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63-561: The Ponte Coperto ("Covered Bridge") or the Ponte Vecchio ("Old Bridge") is a stone and brick arch bridge over the river Ticino in Pavia , Italy. The previous bridge, dating from 1354 (itself a replacement for a Roman construction), was heavily damaged by Allied action in 1945. A debate on whether to fix or replace the bridge ended when the bridge partially collapsed in 1947, requiring new construction, which began in 1949. The new bridge

126-420: A laboratory or factory . Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any resource (e.g. petroleum , natural gas , salt or even water ) from the earth. Mining of rock and metals has been done since prehistoric times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for mineral deposits, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and finally reclamation of

189-490: A Czech martyr to imperial interference. Most historians present him as a victim of a late version of the inveterate investiture controversy between secular rulers and the Catholic hierarchy. The connection of John of Nepomuk with the inviolability of the confessional is part of the transformation of a historical figure into a legend, which can be traced through successive stages. The archbishop , who hastened to Rome soon after

252-473: A bridge in exchange of the first soul crossing the bridge. The man in red was the devil, and he was recognised only by the Archangel Michael , who had arrived from the church nearby . Michael pretended to accept the deal but, once the bridge was built, a goat crossed it first. The bridge therefore also became known as Ponte del Diavolo ('Devil's Bridge'). The Roman bridge continued to function even at

315-491: A bridge over the Ticino where now stands Pavia , which they destroyed after the defeat, suffered by Hannibal , in the battle of Ticinus . In Roman times, in the ancient town of Ticinum , there already was a bridge which connected the two shores of the river Ticino in the same location as the contemporary Ponte Coperto. The base of one of the central piers is still visible nowadays when there are low water levels. The orientation of

378-485: A chronicle of the Teutonic Order compiled by John of Posilge , who died in 1405. In the above accusation, Jan of Jenštejn already calls John of Nepomuk a "holy martyr". The biography of the bishop (written by his chaplain ) describes John of Nepomuk as " gloriosum Christi martyrem miraculisque coruscum " (English: "a glorious martyr of Christ and sparkling with miracles"). Thus, the priest put to death for defending

441-402: A fourth class of rocks alongside igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Rock varies greatly in strength, from quartzites having a tensile strength in excess of 300 MPa to sedimentary rock so soft it can be crumbled with bare fingers (that is, it is friable ). (For comparison, structural steel has a tensile strength of around 350 MPa. ) Relatively soft, easily worked sedimentary rock

504-433: A huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans and other hominids for at least 2.5 million years . Lithic technology marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rock for its metal content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has progressed at different rates in different places, in part because of

567-459: A more famous Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk was founded in 1719. Meanwhile, in spite of the objection of the Jesuits, the process was inaugurated which ended with his canonisation . On 31 May 1721, he was beatified, and on 19 March 1729, he was canonised under Pope Benedict XIII . The acts of the process, comprising 500 pages, distinguish two Johns of Nepomuk and sanction the cult of

630-501: A period of time Einstein had spent in Pavia when he was 15 years old. The bridge was shown in a famous scene of the film The Overcoat , by Alberto Lattuada , depicting the poor clerk Carmine De Carmine, played by Renato Rascel . Stone In geology , rock (or stone ) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition , and

693-562: A source area and then transported to the place of deposition by water , wind , ice , mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation ). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of 6% limestone and 12% sandstone and arkoses . Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils . Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata , and may be referred to as stratified rocks. Sediment and

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756-713: A texture are referred to as foliated ; the remainders are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present. Schists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas . A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness , with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock include slates , phyllites , and mylonite . Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble , soapstone , and serpentine . This branch contains quartzite —a metamorphosed form of sandstone —and hornfels . Though most understanding of rocks comes from those of Earth, rocks make up many of

819-456: A wide success, they influenced all subsequent historians for two centuries, up to the Latin edition, critically annotated by the translator, which considerably reduced Hajek's credit as a reliable historian. Further and less reliable details about John of Nepomuk come from the annalists of the 17th and 18th centuries. Boleslaus Balbinus , S.J., in his Vita beati Joannis Nepomuceni martyris gives

882-549: Is based on the previous one, which had seven arches to the current bridge's five. The current bridge, like its predecessor, bears a chapel. The Ponte Coperto was, until the nineteenth century, the only brick bridge over the Ticino from Lake Maggiore to its confluence with the Po . In pre-Roman times, Ticino flowed into the Po valley below the point where the bridge now stands. At the confluence of

945-458: Is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava . This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet 's mantle or crust . Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Magmas tend to become richer in silica as they rise towards

1008-490: Is next in importance. About 65% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks. Of these, 66% are basalt and gabbro , 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorite and diorite . Only 0.6% are syenite and 0.3% are ultramafic . The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granite and similar rocks, known as granitoids , dominate the continental crust . Sedimentary rocks are formed at

