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80-455: Pitman shorthand is a system of shorthand for the English language developed by Englishman Sir Isaac Pitman (1813–1897), who first presented it in 1837. Like most systems of shorthand, it is a phonetic system; the symbols do not represent letters, but rather sounds, and words are, for the most part, written as they are spoken. Shorthand was referred to as phonography in the 19th century. It

160-580: A 1864 copyright infringement lawsuit against Benn Pitman in Ohio. Graham died in 1895 and was buried in Montclair's Rosedale Cemetery ; even as late as 1918 his company Andrew J. Graham & Co continued to market his method. In his youth, Woodrow Wilson had mastered the Graham system and even corresponded with Graham in Graham. Throughout his life Wilson continued to develop and employ his own Graham system writing, to

240-549: A common example. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece , where a mid-4th century BC inscribed marble slab was found. This shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older. The oldest datable reference

320-477: A final flick added to represent the . [REDACTED] The consonants in Pitman's shorthand are pronounced pee, bee, tee, dee, chay, jay, kay, gay, eff, vee, ith, thee, ess, zee, ish, zhee, em, el, en, ray ar, ing, way, yay, and hay . When both an unvoiced consonant and its corresponding voiced consonant are present in this system, the distinction is made by drawing the stroke for the voiced consonant thicker than

400-582: A fraction of the time to acquire a useful speed of between 70 and 100 words per minute. Non-stenographic systems often supplement alphabetic characters by using punctuation marks as additional characters, giving special significance to capitalised letters, and sometimes using additional non-alphabetic symbols. Examples of such systems include Stenoscript , Speedwriting and Forkner shorthand . However, there are some pure alphabetic systems, including Personal Shorthand , SuperWrite, Easy Script Speed Writing, Keyscript Shorthand and Yash3k which limit their symbols to

480-443: A left-to-right, top-to-bottom writing direction. Several systems incorporate a loop into many of the strokes, giving the appearance of Gregg, Graham, or Cross's Eclectic shorthand without actually functioning like them. The Kotani (aka Same-Vowel-Same-Direction or SVSD or V-type) system's strokes frequently cross over each other and in so doing form loops. Japanese also has its own variously cursive form of writing kanji characters,

560-485: A legal battle ensued. The two systems use very similar, if not identical, symbols; however, these symbols are used to represent different sounds. For instance, on page 10 of the manual is the word d i m 'dim'; however, in the Gregg system, the spelling would actually mean n u k or 'nook'. Andrew J. Graham was a notable phonotypist operating in the period between the emergence of Pitman's and Gregg's systems. In 1854 he published

640-576: A less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire , the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were still known and taught, particularly during the Carolingian Renaissance . After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten. When many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of

720-601: A nasal vowel, and in Igbo nasality is a feature of the syllable; when /f v s z ʃ ʒ/ occur in nasal syllables they are themselves nasalized. Until its extinction, Ubykh may have been the language with the most fricatives (29 not including /h/ ), some of which did not have dedicated symbols or diacritics in the IPA . This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English (which has 24 consonants). By contrast, approximately 8.7% of

800-442: A priori alphabetic characters. These have the added advantage that they can also be typed—for instance, onto a computer , PDA , or cellphone . Early editions of Speedwriting were also adapted so that they could be written on a typewriter, and therefore would possess the same advantage. Shorthand systems can also be classified according to the way that vowels are represented. Traditional shorthand systems are written on paper with

880-538: A short-lived (only 9 issues) phonotypy journal called The Cosmotype, subtitled "devoted to that which will entertain usefull, instruct, and improve humanity" , and several other monographs about phonography. In 1857 he published his own Pitman-like "Graham's Brief Longhand" that saw wide adoption in the United States in the late 19th century. He published a translation of the New Testament. His method landed him in

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960-410: A stenographic pencil or a stenographic pen. Some consider that strictly speaking only handwritten systems can be called shorthand. Machine shorthand is also a common term for writing produced by a stenotype , a specialized keyboard . These are often used for court room transcripts and in live subtitling . However, there are other shorthand machines used worldwide, including: Velotype ; Palantype in

