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104-527: In 2019, PG&E chose not to relicense the hydroelectric project with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission , as it had become unprofitable to operate. Federal regulations require that PG&E submit a final license surrender application by 2025, which would enable it to begin decommissioning the project. The dams and hydroelectric facilities are to be removed, while various options are being considered for maintaining water diversions to

208-475: A default cost-sharing plan to deliver to state regulators. It "provides for cost-effective expansion of transmission that is being replaced, when needed, known as 'right-sizing' transmission facilities", and it allows states more opportunities to cooperate with utility companies and energy project developers, while preventing states that benefit from regional transmission projects from not paying for them. FERC Order No. 1920-A, an amendment to it passed unanimously

312-953: A district boundary of 6,900 acres (2,800 ha). Because there is very little natural runoff in Potter Valley and the local geology is non-conducive to groundwater storage, the PVID is the only constituent that depends solely on Eel River water. Project water also serves farmers and municipalities downstream along the Russian River, in Mendocino County . The total water use per year is about 17,000 to 23,000 acre-feet (21,000,000 to 28,000,000 m). Even further downstream, water users in Sonoma County use between 50,000 and 80,000 acre-feet (62,000,000 and 99,000,000 m) per year. These users depend both on Potter Valley Project water and natural flows in

416-408: A drop in the ground surface. In unconsolidated aquifers, groundwater is produced from pore spaces between particles of gravel, sand, and silt. If the aquifer is confined by low-permeability layers, the reduced water pressure in the sand and gravel causes slow drainage of water from the adjoining confining layers. If these confining layers are composed of compressible silt or clay, the loss of water to

520-402: A former lake bed, has experienced rates of subsidence of up to 40 centimetres (1 foot 4 inches) per year. For coastal cities, subsidence can increase the risk of other environmental issues, such as sea level rise . For example, Bangkok is expected to have 5.138 million people exposed to coastal flooding by 2070 because of these combining factors. If the surface water source

624-1070: A global level, although priority chemicals will vary by country. There is a lot of heterogeneity of hydrogeologic properties. For this reason, salinity of groundwater is often highly variable over space. This contributes to highly variable groundwater security risks even within a specific region. Salinity in groundwater makes the water unpalatable and unusable and often occurs in coastal areas, for example in Bangladesh and East and West Africa. Municipal and industrial water supplies are provided through large wells. Multiple wells for one water supply source are termed "wellfields", which may withdraw water from confined or unconfined aquifers. Using groundwater from deep, confined aquifers provides more protection from surface water contamination. Some wells, termed "collector wells", are specifically designed to induce infiltration of surface (usually river) water. Aquifers that provide sustainable fresh groundwater to urban areas and for agricultural irrigation are typically close to

728-408: A home and then returned to the ground in another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air. Groundwater makes up about thirty percent of the world's fresh water supply, which is about 0.76% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice. About 99% of

832-519: A long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source. Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation , streams , and rivers when this recharge reaches the water table. Groundwater can be a long-term ' reservoir ' of the natural water cycle (with residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like

936-705: A permanently reduced capacity to hold water. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is actually below sea level today, and its subsidence is partly caused by removal of groundwater from the various aquifer/aquitard systems beneath it. In the first half of the 20th century, the San Joaquin Valley experienced significant subsidence , in some places up to 8.5 metres (28 feet) due to groundwater removal. Cities on river deltas, including Venice in Italy, and Bangkok in Thailand, have experienced surface subsidence; Mexico City, built on

1040-489: A powerhouse before being released to the East Fork Russian River. On April 1, 1908, the first deliveries were made and power production began with a capacity of 4000 kilowatts (KW). In 1910, the generation capacity was boosted to 7000 KW and in 1912 second penstock was built to increase the flow capacity of the tunnel. The powerhouse was upgraded to 9400 KW in 1917, after the addition of a fourth unit. Initially,

1144-406: A separate decision, the D.C. Circuit later sustained the commission's conduct of separate environmental assessments when it clarified that the "critical" factor was that all of the pipeline's projects were either under construction or pending before FERC for environmental review at the same time, noting that the projects lacked temporal overlap. Furthermore, in another case, the D.C. Circuit sustained

