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52-767: Year of the Six Emperors   (238) Reign of Gordian III   (238–244) Reign of Philip the Arab   (244–249) Reign of Decius   (249–251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus   (251–253) Reign of Aemilianus   (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus   (253–260) Reign of Gallienus   (260–268) Reign of Claudius Gothicus   (268–270) Reign of Aurelian   (270–275) Reign of Tacitus   (275-276) Reign of Probus   (276-282) Reign of Carus   (282-283) Reign of Carinus   (283-285) Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus ( fl. 259–269)

104-408: A Pretorian Guard , one of whose officers was the future Gallic emperor Victorinus . The chief members of Postumus's administration, such as Victorinus and Tetricus , appear to have been drawn from his power base in northern Gaul, and indeed the entire administration rapidly became Gallicized. Postumus represented himself as the restorer of Gaul ( Restitutor Galliarum ) and the bringer of security to

156-496: A region of France. By the mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massalia (modern Marseille ) on the southern coast of Gaul. Massalia, founded by colonists from Phocaea , was by this point centuries old and quite prosperous. Rome entered into an alliance with Massalia, by which it agreed to protect the town from local Gauls , nearby Aquitani , sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for

208-704: A Roman province in the late 2nd century BC. Gallia Narbonensis was bordered by the Pyrenees Mountains on the west, the Cévennes to the north, the Alps on the east, and the Gulf of Lion on the south; the province included the majority of the Rhone catchment. The western region of Gallia Narbonensis was known as Septimania . The province was a valuable part of the Roman Empire , owing to

260-510: A golden opportunity to move against Gallienus in 268. Aureolus, the general who was in command of Mediolanum (Milan) in Gallienus's interest, rebelled and ultimately declared for Postumus. The city of Mediolanum and its north Italian and Raetian hinterland would have been critical to Postumus if he planned to march on Rome. For whatever reason, Postumus failed to support Aureolus, who was defeated by Gallienus and besieged inside Mediolanum. Before

312-530: A proclamation date in March/April. Peachin suggests that Maximinus died in early June, although this is not certain. Herodian indicates that the Gordian rebelled shortly after Maximinus completed his third regnal year, i.e. shortly after March (more precisely, 23 March). Eutropius indicates that Maximinus reigned "3 years and a few days", which again gives a date between late March and early April, which likely refers to

364-413: A public enemy, the soldiers were pardoned and sent back to their provinces. The co-emperor then returned to Rome, only to find the city in riot. Balbinus had not managed to control the situation, and the city had burned in a fire, resulting in mutiny. With both emperors present, the situation calmed down, but the unease remained. Coins from their reign show one of them on one side and two clasped hands on

416-525: A short while before being overthrown by Victorinus , Postumus's erstwhile colleague in the consulship and tribune of the praetorian guard. In the meantime, the Gallic Empire lost Hispania. Postumus's coinage has been of particular interest to numismatists, in light of the high quality and relative abundance of his coin issues. His ‘Labours of Hercules’ series is particularly renowned, as are several aurei which carry full-face portraits of Postumus instead of

468-403: A show of reluctantly enforcing this command, thus inviting his troops to instead throw off their allegiance to Gallienus. The troops accordingly proclaimed Postumus emperor and besieged Colonia, trapping Saloninus and Silvanus. After breaching the walls of the city, Postumus had Silvanus and Saloninus killed, although his supporters later claimed that it was the native Gauls who were responsible for

520-575: A small strip of land that it wanted in order to build a road to Hispania , to assist in troop transport. The Massalians, for their part, cared more for their economic prosperity than they did for territorial integrity. During this period, the Mediterranean settlements on the coast were threatened by the powerful Gallic tribes to the north, especially the tribes known as the Arverni and the Allobroges . In