1040-450: A system of shorthand, Pitman used similar-looking symbols for phonetically related sounds. He was the first to use thickness of a stroke to indicate voicing (voiced consonants such as /b/ and /d/ are written with heavier and lighter lines than unvoiced ones such as /p/ and /t/), and consonants with similar place of articulation were oriented in similar directions, with straight lines for plosives and arcs for fricatives . For example,

1120-411: A system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word. Bright's book was followed by a number of others, including Peter Bales' The Writing Schoolemaster in 1590, John Willis's Art of Stenography in 1602, Edmond Willis's An abbreviation of writing by character in 1618, and Thomas Shelton 's Short Writing in 1626 (later re-issued as Tachygraphy ). Shelton's system became very popular and

1200-711: A tense, unaspirated /s͈/ in Korean ; aspirated fricatives are also found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages , in some Oto-Manguean languages , in the Siouan language Ofo ( /sʰ/ and /fʰ/ ), and in the (central?) Chumash languages ( /sʰ/ and /ʃʰ/ ). The record may be Cone Tibetan , which has four contrastive aspirated fricatives: /sʰ/ /ɕʰ/ , /ʂʰ/ , and /xʰ/ . Phonemically nasalized fricatives are rare. Umbundu has /ṽ/ and Kwangali and Souletin Basque have /h̃/ . In Coatzospan Mixtec , [β̃, ð̃, s̃, ʃ̃] appear allophonically before

1280-588: A total of nine pen shorthands in use. In addition, there is the Yamane pen shorthand (of unknown importance) and three machine shorthands systems (Speed Waapuro, Caver and Hayatokun or sokutaipu). The machine shorthands have gained some ascendancy over the pen shorthands. Japanese shorthand systems ('sokki' shorthand or 'sokkidou' stenography) commonly use a syllabic approach, much like the common writing system for Japanese (which has actually two syllabaries in everyday use). There are several semi-cursive systems. Most follow

1360-429: A writing instrument responsive to the user's drawing pressure: specialist fountain pens (with fine, flexible nibs) were originally used, but pencils are now more commonly used. Pitman shorthand uses straight strokes and quarter-circle strokes, in various orientations, to represent consonant sounds. The predominant way of indicating vowels is to use light or heavy dots, dashes, or other special marks drawn close to

1440-461: Is phonemic : with the exception of abbreviated shapes called logograms, the forms represent the sounds of the English word, rather than its spelling or meaning. Unlike Gregg, pairs of consonant phonemes distinguished only by voice are notated with strokes differing in thickness rather than length. There are twenty-four consonants that can be represented in Pitman's shorthand, twelve vowels, and four diphthongs . The consonants are indicated by strokes,

1520-404: Is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of [f] ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in the case of German [x] (the final consonant of Bach ); or the side of the tongue against the molars , in the case of Welsh [ɬ] (appearing twice in

1600-575: Is a contract from Middle Egypt , stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the "semeiographer" Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs. Over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome , Marcus Tullius Tiro (103–4 BC), a slave and later a freedman of Cicero , developed the Tironian notes so that he could write down Cicero's speeches. Plutarch ( c.  46  – c.  120 AD ) in his "Life of Cato

1680-525: Is an older term for fricatives used by some American and European phoneticians and phonologists for non-sibilant fricatives. " Strident " could mean just "sibilant", but some authors include also labiodental and uvular fricatives in the class. The airflow is not completely stopped in the production of fricative consonants. In other words, the airflow experiences friction . All sibilants are coronal , but may be dental , alveolar , postalveolar , or palatal ( retroflex ) within that range. However, at

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1760-411: Is phonetic, but has the simplicity of being "light-line." Pitman's system uses thick and thin strokes to distinguish related sounds, while Gregg's uses only thin strokes and makes some of the same distinctions by the length of the stroke. In fact, Gregg claimed joint authorship in another shorthand system published in pamphlet form by one Thomas Stratford Malone; Malone, however, claimed sole authorship and