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1248-618: A separate independent regulatory body be retained, and the FPC was renamed the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), preserving its independent status within the department. Its most basic mandate was to "determine whether wholesale electricity prices were unjust and unreasonable and, if so, to regulate pricing and order refunds for overcharges to ratepayers." FERC was also given added responsibility to hear appeals of DOE oil price control determinations and to conduct all "on

1352-673: A situation here." FERC's decisions in those cases are often upheld by the courts. In a July 1, 2014, decision, No Gas Pipeline v. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit (D.C. Circuit) said that pipeline applicants are not likely to pursue many certificates that are hopeless. "The fact that they generally succeed in choosing to expend their resources on applications that serve their own financial interests does not mean that an agency which recognizes merit in such applications

1456-432: A third party. FERC has promoted voluntary formation of regional transmission organizations (RTOs) and Independent System Operators (ISOs) to eliminate the potential for undue discrimination in access to the electric grid ; it has made key decisions expanding its own power in regional and interregional transmission planning and cost allocation through the landmark Order Nos. 1000, 1920, 1977, and 2023. FERC investigated

1560-418: A total storage capacity of 74,993 acre-feet (92,503,000 m). Project regulations require that the gates at Scott Dam be opened between October 16 and April 1, for safety reasons during the winter months. Winter storms fill the reservoir, which provides only very limited flood control, because the average annual runoff of 400,000 acre-feet (490,000,000 m) is over five times the project storage capacity. It

1664-399: Is a highly useful and often abundant resource. Most land areas on Earth have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. In some cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population. Such over-use, over-abstraction or overdraft can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. The most evident problem (as far as human groundwater use

1768-466: Is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become saline . This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization . As water moves through the landscape, it collects soluble salts, mainly sodium chloride . Where such water enters

1872-632: Is an additional water source that was not used previously. First, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge associated with natural flooding. Second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land subsidence , with associated infrastructure damage – as well as, third, saline intrusion . Fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low-lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and estuarine streams. Groundwater

1976-501: Is an independent agency of the United States government that regulates the interstate transmission and wholesale sale of electricity and natural gas and regulates the prices of interstate transport of petroleum by pipeline . FERC also reviews proposals to build interstate natural gas pipelines, natural gas storage projects, and liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals, in addition to licensing non-federal hydropower projects. FERC

2080-488: Is an accepted version of this page Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth 's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations . About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water

2184-682: Is authorized to raise revenue to reimburse the United States Treasury for its appropriations, through annual charges to the natural gas, oil, and electric industries it regulates. FERC is independent of the Department of Energy political structure because FERC activities "shall not be subject to further view by the Secretary [of Energy] or any officer or employee of the Department". The Department of Energy can, however, participate in FERC proceedings as

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2288-425: Is biased," the court said. Others have directly disputed FERC's critics by pointing out, "FERC is a creature of law. It follows a careful administrative path to regulate only a portion of natural gas such as interstate pipelines and LNG import and export terminals. That regulation includes extensive environmental review, driven by many federal laws enacted by Congress, signed by the president, and reviewed and upheld by

2392-592: Is by participating in the related proceeding by submitting comments and participating in public comment sessions, site visits and scoping meetings, since FERC decisions can be appealed up to the Supreme Court. There are regions of the country where the state public utility commission and the FERC regulated Regional Transmission Organization operate in identical footprints (such as in New York State ). Where this occurs, state policy makers and FERC frequently clash as to

2496-458: Is called the water table . Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps , and can form oases or wetlands . Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural , municipal , and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells . The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology , also called groundwater hydrology . Typically, groundwater

2600-417: Is concerned) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. As a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater; in some places (e.g., California , Texas , and India ) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping. The GRACE satellites have collected data that demonstrates 21 of Earth's 37 major aquifers are undergoing depletion. In

