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56-630: The area east of the Sorbian March was conquered between 927 and 929 by King Henry I of Germany in the course of his campaign against the Polabian Slavs , it was incorporated as Gau Plisni into the Saxon Marca Geronis . Upon the weakening of the Imperial authority during the 11th century Investiture Controversy , the estates gradually came under the rule of local comital dynasties, foremost

112-581: A canon of the Cathedral of Parma . He was considered one of the best canonists of his time, He wrote the Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium , a commentary on papal decrees. He was called to serve Pope Honorius III in the Roman Curia where he rapidly rose through the hierarchy. He was Auditor causarum , from 11 November 1226 to 30 May 1227. He was then quickly promoted to the office of Vice-Chancellor of

168-466: A few days after the investiture of Edmund. Innocent spent the spring of 1254 in Assisi and then, at the beginning of June, moved to Anagni , where he awaited Manfred's reaction to the event, especially considering that Conrad's heir, Conradin , had been entrusted to Papal tutelage by King Conrad's testament. Manfred submitted, although probably only to gain time and counter the menace from Edmund, and accepted

224-559: A personal allodium in his quarrels with the mighty Bavarian duke Henry the Proud and his successors from the House of Welf . King Conrad had already implemented the office of a permanent burgrave at Altenburg in 1147. Similar to the adjacent Egerland in the southwest, the imperial territory Terra Plisensis administered by ministeriales in Altenburg, Leisnig, at Colditz Castle and Lausick

280-641: A trial in Paris in 1240 , which ultimately found the Talmud guilty of 35 alleged charges; 24 cartloads of copies of the Talmud were burned. Initially, Innocent IV continued Gregory IX's policy. In a letter of 9 May 1244, he wrote to King Louis IX, ordering the Talmud and any books with Talmudic glosses to be examined by the Regent Doctors of the University of Paris, and if condemned by them, to be burned. However, an argument

336-548: Is not contractually required. This meant that punishment of individuals within an organization would reflect less on the organization itself than if the person running such an organization was said to own it rather than be a constituent of it, and hence the concept was meant to provide institutional stability. Possibly prompted by the persistence of heretical movements such as the Albigensians , an earlier pope, Gregory IX (1227–1241), had issued letters on 9 June 1239, ordering all

392-752: The Burgraves of Nuremberg and the Margraves of Meissen . Emperor Lothair III (1133-1137) began to reassert his claims by repeatedly choosing the Kaiserpfalz at Altenburg ( Castro Plysn ) as his temporary residence and by promoting the colonization the surrounding estates up to the Ore Mountains in the course of the Ostsiedlung , including the foundation of the Benedictine abbey of Chemnitz. He also seized parts of

448-740: The Patrimony of St Peter . The Emperor's machinations aroused a good deal of anti-papal feelings in Italy, particularly in the Papal States, and imperial agents encouraged plots against papal rule. Realizing to be increasingly unsafe in Rome , Innocent IV secretly and hurriedly withdrew, fleeing Rome on 7 June 1244. Traveling in disguise, he made his way to Sutri and then to the port of Civitavecchia , and from there to Genoa , his birthplace, where he arrived on 7 July. On 5 October, he fled from there to France , where he

504-606: The Vatican Library , demanding the submission of the Pope and the other rulers of Europe. In 1245 Innocent had sent another mission, through another route, led by Ascelin of Lombardia , also bearing letters. The mission met with the Mongol ruler Baichu near the Caspian Sea in 1247. The reply of Baichu was in accordance with that of Güyük, but it was accompanied by two Mongolian envoys to

560-555: The 17th century onwards reported that he became Bishop of Albenga in 1235, but later sources disputed this claim. There is no attestation of this in any of the contemporary sources while there is evidence that the see of Albenga was occupied by a certain Bishop Simon from 1230 until 1255. Innocent's immediate predecessor was Pope Celestine IV , elected on 25 October 1241, whose reign lasted only fifteen days. The events of Innocent IV's pontificate are therefore inextricably linked to

616-616: The 9th century by Slavic insurrections , who were tributaries of the Germans . In the 10th century the march formed part of the vast marca Geronis from 937 until 965. During this period, the Sorbs were reduced to serfdom and the march was largely pacified. After 965, it formed a part of the March of Meissen . Pope Innocent IV Pope Innocent IV ( Latin : Innocentius IV ; c.  1195 – 7 December 1254), born Sinibaldo Fieschi ,