1840-509: Is scattered throughout the world, but is confined to nonsibilant fricatives with the exception of a couple of languages that have [ʒ] but lack [ʃ] . (Relatedly, several languages have the voiced affricate [ dʒ ] but lack [tʃ] , and vice versa.) The fricatives that occur most often without a voiceless counterpart are – in order of ratio of unpaired occurrences to total occurrences – [ʝ] , [β] , [ð] , [ʁ] and [ɣ] . Fricatives appear in waveforms as somewhat random noise caused by

1920-504: Is sometimes known as phonography , meaning "sound writing" in Greek. One of the reasons this system allows fast transcription is that vowel sounds are optional when only consonants are needed to determine a word. The availability of a full range of vowel symbols, however, makes complete accuracy possible. Isaac's brother Benn Pitman, who lived in Cincinnati , Ohio, was responsible for introducing

2000-420: Is used in a list of company names used to tie the murder of Lee Stetson’s parents to Thomas Blackthorn. In the 2020 novel Troubled Blood by Robert Galbraith , a clue is found in old police notes written in Pitman shorthand. Shorthand Many forms of shorthand exist. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, which can allow someone well-trained in

2080-405: Is well known because it was used by Samuel Pepys for his diary and for many of his official papers, such as his letter copy books. It was also used by Sir Isaac Newton in some of his notebooks. Shelton borrowed heavily from his predecessors, especially Edmond Willis. Each consonant was represented by an arbitrary but simple symbol, while the five vowels were represented by the relative positions of

2160-416: Is written as ") . |", but sit is written as ").|". Vowels are further distinguished by their position relative to the consonant stroke – beginning, middle or end – for a total of 12 possible combinations. Another feature of Pitman's shorthand allows most vowels to be omitted in order to speed up the process of writing. As mentioned above, each vowel is written next to either the beginning, middle or end of

2240-710: The Duployé system, adapted to write the Kamloops Wawa (used for Chinook Jargon ) writing system. Script shorthands are based on the motions of ordinary handwriting. The first system of this type was published under the title Cadmus Britanicus by Simon Bordley, in 1787. However, the first practical system was the German Gabelsberger shorthand of 1834. This class of system is now common in all more recent German shorthand systems, as well as in Austria , Italy , Scandinavia ,

2320-511: The Netherlands , Russia , other Eastern European countries, and elsewhere. Script-geometric , or semi-script , shorthands are based on the ellipse. Semi-script can be considered a compromise between the geometric systems and the script systems. The first such system was that of George Carl Märes in 1885. However, the most successful system of this type was Gregg shorthand , introduced by John Robert Gregg in 1888. Gregg had studied not only

2400-402: The dental and alveolar consonants are upright: ⟨|⟩ = /t/ , ⟨ | ⟩ = /d/ , ⟨)⟩ = /s/ , ⟨ ) ⟩ = /z/ , ⟨(⟩ = /θ/ (as in thigh ), ⟨ ( ⟩ = /ð/ (as in thy ). Pitman's brother Benjamin Pitman settled in Cincinnati, Ohio , in the United States and introduced Pitman's system there. He used it in

2480-549: The geometric English systems, but also the German Stolze stenography, a script shorthand. Other examples include Teeline Shorthand and Thomas Natural Shorthand . The semi-script philosophy gained popularity in Italy in the first half of the 20th century with three different systems created by Giovanni Vincenzo Cima, Erminio Meschini, and Stenital Mosciaro. Some shorthand systems attempted to ease learning by using characters from

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2560-565: The ll of Welsh , as in Lloyd , Llewelyn , and Machynlleth ( [maˈxənɬɛθ] , a town), as the unvoiced 'hl' and voiced 'dl' or 'dhl' in the several languages of Southern Africa (such as Xhosa and Zulu ), and in Mongolian. No language distinguishes fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeal, approximants are more numerous than fricatives. A fricative realization may be specified by adding