2704-583: Is drawn down to compensate for reduced diversions from the Eel River system. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission relicensing of the project on January 28, 2004, placed limits on the amount of water that can be diverted. In combination with drought conditions, diversions between 2004 and 2009 averaged 90,000 acre-feet (110,000,000 m), or 57% of the historical average. Since then, late summer water has been released from Cape Horn Dam at rates roughly mimicking or exceeding natural flows in an attempt to mitigate

2808-412: Is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks . It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table . Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between groundwater that is closely associated with surface water , and deep groundwater in an aquifer (called " fossil water " if it infiltrated into the ground millennia ago ). Groundwater can be thought of in

2912-444: Is not uncommon for the dams to spill eight or nine times during a single winter season. After the wet season passes, Lake Pillsbury is drawn down beginning April 1. Typical summer drawdowns leave the reservoir at or above 20,000 acre-feet (25,000,000 m), or 27 percent capacity. Water is released to Cape Horn Dam, which diverts the majority, while releasing a small flow to the Eel River designed to mimic natural summer flows. This

3016-454: Is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water . Therefore, it is commonly used for public drinking water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States , and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than

3120-468: Is rapidly increasing with population growth, while climate change is imposing additional stress on water resources and raising the probability of severe drought occurrence. The anthropogenic effects on groundwater resources are mainly due to groundwater pumping and the indirect effects of irrigation and land use changes. Groundwater plays a central role in sustaining water supplies and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa . In some cases, groundwater

3224-553: Is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and can cause land subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities (like Bangkok ) and loss in elevation (such as the multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California ). These issues are made more complicated by sea level rise and other effects of climate change , particularly those on the water cycle . Earth's axial tilt has shifted 31 inches because of human groundwater pumping. Groundwater

Potter Valley Project - Misplaced Pages Continue

3328-400: Is the most accessed source of freshwater around the world, including as drinking water , irrigation , and manufacturing . Groundwater accounts for about half of the world's drinking water, 40% of its irrigation water, and a third of water for industrial purposes. Another estimate stated that globally groundwater accounts for about one third of all water withdrawals , and surface water for

3432-495: Is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture , permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock , and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults . It is likely that much of Earth 's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater

3536-579: Is typically around 20 cubic feet per second (0.57 m/s), but can decrease significantly during dry years. In 1924, the Potter Valley Irrigation District (PVID) was formed to provide irrigation water to the farmers along the East Branch Russian River. The district currently serves 390 farmers with rights to 22,670 acre-feet (27,960,000 m) of project water per year, for the irrigation of 4,905 acres (1,985 ha) within

3640-452: Is used for irrigation. Occasionally, sedimentary or "fossil" aquifers are used to provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas. In Libya, for example, Muammar Gaddafi's Great Manmade River project has pumped large amounts of groundwater from aquifers beneath the Sahara to populous areas near the coast. Though this has saved Libya money over the alternative, seawater desalination,

3744-601: The Interstate Commerce Commission to FERC. However, the FERC lost some jurisdiction over the imports and exports of gas and electricity. In 1978, FERC was given additional responsibilities for harmonizing the regulation of wellhead gas sales in both the intrastate and interstate markets. FERC also administered a program to foster new cogeneration and small power production under the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act of 1978 , which

3848-637: The New York Independent System Operator (NYISO), and the Independent Sysoperator New England (ISO-NE) were early adopters. California, with the backing of its state and Congressional policymakers, sought approval of a controversial scheme to set up its ISO, called California ISO, based near Sacramento, CA. FERC approved it without changes because California had warned that it would not accept any changes. Enron charged one of its policy analysts to figure out how to make

3952-474: The North Bay area, for cities such as Santa Rosa . The Potter Valley Project has had a significant impact on summer low streamflows in the Eel River basin. Although the project taps water from only the upper 10% of the Eel River system, this headwaters region provides most of the summer flow in the lower Eel, especially during critically dry years, when only 5 cubic feet per second (0.14 m/s) are allowed into

4056-581: The Punjab region of India , for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater-related subsidence and saltwater intrusion . Another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over-allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems – in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of