572-458: Is clear, however, is that Postumus was not overtly separatist and did not revive the 1st-century dream of an independent Galliarum imperium . (See Julius Sabinus and revolt of the Batavi .) The forms, titles, and administrative structures of Postumus's principate remained conventionally Roman. For four years Gallienus was too distracted by Germanic invasions and other usurpers in the east to address

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624-452: Is obliterated, and Maurice Sartre identifies him as Gordian. However, Richard Burgess considers that the rest of the evidence better matches Maximinus, who did indeed suffer from damnatio memoriae (unlike Gordian). The papyri show that Maximinus was still reigning in early March, which does not allow enough time for the reigns of the Gordians, nor of Pupienus or Balbinus. Some authors date

676-570: The Franks and Alemanni in 262 and 263; following his victory over them in 263, his coin-types celebrated peaceful themes such as Felicitas Augusti for some time. After having spent much of the last four years pushing the Franks out of Gaul, Postumus then recruited Frankish troops to fight against other Franks, probably dispersed within existing Roman army units. Scholars continue to debate whether Postumus originally intended to dislodge Gallienus from Rome or

728-452: The Greek colony and later Roman Civitas of Massalia , its location between the Spanish provinces and Rome, and its financial output. The province of Gallia Transalpina ("Transalpine Gaul") was later renamed Gallia Narbonensis , after its newly established capital of Colonia Narbo Martius (colloquially known as Narbo, at the location of the modern Narbonne ), a Roman colony founded on

780-599: The Rhine . Amid the chaos of an invasion by the Alamanni and Franks , and spurred on by news of the defeat and capture of Valerian, the army in Gaul revolted and proclaimed Postumus emperor. The trigger was their defeat in 260 of a Juthungian army which was returning from Italy laden with prisoners, even though they had been repulsed by Gallienus at Mediolanum ( Milan ). Under the command of Postumus and Marcus Simplicinius Genialis ,

832-778: The First Transalpine War (125–121 BCE), the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus (later additionally named Allobrogicus) campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges and the Arverni under king Bituitus in the Battle of the Isère River . This defeat substantially weakened the Arverni and ensured the further security of Gallia Narbonensis. The area became a Roman province in 121 BCE. The province had come into Roman control originally under

884-431: The Gordians, had failed to defeat him, and knowing that they stood to die if he succeeded, the senate needed a new emperor to defeat him. With no other candidates in view, they elected two elderly senators, Pupienus and Balbinus (who had both been part of a special senatorial commission to deal with Maximinus), as joint emperors. This choice was not popular with the people, however, and mobs threw stones and sticks at

936-453: The Roman army crushed the Juthungi, and Postumus proceeded to distribute the captured spoils to the legions he commanded. Saloninus, on the advice of his praetorian prefect Silvanus (who had coordinated Roman policy in Gaul alongside Postumus), demanded the transfer of the recovered booty to his residence at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). Postumus assembled his army and made

988-535: The Romans built a crossroads that made Narbonne an optimal trading center, and Narbonne became a major trading competitor to Massalia. From Narbonne, the Romans established the province of Transalpine Gaul, later called Gallia Narbonensis. During the Sertorian War (80–72 BCE) against the breakaway state of former Roman senator and general Sertorius , Gallia Narbonensis was an important base for military activities. This

1040-632: The accession of the Gordians and not his actual death. Gallia Narbonensis Gallia Narbonensis ( Latin for "Gaul of Narbonne ", from its chief settlement) was a Roman province located in what is now Occitania and Provence , in Southern France . It was also known as Provincia Nostra ("Our Province"), because it was the first Roman province north of the Alps , and as Gallia Transalpina ("Transalpine Gaul"), distinguishing it from Cisalpine Gaul in Northern Italy . It became

1092-431: The advantage over Postumus, but while Gallienus was besieging a city in Gaul (perhaps Augusta Treverorum ), he was wounded and forced to withdraw. After this, Gallienus was occupied with crises in the rest of his empire and did not confront Postumus again. By the end of 265, Postumus's coin issues were triumphantly commemorating the victory over Gallienus, and the festivities celebrating his quinquennalia continued into