2640-422: The uptack to the letters, [χ̝, ʁ̝, ħ̝, ʕ̝] . Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, [χ̞, ʁ̞, ħ̞, ʕ̞] . (The bilabial approximant and dental approximant do not have dedicated symbols either and are transcribed in a similar fashion: [β̞, ð̞] . However, the base letters are understood to specifically refer to the fricatives.) In many languages, such as English or Korean,

2720-536: The "best, potentially fastest, most versatile of various pen systems". In the 2005 film version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy , The Vogons use a blockier form of Pitman 2000. In McDonald & Dodds (2020), season 1 episode 2, the victim scribbles a note on the back of a door in Pitman shorthand which DS Dodds recognizes as meaning Thirteenth Step. In the 1986 Scarecrow and Mrs. King episode " Unfinished Business " (season 4, episode 3), Pitman shorthand

2800-412: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation , long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China , clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and criminal confessions. These records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by

2880-765: The 1865–67 trial of the conspirators behind the assassination of Abraham Lincoln . In Australia the system was introduced by another Pitman brother, Jacob . Jacob Pitman is buried in Rookwood Necropolis , Sydney . His epitaph is written phonetically: IN LUVING MEMERI OV JACOB PITMAN, BORN 28th NOV. 1810 AT TROWBRIDGE ENGLAND, SETELD IN ADELAIDE 1838, DEID 12TH MARCH 1890. ARKITEKT, INTRODIUST FONETIK SHORTHAND AND WOZ THE FERST MINISTER IN THEEZ KOLONIZ OV THE DOKTRINZ OV THE SEKOND OR NIU KRISTIAN CHURCH WHICH AKNOLEJEZ THE LORD JESUS CHRIST IN HIZ DEVEIN HIUMANITI AZ THE KREATER OV THE YUNIVERS, THE REDEEMER AND REJENERATER OV MEN. GOD OVER AUL, BLESED FOR EVER. At one time, Pitman

2960-711: The Americas. Overall, voicing contrasts in fricatives are much rarer than in plosives, being found only in about a third of the world's languages as compared to 60 percent for plosive voicing contrasts. About 15 percent of the world's languages, however, have unpaired voiced fricatives , i.e. a voiced fricative without a voiceless counterpart. Two-thirds of these, or 10 percent of all languages, have unpaired voiced fricatives but no voicing contrast between any fricative pair. This phenomenon occurs because voiced fricatives have developed from lenition of plosives or fortition of approximants. This phenomenon of unpaired voiced fricatives

3040-488: The Latin alphabet. Such non-stenographic systems have often been described as alphabetic , and purists might claim that such systems are not 'true' shorthand. However, these alphabetic systems do have value for students who cannot dedicate the years necessary to master a stenographic shorthand. Alphabetic shorthands cannot be written at the speeds theoretically possible with symbol systems—200 words per minute or more—but require only

3120-479: The UK are Pitman 2000, PitmanScript, Speedwriting , and Gregg. Teeline is also the most common shorthand method taught to New Zealand journalists, whose certification typically requires a shorthand speed of at least 80 words per minute. In Nigeria, shorthand is still taught in higher institutions of learning, especially for students studying Office Technology Management and Business Education. Fricative A fricative

3200-566: The UK, in the U.S., its popularity has been largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , developed by John Robert Gregg in 1888. In the UK, the spelling-based (rather than phonetic) Teeline shorthand is now more commonly taught and used than Pitman, and Teeline is the recommended system of the National Council for the Training of Journalists with an overall speed of 100 words per minute necessary for certification. Other less commonly used systems in

3280-571: The UK; Grandjean Stenotype, used extensively in France and French-speaking countries; Michela Stenotype, used extensively in Italy; and Stenokey, used in Bulgaria and elsewhere. One of the most widely used forms of shorthand is still the Pitman shorthand method described above, which has been adapted for 15 languages. Although Pitman's method was extremely popular at first and is still commonly used, especially in