4160-442: The hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. When groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the aquifer may occur. This compression may be partially recoverable if pressures rebound, but much of it is not. When the aquifer gets compressed, it may cause land subsidence,

4264-405: The vadose zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone. Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle ) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and/or reclaimed water is routed to

Potter Valley Project - Misplaced Pages Continue

4368-663: The Commission..., Plaintiffs' recourse lies with their legislative representatives." In New Jersey, the FERC approval of the PennEast Pipeline was met with widespread criticism by environmental groups, which called the decision highly partisan. "FERC has once again demonstrated its tremendous bias for, and partnership with, the pipeline industry," said Maya van Rossum, leader of the Delaware Riverkeeper Network. Doug O'Malley, president of Environment New Jersey, called

4472-478: The D.C. Circuit has provided additional guidance concerning Commission procedures, stating that in one case FERC failed to consider the cumulative environmental impact of four projects that had been separately proposed by the same pipeline. The D.C. Circuit held that the projects were not financially independent and were "a single pipeline" that was "linear and physically interdependent," so the cumulative environmental impacts should have been considered concurrently. In

4576-407: The Delaware Riverkeeper Network and Maya Van Rossum's claim that FERC has an incentive to award pipeline certificates because it collects its operating expenses from regulated parties. Upholding a lower court ruling, the D.C. Circuit also rejected the Delaware Riverkeeper Network's challenge to FERC's use of tolling orders to meet its statutory deadlines for acting on rehearing applications. However,

4680-480: The Eel River past the Cape Horn diversion point. As a result, summer-run salmon and steelhead in the Eel River are negatively affected during dry years. In addition, while Cape Horn Dam has a fish ladder , the larger Scott Dam blocks fish migration to about 100 miles (160 km) of habitat in the Eel River headwaters. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ( FERC )

4784-439: The FERC approval of the pipeline a "disaster." David Pringle, state campaign director of Clean Water Action and 2018 Congressional candidate, suggested the FERC was serving a partisan interest over the interests of the people of New Jersey, suggesting "The FERC needs to remember it works for the people of the United States not PennEast." These criticisms were unfounded as the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals on July 10, 2018, rejected

4888-474: The NYISO's development of buyer-side mitigation (price floors) in its capacity market, proxy peaking-unit specifications during the demand-curve reset (that helps set capacity market prices), the state's granting of zero-emissions credits to wholesale-market participating nuclear power plants, and the creation of a new capacity zone amidst state and transmission owner policy initiatives . Groundwater This

4992-510: The RTO, when a state public utility commission asserts that its retail ratepayers (under state regulation) will be impacted by wholesale-market stakeholder decisions and reforms (under federal-level regulation). In contrast, prior to the formation of the NYISO in 1999 in New York, wholesale energy prices were set within a utility's state rate case proceeding. Examples of contentious issues in New York include

5096-542: The Russian River basin managed by the RRBP. In addition to agricultural, domestic and industrial uses, project water helps to maintain a minimum dry season flow of 150 cubic feet per second (4.2 m/s) in the Russian River, serving for recreational, aesthetic and fishery enhancement purposes. Project water is estimated to provide at least part of the water supply for nearly 500,000 people living in Sonoma and Mendocino Counties, mainly in

5200-584: The Russian River. Construction on the project began in 1900, when The Eel River Power and Irrigation Company (later the Snow Mountain Water and Power Company) constructed the Cape Horn Dam and a one-mile (1.6 km), 8-foot (2.4 m)-diameter tunnel under the drainage divide to Potter Valley , at the headwaters of the East Fork Russian River . The water dropped 450 feet (140 m) to

5304-626: The U.S. It is largely responsible for permitting construction of a large network of interstate natural gas pipelines. FERC also works closely with the United States Coast Guard to review the safety, security, and environmental impacts of proposed LNG terminals and associated shipping. FERC is composed of up to five commissioners who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate to staggered five-year terms. The President appoints one of