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1144-517: The ancient authors, who declared that he restored the security that the provinces had enjoyed in the past. So successful was he in the task of stabilizing his domain that the coins issued by Postumus were of better workmanship and higher precious metal content than coins issued by Gallienus. His control of the Spanish and British mining regions was presumably crucial in this regard, as was his employment of master minters who would have come into Gaul with Gallienus. Postumus fought successful campaigns against

1196-465: The beginning of the year was Maximinus Thrax , who had ruled since March 235. Later sources claim he was a cruel tyrant, and a revolt erupted in North Africa in early 238. The Historia Augusta states: "The Romans could bear his barbarities no longer—the way in which he called up informers and incited accusers, invented false offences, killed innocent men, condemned all whoever came to trial, reduced

1248-559: The city , but without success. Discontent due to this failure, the lack of success in the campaign in general, lack of supplies and the strong opposition from the senate, forced his legionaries to rethink their allegiance. Soldiers of the II Parthica killed Maximinus in his tent, along with his son Maximus (who had been appointed heir in 236), and surrendered to Pupienus at the end of June. Maximinus' and his son's corpses were decapitated and their heads carried to Rome. For saving Rome from

1300-465: The coast in 118 BC. The name Gallia Narbonensis most likely originates in the Augustan era. Its first recorded use was in a census conducted by Gnaeus Pullius Pollio . The Romans had called it Provincia Nostra ("our province") or simply Provincia ("the province"). The term has survived in the modern name of Provence for the eastern part of the area (French Provence , Occitan Provença ), now

1352-570: The emperor Valerian to the position of imperial legate of Germania Inferior . Postumus was evidently in favour at court, and, according to König, was granted an honorary consulship. By 259, Valerian was campaigning in the east against the Persians, while his son and co-emperor Gallienus was preoccupied with the situation on the Danubian frontier . Consequently, Gallienus left his son, Saloninus , and military commanders, including Postumus, to protect

1404-478: The end of summer in 268, Gallienus was assassinated, and his successor, Claudius II , captured and killed Aureolus. At the same time, a sequence of events began which would end Postumus's rule in Gaul. Postumus assumed his fifth consulship on 1 January 269, but the army in Germania Superior raised a usurper in early 269. Laelianus , one of Postumus's top military leaders and the governor of Germania Superior,

1456-459: The following year. Very little troubled the reign of Postumus from 265 to 268; archaeological evidence, such as it is, points to a general return to peace and normalcy. In 266, Postumus became consul for the fourth time, taking as his colleague Marcus Piavonius Victorinus , a Gallic noble who was also a senior military officer; his selection to such a high-profile position may be seen as an attempt to broaden Postumus's base of support. The year 268 saw

1508-444: The governor of the neighbouring province of Numidia , held a grudge against the Gordians. He led an army to fight them and defeated them decisively at Carthage . Gordian II was killed in the battle, and on hearing this news, Gordian I hanged himself . Both Gordians were deified by the senate. Meanwhile, Maximinus, now declared a public enemy, had already begun to march on Rome with another army. The senate's previous candidates,

1560-406: The imperial tax-collector then approached the regional governor, Gordian , and insisted that he proclaim himself emperor. Gordian agreed reluctantly, but as he was almost 80 years old, he decided to make his son joint emperor, with equal power. The senate recognised father and son as emperors Gordian I and Gordian II , respectively. Their reign, however, lasted for only three weeks. Capelianus ,

1612-423: The issuing of the 'Labours of Hercules' series of gold coins in honour of Postumus's favourite god. A sudden debasement of the coinage later that year shows that Postumus was facing increasing financial difficulties, due perhaps to a disruption of silver production in the Spanish mines or the need to buy off an increasingly discontented army. Such discontent was probably due to Postumus's failure to take advantage of