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3360-613: The Younger" (95–46 BC) records that Cicero, during a trial of some insurrectionists in the senate, employed several expert rapid writers, whom he had taught to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes, to preserve Cato's speech on this occasion. The Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations ( notae ) and of word ending abbreviations ( titulae ). The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4,000 signs, but new signs were introduced, so that their number might increase to as many as 13,000. In order to have

3440-529: The accused's signature, personal seal, or thumbprint, requiring fast writing. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day and, influenced by Western shorthand methods, some new methods were invented. An interest in shorthand or "short-writing" developed towards the end of the 16th century in England . In 1588, Timothy Bright published his Characterie; An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced

3520-411: The consonant stroke is raised, kept on the line, or lowered to match whether the first vowel of the word is written at the beginning, middle, or end of a consonant stroke—without actually writing the vowel. This is often enough to distinguish words with similar consonant patterns. Another method of vowel indication is to choose from among a selection of different strokes for the same consonant. For example,

3600-416: The consonant stroke. Pitman's shorthand is designed to be written on lined paper and when a word's first vowel is a "first position" vowel (i.e. it is written at the beginning of the stroke), the whole shorthand outline for the word is written above the paper's ruled line. For a second position vowel, the outline is written on the line, and for a third position vowel, it is written through the line. In this way,

3680-541: The consonant. Vowels are drawn before the stroke (or over a horizontal stroke) if the vowel is pronounced before the consonant, and after the stroke (or under a horizontal stroke) if pronounced after the consonant. Each vowel, whether indicated by a dot for a short vowel or by a dash for a longer, more drawn-out vowel, has its own position relative to its adjacent stroke (beginning, middle, or end) to indicate different vowel sounds in an unambiguous system. However, to increase writing speed, rules of "vowel indication" exist whereby

3760-487: The geometrical shapes that were common in the English stenographic tradition. Taylor's system was superseded by Pitman shorthand , first introduced in 1837 by English teacher Sir Isaac Pitman , and improved many times since. Pitman's system has been used all over the English-speaking world and has been adapted to many other languages, including Latin . Pitman's system uses a phonemic orthography . For this reason, it

3840-556: The glottal "fricatives" are unaccompanied phonation states of the glottis, without any accompanying manner , fricative or otherwise. They may be mistaken for real glottal constrictions in a number of languages, such as Finnish . Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis ("plain") fricatives. Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants. However, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare. /s~sʰ/ contrasts with

3920-565: The highest speed in capturing spoken words with a pen. Major pen shorthand systems are Shuugiin, Sangiin, Nakane and Waseda [a repeated vowel shown here means a vowel spoken in double-length in Japanese, sometimes shown instead as a bar over the vowel]. Including a machine-shorthand system, Sokutaipu, we have 5 major shorthand systems now. The Japan Shorthand Association now has 1,000 members. There are several other pen shorthands in use (Ishimura, Iwamura, Kumassaki, Kotani, and Nissokuken), leading to

4000-507: The hiragana syllabary; foreign words may not have a kanji form and are spelled out using katakana. The new sokki were used to transliterate popular vernacular story-telling theater (yose) of the day. This led to a thriving industry of sokkibon (shorthand books). The ready availability of the stories in book form, and higher rates of literacy (which the very industry of sokkibon may have helped create, due to these being oral classics that were already known to most people) may also have helped kill

4080-507: The idea of whole or partial semantic ideographic writing like that used in the Chinese characters, and the phonetic approach being mostly peripheral to writing in general. Even today, Japanese writing uses the syllabaries to pronounce or spell out words, or to indicate grammatical words. Furigana are written alongside kanji, or Chinese characters, to indicate their pronunciation especially in juvenile publications. Furigana are usually written using

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4160-503: The languages are not the same. Prior to the Meiji era, Japanese did not have its own shorthand (the kanji did have their own abbreviated forms borrowed alongside them from China). Takusari Kooki was the first to give classes in a new Western-style non-ideographic shorthand of his own design, emphasis being on the non-ideographic and new. This was the first shorthand system adapted to writing phonetic Japanese, all other systems prior being based on