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5408-589: The U.S. Supreme Court. If the agency were to adopt the path [suggested by these critics], FERC's decisions would routinely be overturned by the federal courts." The United States District Court for the District of Columbia also dismissed a case involving allegations of structural bias on the part of FERC. The plaintiffs contended that the Omnibus Budget Act of 1986 funding mechanism requires the commission to recover its budget through proportional charges on regulated entities, therefore making FERC biased in favor of

5512-545: The age of groundwater obtained from different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists have found it increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the aquifers along the Eastern Divide , ages are young. As groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km from

5616-451: The agency had the authority to regulate demand response transactions. On July 28, 2023, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission issued Order No. 2023, which regulates the interconnection process that ties renewables projects into the large-scale grid. Among other provisions, the rule requires transmission planners to consolidate projects into 'clusters' for regulatory approval purposes on a 'first-ready, first-served' basis that prioritizes

5720-673: The alleged manipulation of electricity market by Enron and other energy companies, and their role in the California electricity crisis . FERC has collected more than $ 6.3 billion from California electric market participants through settlements. Since passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , FERC has imposed, through settlements and orders, more than $ 1 billion in civil penalties and disgorgement of unjust profits to address violations of its anti- market manipulation and other rules. FERC regulates approximately 1,600 hydroelectric projects in

5824-405: The aquifer reduces the water pressure in the confining layer, causing it to compress from the weight of overlying geologic materials. In severe cases, this compression can be observed on the ground surface as subsidence . Unfortunately, much of the subsidence from groundwater extraction is permanent (elastic rebound is small). Thus, the subsidence is not only permanent, but the compressed aquifer has

5928-525: The aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years. Groundwater provides critical freshwater supply, particularly in dry regions where surface water availability is limited. Globally, more than one-third of the water used originates from underground. In the mid-latitude arid and semi-arid regions lacking sufficient surface water supply from rivers and reservoirs, groundwater is critical for sustaining global ecology and meeting societal needs of drinking water and food production. The demand for groundwater

6032-598: The atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years). Deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural cycle. The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2 million km . By analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep underground, hydrogeologists have been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old. By comparing

6136-510: The atmosphere through evapotranspiration , these salts are left behind. In irrigation districts, poor drainage of soils and surface aquifers can result in water tables' coming to the surface in low-lying areas. Major land degradation problems of soil salinity and waterlogging result, combined with increasing levels of salt in surface waters. As a consequence, major damage has occurred to local economies and environments. Aquifers in surface irrigated areas in semi-arid zones with reuse of

6240-969: The capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes . Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Over 2 billion people rely on it as their primary water source worldwide. Human use of groundwater causes environmental problems. For example, polluted groundwater is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills , excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking , oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems . Additionally, groundwater

6344-421: The commission's use of a separate environmental assessment when it reasoned that the projects in dispute were "unrelated" and did not depend on one another for their justification. This guidance has allowed FERC to address additional claims of improper segmentation. FERC's leaders have stressed many times since the onset of the increased activism that the proper way to oppose a proposed new infrastructure project

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6448-421: The commissioners to be the chairman of FERC, the administrative head of the agency. FERC is a bipartisan body; no more than three commissioners may be of the same political party. Commissioners may continue in office past the end of their term if a successor has not yet been confirmed, up to the end of the current session of Congress. The commissioners are: The Federal Power Commission (FPC), which preceded FERC,

6552-542: The country facing transmission constraints." In 2010, FERC issued Order No. 1000, which required RTOs to create regional transmission plans and identify transmission needs based on public policy. Cost allocation reforms were included, possibly to reduce barriers faced by non incumbent transmission developers. In February 2018, FERC issued Order No. 841, which required wholesale markets to open up to individual storage installations, regardless of interconnection point (transmission, distribution or behind-the-meter). The Order

6656-626: The creation of regional transmission organizations in the United States. This would impact existing electric power pools by rebranding themselves as independent transmission operators. Electric utilities in some regions began to spin off their generation units as separate companies that would compete in a wholesale electric market administered by the RTOs. Once FERC had created the framework for Regional Transmission Organizations with Order No. 888, several such RTOs were approved. The pre-existing multi-state power pool called PJM (Pennsylvania, Jersey, Maryland),