1071-409: Is reflected the religious history of Bohemia. A coincidental drought in the region a year later helped the legend along; the church convinced the peasants that the drought represented God's punishment for the killing of Jan Nepomucký. Building on that success, they attempted to paint the king as even blacker, with certain clerical circles spreading reports of John's courage, saying that as confessor to

1134-462: Is the accusation of the king, presented to Pope Boniface IX on 23 April 1393, by Archbishop Jan of Jenštejn, who immediately went to Rome together with the new Abbot of Kladruby. A few years later, Abbott Ladolf of Sagan listed John of Nepomuk in the catalog of Sagan abbots, completed in 1398, as well as in the treatise " De longævo schismate ", lib. VII, c. xix. A further document is the " Chronik des Deutschordens "/ Chronik des Landes Preussen ,

1197-453: Is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the development of engineering and technology in human society. While

1260-484: The Annales Bohemorum of Wenceslaus Hajek of Liboczan (Václav Hájek z Libočan), the "Bohemian Livy". He suggested that two Jan di Nepomuks may have existed and have both been killed by King Wenceslaus. The first one is the queen's confessor, who died in 1383; the other the vicar of the archbishop, who disagreed with the king on the election of the abbot of Kladruby and was drowned in 1393. As Hajek's annals enjoyed

1323-805: The Habsburg family. Statues of St. John of Nepomuk, churches consecrated to him and settlements bearing his name can be found not only in Central Europe (where there are most common), but also in many other European countries and further beyond in the Americas and in India. Worldwide, statues of John of Nepomuk number in tens of thousands, making John of Nepomuk the most represented Czech person in visual art. In Czechia alone, there are around 6000 statues. Similar numbers are in Austria and Germany, and smaller numbers in other parts of

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1386-621: The Jan who was burned in 1415. The resemblances are certainly striking, extending to the manner of celebrating their commemorations. But when the Jesuits came to Prague , the Nepomuk veneration had long been widespread; and the idea of canonization originated in opposition not to the Hussites , but to Protestantism , as a weapon of the Counter-Reformation . In the image of the saint which gradually arose

1449-524: The University of Prague , then furthered his studies in canon law at the University of Padua from 1383 to 1387. In 1393, he was made vicar-general of Saint Giles Cathedral by Jan of Jenštejn , Archbishop of Prague . At issue was the appointment of a new abbot for the rich and powerful Benedictine Abbey of Kladruby in 1393; its abbot was a territorial magnate whose resources would be crucial to Wenceslaus in his struggles with nobles. Wenceslaus

1512-417: The history of geology includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century. Plutonism was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 allowed for the radiocarbon dating of rocks. Understanding of plate tectonics developed in the second half of

1575-399: The 20th century. Rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are crystalline solids formed from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly structure. Some rocks also contain mineraloids , which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as volcanic glass , that lack crystalline structure. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which it

1638-442: The Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments , which in turn are formed by the weathering , transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. Humanity has made use of rocks since

1701-467: The Earth's surface, a process called magma differentiation . This occurs both because minerals low in silica crystallize out of the magma as it begins to cool ( Bowen's reaction series ) and because the magma assimilates some of the crustal rock through which it ascends ( country rock ), and crustal rock tends to be high in silica. Silica content is thus the most important chemical criterion for classifying igneous rock. The content of alkali metal oxides

1764-503: The Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures greater than 1500 bars. This occurs, for example, when continental plates collide. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume. The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under

1827-564: The Queen he had refused to reveal her secrets, and that was why he had been murdered. Belief in John's supernatural powers culminated with the discovery of his supposed tongue when three centuries later his tomb was opened and a piece of reddened tissue fell out of his skull. The cult of St. John of Nepomuk grew in the 17th century and spread during 17th and 18th centuries from Bohemia into many Catholic countries, especially to those ruled by or having ties to

1890-559: The beginning of the Middle Ages and was restored in 860 by Emperor Louis the German , who ordered the vassals dependent on the Abbey of Bobbio to come to Pavia to participate in the works. In the Middle Ages (then in modern times, until the advent of the railway), the bridge was very important because it was a nodal point at the intersection of two fundamental trade routes for the entire Po Valley :

1953-469: The city's side with the words: Sull'antico varco del ceruleo Ticino, ad immagine del vetusto Ponte Coperto, demolito dalla furia della guerra, la Repubblica Italiana riedificò ('On the ancient passage of the cerulean river Ticino, in the likeness of the old Ponte Coperto, demolished by the war, the Italian Republic rebuilt'). The bridge was built around 30 metres (98 ft) further downstream than