4240-603: The list of abbreviations to reduce the memory load, officially reduced to a list of 144 short forms. The later versions dropped certain symbols and introduced other simplifications to earlier versions. For example, strokes "rer" (heavy curved downstroke) and "kway" (hooked horizontal straight stroke) are present in Pitman's New Era, but not in Pitman's 2000. Pitman was asked to create a shorthand system of his own in 1838. He had used Samuel Taylor's system for seven years, but his symbols bear greater similarity to an older system created by John Byrom . The first phonetician to invent

4320-479: The method to America. The record for fast writing with Pitman shorthand is 350 wpm during a two-minute test by Nathan Behrin in 1922. In the United States and some other parts of the world, it was largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , which was first published in 1888 by John Robert Gregg . This system was influenced by the handwriting shapes that Gabelsberger had introduced. Gregg's shorthand, like Pitman's,

4400-519: The mid-20th century, donated to the archive in 2018, and in late 2020 undergoing a transcription process. In the 1959 spy comedy film Our Man in Havana a British agent dictates a secret cable to a secretary, who records the text in Pitman Shorthand. The protagonist of David R. Palmer 's novels Emergence (1981) and Tracking (2008) purportedly writes her journals in Pitman Shorthand, declaring it

4480-440: The most extremely simplified of which is known as Sōsho . The two Japanese syllabaries are themselves adapted from the Chinese characters: both of the syllabaries, katakana and hiragana, are in everyday use alongside the Chinese characters known as kanji; the kanji, being developed in parallel to the Chinese characters, have their own idiosyncrasies, but Chinese and Japanese ideograms are largely comprehensible, even if their use in

4560-431: The name Llanelli ). This turbulent airflow is called frication . A particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants . When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a narrow channel, but in addition, the tongue is curled lengthwise to direct the air over the edge of the teeth. English [s] , [z] , [ʃ] , and [ʒ] are examples of sibilants. The usage of two other terms is less standardized: " Spirant "

4640-572: The one for the unvoiced consonant. (Thus s is ⟨)⟩ and z is ⟨ ) ⟩ .) There are two strokes for r : ar and ray . The former assumes the form of the top right-hand quarter of a circle (drawn top-down), whereas the latter is like chay ⟨/⟩ , only less steep (drawn bottom to top). There are rules governing when to use each of these forms. The long vowels in Pitman's shorthand are: /ɑː/, /eɪ/, /iː/, /ɔː/, /oʊ/, and /uː/ . The short vowels are /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/, /ʌ/, and /ʊ/ . The long vowels may be remembered by

4720-582: The other languages without true fricatives do have [h] in their consonant inventory. Voicing contrasts in fricatives are largely confined to Europe, Africa, and Western Asia. Languages of South and East Asia, such as Mandarin Chinese , Korean , and the Austronesian languages , typically do not have such voiced fricatives as [z] and [v] , which are familiar to many European speakers. In some Dravidian languages they occur as allophones. These voiced fricatives are also relatively rare in indigenous languages of

4800-694: The point that by 1950s, when the Graham method had all but disappeared Wilson scholars had trouble interpreting his shorthand. In 1960 an 84-year-old anachronistic shorthand expert Clifford Gehman managed to crack Wilson's shorthand, demonstrating on a translation of Wilson's acceptance speech for the 1912 presidential nomination. Our Japanese pen shorthand began in 1882, transplanted from the American Pitman-Graham system. Geometric theory has great influence in Japan. But Japanese motions of writing gave some influence to our shorthand. We are proud to have reached

4880-611: The position of the outline indicates that the first vowel can only be one of four possibilities. In most cases, this means that the first and often all the other vowels can be omitted entirely. i e ∨ o i 7 o w ∧ e w ∩ {\displaystyle ie\;\;\;^{\lor }\qquad oi\;\;\;^{\mathfrak {7}}\qquad ow\;\;\;_{\land }\qquad ew\;\;\;_{\cap }} There are four diphthongs in Pitman's shorthand, representing / aɪ / , / ɔɪ / , / aʊ / , / j uː / , as in

