative Business Committee, did little to inspire confidence in the New Deal Program. During the period from the 1940s to the 1960s, in which the Indian termination policy was enforced the Potawatomi continued to struggle for their own autonomy, and their own ability to deal with their affairs. One of

3111-422: The tribe. Minnie and her siblings were all original allottees and heirs of their father's allotment, as he died during the time period when allotments were being settled. Life on the reservation was fairly typical of a rural farming environment, as was described by John Henry Hauberg, Sr. an attorney, businessman and noted local historian from Rock Island, Illinois. Hauberg had a relationship with Jesse KaKaQue for

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3172-447: The tribes felt that the government had not only unfairly valued the property at the time of the initial settlement, but in assessing the damages, for the undervaluation, the government had failed to take into consideration lead mines located on the tract. The appellate court agreed in 1968 and required the claims commission to revalue the award. In 1972, a review of standing for the land claims in northern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin

3233-399: Was born 14 October 1888 at Mayetta, Kansas to John and Mary Ann ( Mnis-no-quah ) Wish-ke-no and was raised with her siblings Mabel Wishkeno Negohnsoht (aka Negonsett) ( Pe-yaht-wat-moquah ), N-wah-gah-quah Wishkeno, female Wishkeno, Arthur Wishkeno ( Sa-sa-wash-kuck or Kah-sah-wash-kuck ), Non-ish-quah Wishkeno, Wab-sai Wishkeno, and William "Willie" Wishkeno ( Chock-tuck ) in

3294-508: Was elected to a lifetime position on the board of conciliators, a group composed of elder statesmen who had earned tribal respect. When the Indian Reorganization Act was introduced in 1934, the Prairie Potawatomi rejected it. Though they desired an end of allotment and a return of some 50,000 acres of their land, they did not want an imposed self-government styled on the model of the US constitution to be forced upon them. One of

3355-455: Was held and the claims court ruled that the Potawatomi tribes did have standing to make the claim and referred it to the valuation phase. In 1978 5 remaining claim cases and both attorney fee cases were finally settled, but at least one case, and any appeals on those cases, were transferred to the US Court of Claims on 29 September 1978. All in all, the claims fight took nearly 32 years and

3416-678: Was historically spoken by the Pottawatomi people who lived around the Great Lakes in what are now Michigan and Wisconsin in the United States , and in southern Ontario in Canada . Federally recognized tribes in Michigan and Oklahoma are working to revive the language. Potawatomi is a member of the Algonquian language family (itself a member of the larger Algic stock ). It is usually classified as

3477-517: Was interviewed by John Henry Hauberg, Sr. at his home on the Potawatomie reservation and married to Minnie. Jesse and Minnie had divorced by 1918. On 17 January 1919, Minnie married William F. Evans, who was a member of the Citizens Band of Potawatomi from Oklahoma. She had three children: Emory Roy Kakaque (June, 1910 - 1910–1911), Lyman Francis Evans (28 June 1920 - 1980) and Bernice Ann Laferniar Cartwright (13 November 1922 – 31 March 2007). Minnie died 21 October 1971 near Mayetta, Kansas and

3538-441: Was launched by a group of Potawatomi who had not relocated west claiming that they deserved part of the settlement. 16 July 1958 the appellate court ruled that the eastern group could not intervene, as the treaty for which damages were sought required the tribe to move west. A second case was heard in 1962 and an award entered for land ceded in northern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin. It was appealed in 1965, and again in 1967, as

3599-444: Was no longer a part of tribal affairs. Minnie's first husband was a great-grandson of Black Hawk , a Sauk native, named Jesse S. Kakaque (Sac name: Shah-ke-toe ) (1877–1929) whom she married around 1909. Jesse had previously been married to Katie Ken-ne-que (1880 – before 1903) with whom he had one daughter, Mary Maud Kakaque (March 1898 – ?) on the Sac and Fox Reservation in Oklahoma. In 1916, he

3660-402: Was only the beginning of the turmoil that followed. Once the awards had begun to be determined, the factionalism escalated with the progressives pushing for inclusion in tribal government. The claims committee had primarily traditionalist membership with life tenure. Because of the significance of the claims proceeding, the appointed claims committee at times took on an importance that superseded

3721-437: Was produced was used for survival. Out of these troubled times, Minnie emerged as a leader of the conservative, traditional faction. She advocated maintaining their ancient customs, rejected Christianity and forced citizenship of tribal people. She was known for being outspoken and without fear, but had the respect of many who did not agree with her because of her earnest belief in the principals for which she fought. By 1900

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