6760-491: The current population growth rate. Global groundwater depletion has been calculated to be between 100 and 300 km per year. This depletion is mainly caused by "expansion of irrigated agriculture in drylands ". The Asia-Pacific region is the largest groundwater abstractor in the world, containing seven out of the ten countries that extract most groundwater (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey). These countries alone account for roughly 60% of

6864-637: The distribution level or behind-the-meter. A United States courts of appeals court (the D.C. Circuit) issued an order in July 2020 that upheld Order 841 and dismissed the petitioners' complaints. FERC issued Order No. 2222 on September 17, 2020, enabling distributed energy resources such as batteries and demand response to participate in regional wholesale electricity markets. Market operators submitted initial compliance plans by early 2022. The Supreme Court had ruled in 2016 in FERC v. Electric Power Supply Ass'n that

6968-484: The diversion during the summer months and also affords some flood control during winter storms. In 1930, ownership of the project was transferred to PG&E. In 1959, Coyote Valley Dam was built on the Russian River as part of the separate Russian River Basin Project (RRBP), forming Lake Mendocino , which provides additional storage of diverted Eel River waters. This reservoir serves a critical function during dry years as it

7072-407: The electricity and natural gas markets. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 also gave FERC additional responsibilities and authority. Among the many provisions of the law, FERC was given what is known as "backstop" siting authority which allows FERC to overrule any denial of transmission projects by a state within established corridors of transmission congestion "to expand transmission in limited regions of

7176-532: The entities it regulates creates bias in favor of the issuance of pipeline certificates. Some of the critics have disrupted several regular open meetings of the Commission and staged a couple of week-long blockades of FERC's headquarters in Washington, D.C., to make their points. "Pipelines are facing unprecedented opposition," Commissioner LaFleur remarked to the National Press Club in a 2015 speech. "We have

7280-404: The extended period over which the damage occurs. The importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. Groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands , and lakes , as well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers. Not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. Some terrestrial ecosystems – for example, those of

7384-430: The extent of federal power and influence within the state. The planning and siting of public policy and renewable power plants and merchant transmission lines can be contentious, because the planning process must proceed through both entities. For example, in New York State, any large (more than 20 MW for the NYISO or 2 MW for the state Siting Committee) generation or merchant transmission facility must proceed through both

7488-407: The extent, depth and thickness of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in production wells, test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be performed in test wells to determine flow characteristics of the aquifer. The characteristics of aquifers vary with

7592-697: The following November, allows state regulators even more opportunities to provide input on interstate grid projects, adds six months to the cost allocation negotiating process, and gives utilities more leeway to forecast additional needs scenarios. The latter order affirms FERC's siting authority in National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors if a state regulatory agency denies any of its own siting responsibility thereof. The order creates an Applicant Code of Conduct to encourage proper landowner outreach, and adds air quality, environmental justice and tribal engagement reports to

7696-465: The following: FERC is a large independent regulatory agency , within the United States Department of Energy , that participates in business oversight. The President and Congress do not generally review FERC decisions, but the decisions are reviewable by the federal courts . FERC is self-funding, in that Congress sets its budget through annual and supplemental appropriations and FERC

7800-472: The geology and structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur. In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley -filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among

7904-404: The globe includes canals redirecting surface water, groundwater pumping, and diverting water from dams. Aquifers are critically important in agriculture. Deep aquifers in arid areas have long been water sources for irrigation. A majority of extracted groundwater, 70%, is used for agricultural purposes. In India, 65% of the irrigation is from groundwater and about 90% of extracted groundwater

8008-416: The ground surface (within a couple of hundred metres) and have some recharge by fresh water. This recharge is typically from rivers or meteoric water (precipitation) that percolates into the aquifer through overlying unsaturated materials. In general, the irrigation of 20% of farming land (with various types of water sources) accounts for the production of 40% of food production. Irrigation techniques across