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4960-626: The postalveolar place of articulation, the tongue may take several shapes: domed, laminal , or apical , and each of these is given a separate symbol and a separate name. Prototypical retroflexes are subapical and palatal, but they are usually written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, but this difference is indicated with diacritics rather than with separate symbols. The IPA also has letters for epiglottal fricatives, with allophonic trilling, but these might be better analyzed as pharyngeal trills. The lateral fricative occurs as

5040-487: The preface to his 1913 play Pygmalion , George Bernard Shaw cites Henry Sweet 's "Pitfall Shorthand" comment. The Christian devotional text " My Utmost for His Highest " (1924) was originally copied down by Rev. Oswald Chambers’ wife, Gertrude "Biddy" Chambers, in Pitman Shorthand. An example of a journalist's use of Pitman Shorthand can be found in The Guardian newspaper's GNM Archive, Clyde Sanger notebooks from

5120-406: The sentence, "Pa, may we all go too?" /pɑː | meɪ wiː ɔːl ɡoʊ tuː/ , and the short vowels may be remembered by the sentence, "That pen is not much good" /ðæt pɛn ɪz nɒt mʌt͡ʃ ɡʊd/ . A vowel is represented by a dot or a dash, which is written with either a light stroke (for a short vowel) or heavy stroke (for a long vowel). For example, sate is written as ")•|", but set is written as ")·|"; seat

5200-531: The sound "R" has two kinds of strokes: round, or straight-line, depending on whether there is a vowel sound before or after the R. There have been several versions of Pitman's shorthand since 1837. The original Pitman's shorthand had an "alphabet" of consonants, which was later modified. Additional modifications and rules were added to successive versions. Pitman New Era (1922–1975) had the most developed set of rules and abbreviation lists. Pitman 2000 (1975–present) introduced some simplifications and drastically reduced

5280-484: The surrounding consonants. Thus the symbol for B with symbol for T drawn directly above it represented "bat", while B with T below it meant "but"; top-right represented "e", middle-right "i", and lower-right "o". A vowel at the end of a word was represented by a dot in the appropriate position, while there were additional symbols for initial vowels. This basic system was supplemented by further symbols representing common prefixes and suffixes. One drawback of Shelton's system

5360-438: The system to write as quickly as people speak. Abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. In the computerized world, several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, also include a shorthand function for frequently used phrases. Shorthand

5440-471: The target letter forms as geometric, script, and semi-script or elliptical. Geometric shorthands are based on circles, parts of circles, and straight lines placed strictly horizontally, vertically or diagonally. The first modern shorthand systems were geometric. Examples include Pitman shorthand , Boyd's syllabic shorthand , Samuel Taylor's Universal Stenography, the French Prévost-Delaunay, and

5520-451: The turbulent airflow, upon which a periodic pattern is overlaid if voiced. Fricatives produced in the front of the mouth tend to have energy concentration at higher frequencies than ones produced in the back. The centre of gravity ( CoG ), i.e. the average frequency in a spectrum weighted by the amplitude (also known as spectral mean ), may be used to determine the place of articulation of a fricative relative to that of another. Symbols to

5600-458: The vowels by interposed dots. [REDACTED] Common words are represented by special outlines called logograms (or "Short Forms" in Pitman's New Era). Words and phrases which have such forms are called grammalogues. Hundreds exist and only a tiny number are shown above. The shapes are written separately to show that they represent distinct words, but in common phrases ("you are", "thank you", etc.) two or three logograms may be joined together, or

5680-511: The words " I enj oy G ow' s m u sic." The first three appear as small checkmarks; the "ew" sound is written as a small arch. Both "ie" and "oi" are written in first position, while "ow" and "ew" are written in third position. In the same way, the whole outline is placed above, on or through the paper's ruled line. If the diphthong is followed by a neutral vowel, a little flick is added. Linguist Henry Sweet dubbed Pitman's Shorthand "Pitfall Shorthand" in his 1892 Manual of Current Shorthand . In