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672-814: The Ancona in 1235. Fieschi was elected pope in 1243 and took the name Innocent IV. He inherited an ongoing dispute over lands seized by the Holy Roman Emperor, and the following year he traveled to France to escape imperial plots against him in Rome. He returned to Rome in 1250 after the death of the Emperor Frederick II . On May 15, 1252, he promulgated the bull Ad extirpanda authorizing torture against heretics, equated with ordinary criminals. Born in Genoa (although some sources say Manarola ) in an unknown year, Sinibaldo

728-525: The Bishop of Córdoba to take action against the Jews who were building a synagogue whose height was not acceptable to the local clergy. Documents from the reign of Pope Innocent IV recorded resentment toward a prominent new congregational synagogue: The Jews of Cordoba are rashly presuming to build a new synagogue of unnecessary height thereby scandalizing faithful Christians, wherefore ... we command [you] ... to enforce

784-469: The Church raised concerns. Innocent attempted to give attention to the latter through a number of interventions. In 1246 Edmund Rich , former Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1240), was declared a saint. In 1250 Innocent similarly proclaimed the pious Queen Margaret (died 1093), wife of King Malcolm III of Scotland , a saint. The Dominican priest Peter of Verona , martyred by Albigensian heretics in 1252,

840-513: The Holy Roman Church (from 31 May to 23 September 1227), though he retained the office and the title for a time after he was named Cardinal. While vice-Chancellor, Fieschi was soon created Cardinal-Priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina on 18 September 1227 by Pope Gregory IX (1227–1241). He later served as papal governor of the March of Ancona , from 17 October 1235 until 1240. Sources from

896-634: The Italian Lombard League . The Hohenstaufen managed to retain the overlordship of the Pleissnerland; Frederick's son King Henry VI in 1195 even seized the neighbouring Margraviate of Meissen, which nevertheless fell back to the Saxon House of Wettin upon his death two years later. With the 1198 election of both Henry's younger brother Philip of Swabia and the Welf Otto IV of Brunswick ,

952-489: The Jews not be attacked or molested for these or other reasons. That same year 1247, in a letter of 2 August to Louis IX, the Pope reversed his stance on the Talmud, ordering that the Talmud should be censored rather than burned. Despite opposition from figures such as Odo of Châteauroux , Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum and former Chancellor of the University of Paris, Innocent IV's policy was nonetheless continued by subsequent popes. In April 1250 (5 Iyar ), Innocent IV ordered

1008-663: The Mongols also concerned the Pope, and in 1245, he issued bulls and sent a papal nuncio in the person of Giovanni da Pian del Carpine (accompanied by Benedict the Pole ) to the "Emperor of the Tartars". The message asked the Mongol ruler to become a Christian and stop his aggression against Europe. The Khan Güyük replied in 1246 in a letter written in Persian mixed Turkic that is still preserved in

1064-431: The Mongols in 1245, including that of André de Longjumeau and the possibly aborted mission of Laurent de Portugal . Despite other concerns, the later years of Innocent's life were largely directed to political schemes for encompassing the overthrow of Manfred of Sicily , the natural son of Frederick II, whom the towns and the nobility had for the most part received as his father's successor. Innocent aimed to incorporate

1120-500: The Papacy or to anyone else, Innocent and his papal army headed south from his summer residence at Anagni on 8 October, intending to confront Manfred's forces. On 27 October 1254 the Pope entered the city of Naples . It was there, on a sick bed, that Innocent heard of Manfred's victory at Foggia on 2 December against the Papal forces, led by the new Papal Legate, Cardinal Guglielmo Fieschi ,

1176-450: The Papal seat in Lyon , Aïbeg and Serkis . In the letter, Guyuk demanded that the Pope appear in person at the Mongol imperial headquarters, Karakorum , so that “we might cause him to hear every command that there is of the jasaq ”. In 1248 the envoys met with Innocent, who again issued an appeal to the Mongols to stop their killing of Christians. Innocent IV would also send other missions to

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1232-501: The Pope's nephew. The tidings are said to have precipitated Pope Innocent's death on 7 December 1254 in Naples. From triumph to disaster had taken only a few months. Shortly after Innocent's election as pope, his nephew Opizzo had been appointed Latin Patriarch of Antioch . In December 1251 Innocent IV himself appointed another nephew, Ottobuono , Cardinal Deacon of S. Andriano. Ottobuono