8112-472: The impacts to fisheries. The project derives water from a drainage basin of 289 square miles (750 km) above Scott Dam and approximately 50 square miles (130 km) between Scott Dam and Cape Horn Dam, where water is diverted to the Russian River. The vast majority of the water arrives as winter rain between December and April, with a smaller, less reliable amount furnished by snowmelt and groundwater through June. Scott Dam, which forms Lake Pillsbury, has

8216-447: The industry from which it gets its funding. But in an order issued March 22, 2017, the court said the plain language of the statute indicates that FERC does not have control over its own budget. "The Commission's budget cannot be increased by approving pipelines; rather, [the statute] requires the Commission to make adjustments to 'eliminate any overrecovery or underrecovery.' If Plaintiffs are unhappy with Congress's chosen appropriations to

8320-426: The issue ended with the 2005 Energy Bill ( Energy Policy Act of 2005 ) which was passed with approval of Democrats and Republicans. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 expanded FERC's authority to protect the reliability and cybersecurity of the bulk power system through the establishment and enforcement of mandatory standards, as well as greatly expanding FERC authority to impose civil penalties on entities that manipulate

8424-406: The list of requirements for project applicants. FERC has been subject to criticism and increasing activism by people from communities affected by its decisions approving pipeline and related projects. They contend that FERC "blithely greenlights too many pipelines, export terminals and other gas infrastructure" and that FERC's structure in which it recovers its annual operating costs directly from

8528-518: The local hydrogeology , may draw in non-potable water or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface water bodies. This can be a serious problem, especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above-surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can look like craters on plots of land. This occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state,

8632-597: The most of the flawed rules put in place for the California electricity market. Enron had success with its fraudulent market transactions. In 2001, the George W. Bush administration sought to give the authority of eminent domain to FERC to circumvent state and local bureaucratic processes which often slowed the siting of new transmission projects. This expansion of power was most fiercely opposed by Bush's own Republican party as being an expansion of federal power. Legal battles over

8736-412: The most productive sources of groundwater. Fluid flows can be altered in different lithological settings by brittle deformation of rocks in fault zones ; the mechanisms by which this occurs are the subject of fault zone hydrogeology . Reliance on groundwater will only increase, mainly due to growing water demand by all sectors combined with increasing variation in rainfall patterns . Groundwater

8840-534: The most well-studied and fully financed projects, forecast advanced technologies, and allow for multiple projects to share a new single interconnection point. It also "imposes firm deadlines and penalties if transmission providers fail to complete interconnection studies on time". On May 13, 2024, FERC issued Order Nos. 1920 and 1977. The former order requires utilities to plan 20 years in advance to anticipate future regional (though not interregional) transmission needs, with five-year updates, and to cooperate in creating

8944-671: The open deserts and similar arid environments – exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or

9048-470: The other two thirds. Groundwater provides drinking water to at least 50% of the global population. About 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater resources to satisfy their basic daily water needs. A similar estimate was published in 2021 which stated that "groundwater is estimated to supply between a quarter and a third of the world's annual freshwater withdrawals to meet agricultural, industrial and domestic demands." Global freshwater withdrawal

9152-683: The percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. Hyporheic zones (the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or totally dependent on groundwater. A 2021 study found that of ~39 million investigated groundwater wells 6-20% are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by a few meters, or – as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers  – continue to decline. Fresh-water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow or rain, also known as meteoric water , can be over-exploited and depending on

9256-537: The planning process of the NYISO, which operates on a two-year cycle at minimum with an inclusive class year pool of new projects evaluated simultaneously, and the siting process of the state Board on Electric Siting and the Environment. Prior to the formation of the NYISO, the planning process was determined mostly by the state siting board (although the utilities' power pool might have had its own closed door planning session) and large generation projects were developed by

9360-464: The project could only operate during the winter months, when there was enough water in the Eel River to divert without drying up the riverbed downstream. In 1920, Snow Mountain Water and Power began construction on a larger dam on the Eel River, 12 miles (19 km) upstream from Cape Horn. Scott Dam , which forms Lake Pillsbury , was completed in 1922. With its greater storage capacity, it provides water for