5760-429: The world's languages have no phonemic fricatives at all. This is a typical feature of Australian Aboriginal languages , where the few fricatives that exist result from changes to plosives or approximants , but also occurs in some indigenous languages of New Guinea and South America that have especially small numbers of consonants. However, whereas [h] is entirely unknown in indigenous Australian languages, most of

5840-615: The yose theater, as people no longer needed to see the stories performed in person to enjoy them. Sokkibon also allowed a whole host of what had previously been mostly oral rhetorical and narrative techniques into writing, such as imitation of dialect in conversations (which can be found back in older gensaku literature; but gensaku literature used conventional written language in between conversations, however). Shorthands that use simplified letterforms are sometimes termed stenographic shorthands, contrasting with alphabetic shorthands, below. Stenographic shorthands can be further differentiated by

5920-491: Was first used by newspapers who sent phonographers to cover important speeches, usually stating (as a claim of accuracy) that they had done so. The practice got national attention in the United States in 1858 during the Lincoln–Douglas Debates which were recorded phonographically. The shorthand was converted into words during the trip back to Chicago, where typesetters and telegraphers awaited them. Pitman shorthand

6000-579: Was in its "55th edition" by 1721, and Jeremiah Rich 's system of 1654, which was published under various titles including The penns dexterity compleated (1669). Rich's system was used by George Treby chairman of the House of Commons Committee of Secrecy investigating the Popish Plot . Another notable English shorthand system creator of the 17th century was William Mason ( fl. 1672–1709) who published Arts Advancement in 1682. Modern-looking geometric shorthand

6080-556: Was introduced with John Byrom 's New Universal Shorthand of 1720. Samuel Taylor published a similar system in 1786, the first English shorthand system to be used all over the English-speaking world. Thomas Gurney published Brachygraphy in the mid-18th century. In 1834 in Germany , Franz Xaver Gabelsberger published his Gabelsberger shorthand . Gabelsberger based his shorthand on the shapes used in German cursive handwriting rather than on

6160-593: Was that there was no way to distinguish long and short vowels or diphthongs; so the b-a-t sequence could mean "bat", or "bait", or "bate", while b-o-t might mean "boot", or "bought", or "boat". The reader needed to use the context to work out which alternative was meant. The main advantage of the system was that it was easy to learn and to use. It was popular, and under the two titles of Short Writing and Tachygraphy , Shelton's book ran to more than 20 editions between 1626 and 1710. Shelton's chief rivals were Theophilus Metcalfe 's Stenography or Short Writing (1633) which

6240-461: Was the most commonly used shorthand system in the entire English-speaking world. Part of its popularity was due to the fact that it was the first subject taught by correspondence course . Today in many regions (especially the U.S.), it has been superseded by Gregg shorthand , developed by John Robert Gregg . Teeline has become more common in recent years, as it is based on spelling, rather than pronunciation. Like Gregg shorthand , Pitman shorthand

6320-518: Was the most popular shorthand system used in the United Kingdom and the second most popular in the United States . One characteristic feature of Pitman shorthand is that unvoiced and voiced pairs of sounds (such as /p/ and /b/ or /t/ and /d/) are represented by strokes which differ only in thickness; the thin stroke representing "light" sounds such as /p/ and /t/; the thick stroke representing "heavy" sounds such as /b/ and /d/. Doing this requires

6400-729: Was used more widely in the past, before the invention of recording and dictation machines . Shorthand was considered an essential part of secretarial training and police work and was useful for journalists. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation and other types of verbal communication, some systems are used for compact expression. For example, healthcare professionals might use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. Shorthand notes were typically temporary, intended either for immediate use or for later typing, data entry, or (mainly historically) transcription to longhand . Longer-term uses do exist, such as encipherment : diaries (like that of Samuel Pepys ) are

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