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1664-529: The markets of Massalia. It was from the capital of Narbonne that Julius Caesar began his Gallic Wars . Caesar rebuilt Narbo and built the cities of Forum Julium and Arles . Julius Caesar also granted many communities in Gallia Narbonensis citizenship. In 49 BC, the city of Massalia sided with the Pompeians during the civil war . After the war ended, the city of Massalia lost all of its independence and

1716-552: The murders. Later he erected a triumphal arch to celebrate his victory. Postumus was immediately recognized as emperor in Gaul (except perhaps for the province of Gallia Narbonensis ), Germania Superior and Inferior , and Raetia . By 261, Britannia, Narbonensis and Hispania also acknowledged him as emperor, possibly after an expedition to Britain in the winter of 260–261. He established his capital in northern Gaul, probably at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ), and furnished his government with many of

1768-633: The name Gallia Transalpina (Transalpine Gaul), which distinguished it from Cisalpine Gaul on the near side of the Alps to Rome. In this strip of land, the Romans founded the town of Narbonne in 118 BC. At the same time, they built the Via Domitia , the first Roman road in Gaul, connecting Gaul to Hispania, and the Via Aquitania , which led toward the Atlantic through Tolosa (Toulouse) and Burdigala (Bordeaux). Thus,

1820-533: The new emperors. Therefore, Gordian III , the thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordian I, was nominated as heir to the throne in order to appease the population of the capital, which was still loyal to the Gordian family. Pupienus was sent at the head of an army to face Maximinus, and Balbinus stayed in Rome. Meanwhile, Maximinus was also having problems. In early February, he reached the city of Aquileia , to find that it had declared for his three enemies. Maximinus besieged

1872-607: The other to show their joint power, yet their relationship was clouded with suspicion from the start, with each fearing assassination by the other. They were planning an enormous double campaign, Pupienus against the Parthians and Balbinus against the Carpians (Grant says against the Goths and the Persians , respectively), but they quarrelled frequently and could not agree or trust each other. It

1924-458: The proclamation of the Gordians to 2 April, the day of an eclipse. However, this is only mentioned in the infamous Historia Augusta and it's most likely a fabrication. Other details of the chronology can be gleaned from later evidence: Pupienus and Balbinus are known to have ruled for 99 days (i.e. 3 months), which places their proclamation in April/May. The Gordians ruled for 22 days, which gives

1976-506: The provinces ( Salus Provinciarum ) on some of his coins; prior to 10 December 261, he also took the title of Germanicus maximus , a title he earned after successfully defending Gaul against the Germans. His principal objective in assuming the purple appeared to be the restoration and defence of the Rhine frontier and the surrounding area, a task that he approached with vigour, earning the admiration of

2028-584: The provinces Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Aquitania into a new administrative unit called Dioecesis Viennensis (Diocese of Vienne) with the capital more to the north in Vienne . The new diocese's name was later changed to Dioecesis Septem Provinciarum (Diocese of the Seven Provinces), indicating that Diocletian had demoted the word "province" to mean a smaller subdivision than in traditional usage. Galla Narbonensis and surrounding areas were incorporated into

2080-501: The richest men to utter poverty and never sought money anywhere save in some other's ruin, put many generals and many men of consular rank to death for no offence, carried others about in wagons without food and drink, and kept others in confinement, in short neglected nothing which he thought might prove effectual for cruelty—and, unable to suffer these things longer, they rose against him in revolt." Some young aristocrats in Africa murdered

2132-406: The situation to his north and west, but in 265 he launched a campaign to defeat Postumus. His first attempt failed when Postumus managed to escape from a precarious situation due to the carelessness of Gallienus's cavalry commander Aureolus . Aureolus was punished with demotion, eventually leading him to turn against Gallienus in 267. A second campaign, led by Gallienus himself, also seemed to have