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2016-523: The constituent particles, and particle size . These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can be transformed from one type into another, as described by a geological model called the rock cycle . This transformation produces three general classes of rock: igneous , sedimentary and metamorphic . Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in

2079-529: The construction of the Spanish walls, in the 17th century, the first arch and a half on the city's side, and the first arch on the Borgo side were incorporated in the bastions and therefore closed. Subsequently, new elements were added: a portal of entry on Borgo Ticino's side (1599), a chapel in the centre of the bridge in honour of Saint John of Nepomuk (1746), and lastly a portal of entry, built by Carlo Armati (1822), on

2142-415: The crime, in his charge against Wenceslaus, called the victim a martyr; in the vita written a few years later miracles are already recorded, by which the drowned man was discovered. About the middle of the 15th century the statement appears for the first time that the refusal to violate the seal of confession was the cause of John's death. Two decades later (1471), the dean of Prague, Paul Zidek, makes John

2205-519: The development of metallurgy . John of Nepomuk Jan z Pomuku came from the small market town of Pomuk (later renamed Nepomuk ) in Bohemia , now in the Czech Republic , which belonged to the nearby Cistercian abbey. Born in the 1340s, his father was called Velflín, while his mother is unknown. His father's name was probably derived from the German name Wolfgang . Jan first studied at

2268-491: The earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age , saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure . Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals . Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete . Geology

2331-606: The earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water ( sedimentation ). This process causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles ( detritus ) to settle and accumulate or for minerals to chemically precipitate ( evaporite ) from a solution . The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation at moderate temperatures and pressures ( diagenesis ). Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in

2394-427: The earth, from an ore body, vein or seam . The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals , precious metals , iron , uranium , coal , diamonds , limestone , oil shale , rock salt , potash , construction aggregate and dimension stone . Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in

2457-503: The fear that any collapse of the bridge could have caused a flood, in February 1948 the Ministry of Public Works ordered the demolition of the ancient artifact. A few remains of the piers of the ancient bridge are still visible in the waters of the river. The construction of the new bridge began in 1949, and its inauguration took place in 1951. An epigraph was placed on the portal of entry on

2520-410: The flows of the water of the river. In 2005, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the death of Albert Einstein , a plaque was placed in the central portion of the bridge. The plaque reads An die schöne Brücke in Pavia habe ich oft gedacht ('I have often thought about that beautiful bridge in Pavia'), a quote from a letter written by the scientist in 1947 to an Italian friend which referred to

2583-538: The former Habsburg Empire . Individual statues or other monuments can be found in almost every country with a significant Catholic tradition. Most of those statues are located on bridges (due to John of Nepomuk being a patron saint of bridges and against drowning) and are modelled according to the famous John of Nepomuk statue on the Charles Bridge in Prague. He is usually portrayed with a halo with five stars, alluding to

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2646-402: The ground; pressure is dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade . Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions. Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess

2709-491: The kind of metals available from the rock of a region. Anthropic rock is synthetic or restructured rock formed by human activity. Concrete is recognized as a human-made rock constituted of natural and processed rock and having been developed since Ancient Rome . Rock can also be modified with other substances to develop new forms, such as epoxy granite . Artificial stone has also been developed, such as Coade stone . Geologist James R. Underwood has proposed anthropic rock as

2772-431: The land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases. Mining processes may create negative impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after mining has ceased. These potential impacts have led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations. Stone tools have been used for millions of years by humans and earlier hominids . The Stone Age

2835-553: The laws and autonomy of the Catholic Church became revered as a saint directly after his death. Much additional biographical information comes from Bohemian annalists who wrote 60 or more years after the events they recount. Although they may have taken advantage of sources not available today, their contribution is considered legendary by many historians, particularly by the Protestant ones. The mistake of John of Krumlov crept into

2898-548: The most rich account. Although the theory of Hajek of Liboczan has no credit today, some historians believe the vicar's refusal to betray the seal of the confessional might have been the secret reason why Wenceslaus took vengeance on John of Nepomuk as soon as a credible excuse provided the opportunity. Catholics see John of Nepomuk as a martyr to the cause of defending the Seal of the Confessional . Romantic nationalists regard him as

2961-445: The one who was drowned in 1383 as a martyr of the sacrament of penance. According to some Protestant sources, the figure of John Nepomuk is a legend due to Jesuits and that its historical kernel is really Jan Hus , who was metamorphosed from a Bohemian Reformer into a Roman Catholic saint: the Nepomuk story would be based on Wenceslaus Hajek's blending of the Jan who was drowned in 1393 and

3024-418: The original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism , meaning to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the protolith , transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by recrystallization . The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at

3087-425: The particles of clastic sedimentary rocks can be further classified by grain size . The smallest sediments are clay , followed by silt , sand , and gravel . Some systems include cobbles and boulders as measurements. Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which