1288-513: The Romans, returned from Italy and began to take possession of the Pleissnerland estates, completed by the establishment of a Teutonic Knights commandry at Altenburg. As Frederick II concentrated on the reorganisation of the Kingdom of Sicily , the actual power was exercised by his son King Henry (VII) of Germany . The Imperial authority was decisively enfeebled, when Henry rebelled against his father and

1344-683: The Sorbian March bore the title dux Sorabici (limitis) in the Annales , but are also referred to elsewhere as counts ( comites ), margraves ( marchiones ), and dukes of Thuringia ( duces Thuringorum ). The march was probably ruled primarily by the Babenberg family. The boundary between Thuringia and the Sorbs was defined as the Saale river by Einhard , writing in the 830s: Salam fluvium, qui Thuringos et Sorabos dividit ("the river Saale, which divides

1400-599: The Thuringii and the Sorbs"). Erfurt was then the chief economic centre of eastern Thuringia. The Sorbian March probably (loosely) included the land east of the Saale as far as the Elster and the Pleisse , which might have been controlled by castles . The Sorbian March may have been only the area west of the Saale, east of it, or on both sides. The Sorbian March was frequently troubled in

1456-480: The authority of your office against the Jews in this regard.... Innocent IV was responsible for the eventual deposition of King Sancho II of Portugal at the request of his brother Afonso (later King Afonso III of Portugal ). One of the arguments he used against Sancho II in the Bull Grandi non immerito was Sancho's status as a minor upon inheriting the throne from his father Afonso II. The warlike tendencies of

1512-542: The bishops of France to confiscate all Talmuds in the possession of the Jews. Agents were to raid each synagogue on the first Saturday of Lent 1240, and seize the books, placing them in the custody of the Dominicans or the Franciscans. The Bishop of Paris was ordered to see to it that copies of the Pope's mandate reached all the bishops of France, England, Aragon, Navarre, Castile and León, and Portugal. On 20 June 1239, there

1568-528: The council. Being incarcerated, the two missed the conclave which quickly elected Celestine IV . The conclave reconvened after Celestine's death split into factions supporting contrasting policies about how to treat the Emperor. After a year and a half of contentious debate and coercion, the papal conclave finally reached a unanimous decision. The choice fell upon Cardinal Sinibaldo de' Fieschi, who very reluctantly accepted election as Pope on 25 June 1243, taking

1624-547: The crimes they have committed." As Innocent III had before him, Innocent IV saw himself as the Vicar of Christ, whose power was above earthly kings. Innocent, therefore, had no objection to intervening in purely secular matters. He appointed Afonso III administrator of Portugal, and lent his protection to Ottokar , the son of the King of Bohemia . The Pope even sided with King Henry III against both nobles and bishops of England, despite

1680-593: The first to be held in Lyon. The bishops met for three public sessions: 28 June, 5 July, and 17 July 1245. Their principal purpose was to win over the Emperor Frederick II . The First Council of Lyon of 1245 had the fewest participants of any previous General Council. However, three patriarchs and the Latin emperor of Constantinople attended, along with about 150 bishops, most of them prelates from France and Spain. They came quickly, and Innocent could rely on their help. Bishops from

1736-662: The homelands of the Lusatian Margrave Henry of Groitzsch , who had died without heirs in 1135. The Reichsgut gained in importance with the accession of King Conrad III of Germany from the House of Hohenstaufen in 1138: As Conrad's elder brother Duke Frederick II of Swabia held the Swabian home territories of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, the King had to rely on the Pleissnerland around the Altenburg Kaiserpfalz as

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1792-546: The idea of legal personality , persona ficta as it was originally written, which has led to the idea of corporate personhood. At the time, this allowed monasteries, universities and other bodies to act as a single legal entity, facilitating continuity in their corporate existence. Monks and friars pledged individually to poverty could be part nonetheless of an organization that could own infrastructure. Such institutions, as "fictive persons", could not be excommunicated or considered guilty of delict, that is, negligence to action that

1848-631: The king's harassment of Edmund Rich , the Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of All England, and the royal policy of having the income of a vacant bishopric or benefice delivered to the royal coffers, rather than handed over to a papal Administrator (usually a member of the Curia) or a Papal collector of revenue, or delivered directly to the Pope. In the case of the Mongols, too, Innocent maintained that he, as Vicar of Christ, could make non-Christians accept his dominion and even exact punishment should they violate

1904-517: The marriage of the couple in 1255, unopposed after the Hohenstaufen dynasty became extinct with the execution of Frederick's grandson Conradin in 1268. Last attempts by Rudolph of Habsburg to regain the former Reichsgut were rejected, and the Pleissnerland was incorporated into the possessions of the Meissen margraves, from 1423 Electors of Saxony . Sorbian March The Sorbian March ( Latin : limes Sorabicus , German : Sorbenmark )