9464-413: The record" hearings for DOE. As a result, DOE does not have any administrative law judges . As a further protection, when the Department of Energy proposes a rule, it must refer the proposal to FERC, and FERC can take over the proceeding if FERC determines that the rulemaking "may significantly affect" matters in its jurisdiction. The DOE Act also transferred the regulation of interstate oil pipelines from

9568-423: The same terms as surface water : inputs, outputs and storage. The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from groundwater are springs and seepage to the oceans. Due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for

9672-416: The source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1 metre per year. Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer . This process usually occurs in

9776-497: The subsurface. The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a relatively steady temperature . In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 10 °C (50 °F), groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through radiators in

9880-408: The unavoidable irrigation water losses percolating down into the underground by supplemental irrigation from wells run the risk of salination . Surface irrigation water normally contains salts in the order of 0.5 g/L or more and the annual irrigation requirement is in the order of 10,000 m /ha or more so the annual import of salt is in the order of 5,000 kg/ha or more. Under

9984-422: The utilities themselves. The dual planning process provides an opportunity for other market participants to drag out the process legally, not including the other state and/or federal environmental, trade (if an international connection with Canada is requested), and local certification and regulation processes that need to be met. The controversy similarly applies to various electric wholesale-market issues within

10088-519: The world's liquid fresh water is groundwater. Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack, including the north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as a natural storage that can buffer against shortages of surface water , as in during times of drought . The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic records from well-drilling to determine

10192-420: The world's total groundwater withdrawal. Groundwater may or may not be a safe water source. In fact, there is considerable uncertainty with groundwater in different hydrogeologic contexts: the widespread presence of contaminants such as arsenic , fluoride and salinity can reduce the suitability of groundwater as a drinking water source. Arsenic and fluoride have been considered as priority contaminants at

10296-577: Was challenged in court by the state public utility commissions via the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC) , the American Public Power Association , and others who claimed that FERC overstepped its jurisdiction by regulating how local electric distribution and behind-the-meter facilities are administered, i.e., in not providing an opt out of wholesale market access for energy storage facilities located at

10400-438: Was created by the U.S. Congress in 1977 in the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis . FERC is an independent agency, despite being part of the U.S. Department of Energy . It is headed by five commissioners who are nominated by the U.S. president and confirmed by the U.S. Senate . There may be no more than three commissioners of one political party serving on the commission at any given time. The responsibilities of FERC include

10504-635: Was established by Congress in 1920 to allow cabinet members to coordinate federal hydropower development. In 1935, the FPC was transformed into an independent regulatory agency with five members nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate . The FPC was authorized to regulate both hydropower and interstate electricity. In 1938, the Natural Gas Act gave FPC jurisdiction over interstate natural gas pipelines and wholesale sales. In 1942, this jurisdiction

10608-507: Was expanded to cover the licensing of more natural gas facilities. In 1954, the Supreme Court decision in Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Wisconsin extended FPC jurisdiction over all wellhead sales of natural gas in interstate commerce. In response to the 1973 oil crisis, Congress passed the Department of Energy Organization Act in 1977 , to consolidate various energy-related agencies into a Department of Energy . Congress insisted that

10712-657: Was passed as part of the National Energy Act of 1978 . The National Energy Act included the Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978 , which reduced the scope of federal price regulation, to bring greater competition to both the natural gas and electric industry. In 1989, Congress ended federal regulation of wellhead natural gas prices, with the passage of the Natural Gas Wellhead Decontrol Act of 1989 . In 1996, FERC issued Order No. 888, which spurred

10816-402: Was probably around 600 km per year in 1900 and increased to 3,880 km per year in 2017. The rate of increase was especially high (around 3% per year) during the period 1950–1980, partly due to a higher population growth rate, and partly to rapidly increasing groundwater development, particularly for irrigation. The rate of increase is (as per 2022) approximately 1% per year, in tune with

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