3150-533: The pier is proof that in Roman age the direction of the current of the river was different. It is believed that the Roman bridge was built during the Augustan age. According to the legend, in 999, on Christmas Eve, a few pilgrims wanted to attend the midnight mass in town but, because of the thick fog, their boats could not cross the river. Suddenly, a man in red clothes arrived, and he promised that he would immediately build

3213-477: The previous one, larger and higher. The arches are larger, therefore fewer (five instead of seven). The bridge is also shorter, as it is positioned exactly perpendicular to the river's current. The old one instead followed the line which links Strada Nuova (in the city centre) and Piazzale Ghinaglia (in Borgo Ticino). The changes in the project were aimed at improving the road conditions on the bridge and facilitating

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3276-462: The proportions of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive structures of one kind of rock may thus be traced, gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected points in a continuously graduated series. Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus, meaning of fire, from ignis meaning fire)

3339-452: The queen's confessor. The chronicler Wenceslaus Hajek speaks in 1541 (perhaps due to an incorrect reading of his sources) of two Johns of Nepomuk being drowned; the first as confessor, the second for his confirmation of the abbot. The legend is especially indebted for its growth to the Jesuit historiographer Boleslaus Balbinus the "Bohemian Pliny", whose Vita beati Joannis Nepomuceni martyris

3402-766: The river route, through which it was possible to reach the Adriatic and Venice and the "Lombardy" route which, crossing the covered bridge, connected Genoa with Milan . A new bridge was rebuilt in 1351 on the ruins of the Roman bridge, following the project of Giovanni da Ferrara and Jacopo da Cozzo. The bridge was completed in 1354: it was covered and it had ten irregular arches and two towers at its ends, used for defence. The appearance of this bridge, although with only six arches, can be observed in Bernardino Lanzani 's frescoes (around 1524) in Saint Theodore's Church . During

3465-598: The side of the historic centre. In the registry office in Mezzabarba Palace, seat of the municipality of Pavia, a wooden model of the 14th-century bridge, built in 1938, is displayed. The Allied bombings in September 1944 during the Second World War damaged the ancient bridge and destroyed one of its arches. At the end of the war, a debate was opened over the opportunity to fix the old bridge or to demolish it. Due to

3528-637: The two rivers, in territory then controlled by populations of the Golasecca culture , around 600 BC, according to Livy , the Celtic prince Bellovesus defeated the Etruscans and, after settling on this territory with his people, then founded, further north, the city of Milan . In 218 BC, when the meeting point between Ticino and Po had moved downstream several kilometers, the Romans, led by Publius Cornelius Scipio , threw

3591-610: The universe's celestial bodies. In the Solar System , Mars , Venus , and Mercury are composed of rock, as are many natural satellites , asteroids , and meteoroids . Meteorites that fall to Earth provide evidence of extraterrestrial rocks and their composition. They are typically heavier than rocks on Earth. Asteroid rocks can also be brought to Earth through space missions, such as the Hayabusa mission. Lunar rocks and Martian rocks have also been studied. The use of rock has had

3654-590: The way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust , and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere . The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy . It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks , sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks . Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in

3717-408: Was a period of widespread stone tool usage. Early Stone Age tools were simple implements, such as hammerstones and sharp flakes. Middle Stone Age tools featured sharpened points to be used as projectile points , awls, or scrapers . Late Stone Age tools were developed with craftsmanship and distinct cultural identities. Stone tools were largely superseded by copper and bronze tools following

3780-733: Was backing the Avignon pope Clement VII , whereas the archbishop followed his rival, the Pope in Rome , Boniface IX . Contrary to the wishes of Wenceslaus, John confirmed the archbishop's candidate for Abbot of Kladruby. On 20 March 1393, he was tortured and thrown into the River Vltava from the Charles Bridge in Prague by order of King Wenceslaus IV. This account is based on four contemporary documents. The first

3843-456: Was formed. Most rocks contain silicate minerals , compounds that include silica tetrahedra in their crystal lattice , and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the earth's crust . The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties. Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability , texture of

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3906-426: Was published in Prague, 1670. Although the Prague metropolitan chapter did not accept the biography dedicated to it, "as being frequently destitute of historical foundation and erroneous, a bungling work of mythological rhetoric", Balbinus stuck to it. In 1683 the Charles Bridge was adorned with a statue of the saint, which has had numerous successors; in 1708 the first church was dedicated to him at Hradec Králové ;

3969-706: Was quarried for construction as early as 4000 BCE in Egypt, and stone was used to build fortifications in Inner Mongolia as early as 2800 BCE. The soft rock, tuff , is common in Italy, and the Romans used it for many buildings and bridges. Limestone was widely used in construction in the Middle Ages in Europe and remained popular into the 20th century. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from

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