1960-424: The name of Innocent IV. As a cardinal, Sinibaldo had been on friendly terms with Frederick, even after the latter's excommunication. The Emperor greatly admired the cardinal's wisdom, having enjoyed discussions with him from time to time. Following the election, the witty Frederick remarked that he had lost the friendship of a cardinal but gained the enmity of a pope. His jest notwithstanding, Frederick's letter to

2016-416: The new pontiff was respectful, offering congratulations to the new Pope and wishing him success. It also expressed hope for an amicable settlement of the differences between the empire and the papacy. Negotiations began shortly afterwards but were not successful. Innocent refused to back down from his demands and Frederick refused to acquiesce. The dispute continued mostly about the restitution of Lombardy to

2072-617: The next three decades. Innocent IV himself, following the papal army which was seeking to destroy Frederick's son Manfred, died in Naples on 7 December 1254. While in Perugia, on 15 May 1252, Innocent IV issued the papal bull Ad extirpanda , composed of thirty-eight 'laws'. He advised civil authorities in Italy to treat heretics as criminals, and authorized torture as long as it was done "without killing them or breaking their arms or legs" to compel disclosures, "as thieves and robbers of material goods are made to accuse their accomplices and confess

2128-761: The non-God centred commands of the Ten Commandments. This policy was held more in theory than in practice and was eventually repudiated centuries later. Shortly after Innocent IV's election to the papacy, the Teutonic Order sought his consent for the suppression of the Prussian rebellion and for their struggle against the Lithuanians. In response the Pope issued on 23 September 1243 the papal bull Qui iustis causis , authorizing crusades in Livonia and Prussia . The bull

2184-535: The policies dominating the reigns of popes Innocent III , Honorius III and Gregory IX . Gregory IX had demanded the return of lands belonging to the Papal States which had been seized by the Emperor Frederick II . The Pope had called a general council to seek the deposing of the emperor with the support of Europe's Church leaders. However, hoping to intimidate the Curia, Frederick had seized two cardinals traveling to

2240-597: The quarrels between both houses were resumed. To secure the Pleissnerland possessions, Philip acted tactically in order to gain allies, confirming the enfeoffment of the Wettin margrave Dietrich the Oppressed with Meissen. Even after his assassination in 1208, his rival Otto, Emperor from 1209 to 1218, did not achieve any position of authority over the Reichsgut . In 1211/12 Philip's nephew Frederick II of Hohenstaufen , elected King of

2296-675: The rest of Europe outside Spain and France feared retribution from Frederick, while many other bishops were prevented from attending either by the invasions of the Mongols (Tartars) in the Far East or Muslim incursions in the Middle East . The bishop of Belgorod in Russia, Peter, attended and provided information on the Mongols via the Tractatus de ortu Tartarorum . During the session, Frederick II's position

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2352-579: The threat to Innocent's life and allowed his return to Italy. He departed Lyon on 19 April 1251 and arrived in Genoa on 18 May. On 1 July, he was in Milan, accompanied by only three cardinals and the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople . He stayed there until mid-September, when he began an inspection tour of Lombardy, heading for Bologna. On 5 November he reached Perugia. From 1251–53 the Pope stayed at Perugia until it

2408-787: The title of papal vicar for southern Italy. Innocent could therefore enjoy a moment in which he was the acknowledged sovereign, in theory at least, of most of the peninsula. Innocent overplayed his hand, however, by accepting the fealty of the city of Amalfi directly to the Papacy instead of to the Kingdom of Sicily on 23 October. Manfred immediately, on 26 October, fled from Teano , where he had established his headquarters, and headed to Lucera to rejoin his Saracen troops. Manfred had not lost his nerve, and organized resistance to papal aggression. Supported by his faithful Saracen troops, he began using military force to make rebellious barons and towns submit to his authority as Regent for his nephew. Realizing that Manfred had no intention of submitting to

2464-414: The whole Kingdom of Sicily into the Papal States , but he lacked the necessary economic and political power. Therefore, after a failed agreement with Charles of Anjou , he invested Edmund Crouchback , the nine-year-old son of King Henry III of England , with that kingdom on 14 May 1254. In the same year, Innocent excommunicated Frederick II's other son, Conrad IV, King of Germany , but the latter died