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2184-542: The town of Deuso, located in or near Batavian territory and likely to be identified with modern-day Diessen ; it has been hypothesized that Postumus himself was born in Deuso. From these relatively obscure provincial origins, Postumus would have risen through the ranks of the army until he held command of the Roman forces "... among the Celts". What his precise title was is not definitely known, though he may plausibly have been promoted by

2236-539: The traditional Roman legislative and executive structures. Apart from the position of emperor , he immediately assumed the office of consul alongside a colleague, Honoratianus . Like his imperial predecessors, he became the pontifex maximus of the state and assumed tribunician power each year. He is thought to have established a senate , perhaps on the basis of the Council of the Three Gauls or provincial councils, and

2288-664: The usual profile view. Most of the ancient literary references to Postumus come from the works thought to be based on the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte ( Aurelius Victor , Epitome de Caesaribus , Eutropius , and the Historia Augusta , in the last of which Postumus is listed among the Thirty Tyrants ). He also figures in the works of Zosimus and Zonaras . Year of the Six Emperors The emperor at

2340-521: The year 238 is highly disputed. The only primary sources are documents from Egypt that mention the reigning emperor at the time. These indicate the following: News of events in Rome could take a whole month to reach Egypt, so it can be deduced that Gordian III's proclamation took place in August or late July. An inscription in Syria dated to 27 March may indicate that his reign began much earlier. The emperor's name

2392-472: Was a Roman commander of Batavian origin, who ruled as emperor of the splinter state of the Roman Empire known to modern historians as the Gallic Empire . The Roman army in Gaul threw off its allegiance to Gallienus around the year 260, and Postumus assumed the title and powers of Emperor in the provinces of Gaul , Germania , Britannia , and Hispania . He ruled for the better part of ten years before he

2444-588: Was an important event in the Romanization of Narbonese Gaul, as it resulted in the Romans organizing the province. Control of the province, which bordered directly on Italia , gave the Roman state several advantages: control of the land route between Italy and the Iberian Peninsula ; a territorial buffer against Gallic attacks on Italy; and control of the lucrative trade routes of the Rhône valley between Gaul and

2496-587: Was content to rule only the western provinces. From the beginning of his usurpation, Postumus had made it clear that his priority was for Gaul, and that he had no immediate intentions to make a bid for Rome. Postumus's power base was Gaul and his main responsibility was the defense of the Rhine provinces. If he marched against Gallienus, then he would be exposing his heartland not only to the Germanic tribes but also potentially to any number of usurpers. Perhaps he hoped to achieve some official recognition from Gallienus; what

2548-467: Was declared emperor in Mogontiacum (Mainz) by the local garrison and surrounding troops ( Legio XXII Primigenia ). Within a few months, Postumus was able to capture Mogontiacum and kill Laelianus. His army wanted to sack the defeated city, and when Postumus tried to restrain them, the soldiers turned on him and killed him. The mutineers set up Marius , a common soldier, as emperor. Marius held sway for

2600-521: Was during one of these heated discussions that the Praetorian Guard decided to intervene. They stormed into the room containing the emperors, seized them both, stripped them, dragged them naked through the streets, tortured and eventually murdered them. On the same day, Gordian III was proclaimed sole emperor (238–244), though in reality his advisors exercised most of his power. Together Pupienus and Balbinus had ruled for only 99 days. The chronology of

2652-540: Was fully subject to Roman rule. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate , Lepidus was given responsibility for Narbonese Gaul (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul. After becoming Emperor , Augustus made Gallia Narbonensis a senatorial province governed by a proconsul . Emperor Diocletian 's administrative reorganization of the Empire in c.  AD 314 merged

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2704-451: Was murdered by his own troops. Little is known about the early life of Postumus. He has been claimed as being of Batavian origin; certainly his coinage honors deities— Hercules Magusanus and Hercules Deusoniensis—who would have been popular among the Batavians. Hercules Magusanus was probably an interpretatio romana translation of the Germanic deity Þunraz . Deusoniensis may refer to

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