2520-494: Was a frontier district on the eastern border of East Francia in the 9th through 11th centuries. It was composed of several counties bordering the Sorbs . The Sorbian March seems to have comprised the eastern part of Thuringia . The Sorbian March was sometimes referred to as the Thuringian March . The term "Sorbian March" appears only four times in the Annales Fuldenses . Several rulers are recorded: Thachulf , Radulf , Poppo , and Burchard (probably). The commanders of

2576-410: Was a creation of his nephew Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , who also established the Imperial city of Chemnitz about 1170. Unlike his uncle, Frederick Barbarossa had inherited the Swabian Hohenstaufen estates from his father Duke Frederick II, he nevertheless had to secure his rule in the Saxon territories upon the fierce conflict with the Welf Duke Henry the Lion and his unsuccessful campaigns against

2632-477: Was another letter, addressed to the Bishop of Paris, the Prior of the Dominicans and the Minister of the Franciscans, calling for the burning of all copies of the Talmud, and any obstructionists were to be visited with ecclesiastical censures. On the same day, the Pope wrote to the King of Portugal ordering him to see to it that all copies of the Talmud be seized and turned over to the Dominicans or Franciscans. On account of these letters, King Louis IX of France held

2688-402: Was canonized, as was Stanislaus of Szczepanów , the Polish Archbishop of Cracow , both in 1253. In August 1253, after much worry about the order's insistence on absolute poverty, Innocent finally approved the rule of the Second Order of the Franciscans, the Poor Clares nuns, founded by St. Clare of Assisi , the friend of St. Francis . Innocent IV is often credited with helping to create

2744-454: Was defended by Taddeo of Suessa , who renewed in his master's name all the promises made before, but refused to give the guarantees the pope demanded. The council ended on 17 July with the fathers solemnly deposing and excommunicating the Emperor, while absolving all his subjects from their allegiance. The council's acts inflamed the political conflict across Europe. The tension subsided only with Frederick's death in December 1250: this removed

2800-414: Was deposed in 1235. In 1243 Emperor Frederick II, deeply entangled in his conflict with Pope Innocent IV , finally had to grant the Pleissnerland as a dowry of his daughter Margaret , whom he betrothed to Albert II , son of Margrave Henry III of Meissen from the House of Wettin. Though the estates were only given as a pledge, the Wettins had no intentions to restore them and confirmed their tenure upon

2856-425: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 June 1243 to his death in 1254. Fieschi was born in Genoa and studied at the universities of Parma and Bologna . He was considered in his own day and by posterity as a fine canonist. On the strength of this reputation, he was called to the Roman Curia by Pope Honorius III . Pope Gregory IX made him a cardinal and appointed him governor of

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2912-400: Was joyously welcomed. Making his way to Lyon , where he arrived on 29 November 1244, Innocent was greeted cordially by the magistrates of the city. Innocent was now safe and out of the reach of Frederick II. In a sermon on 27 December 1244, he summoned as many bishops as could get to Lyon (140 bishops eventually came) to attend what became the 13th General (Ecumenical) Council of the Church,

2968-420: Was presented that this policy was a negation of the Church's traditional stance of tolerance toward Judaism. On 5 July 1247, Pope Innocent wrote to the Bishops of France and of Germany to say that because both ecclesiastics and lay persons were lawlessly plundering the property of the Jews, and falsely stating that at Eastertime they sacrificed and ate the hearts of little children, the bishops should see to it that

3024-399: Was reissued by Innocent and his successors in October 1243, March 1256, August 1256 and August 1257. The papal preoccupation with imperial matters and secular princes caused other matters to suffer. On the one hand, the internal governance of the Papal States was neglected. Taxation increased in proportion to the discontent of the inhabitants. On the other hand, the spiritual condition of

3080-511: Was safe for him to bring the papal court back to Rome. He finally saw Rome again in the first week of October, 1253. He left Rome on 27 April 1254, for Assisi and then Anagni. He immediately dealt with the succession to the possessions of Frederick II, both as German Emperor and as King of Sicily. In both instances, Innocent continued Pope Gregory IX's policy of opposition to the Hohenstaufen, supporting whatever opposing party could be found. This policy embroiled Italy in one conflict after another for

3136-399: Was the son of Beatrice Grillo and Ugo Fieschi, Count of Lavagna . The Fieschi were a noble merchant family of Liguria . Sinibaldo received his education at the universities of Parma and Bologna and may have taught canon law , for a time, at Bologna. The fact is disputed, though, as others pointed out, there is no documentary evidence of his teaching position. From 1216 to 1227 he was

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