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127-407: Anthropopithecus was originally coined to describe the chimpanzee and is now a junior synonym of Pan . It had also been used to describe several other extant and extinct species, among others the fossil Java Man . Very quickly, the latter was re-assigned to Pithecanthropus , originally coined to refer to a theoretical " missing link ". Pithecanthropus is now classed as Homo erectus , thus

254-399: A "full closed grin" causes nearby individuals to be fearful, as well. Playful chimpanzees display an open-mouthed grin. Chimpanzees may also express themselves with the "pout", which is made in distress, the "sneer", which is made when threatening or fearful, and "compressed-lips face", which is a type of display. When submitting to a dominant individual, a chimpanzee crunches, bobs, and extends

381-473: A 2021 study on their abilities to make and use stone flakes, in a similar way as hypothesised for early hominins, did not find this behaviour across two populations of chimpanzees—suggesting that this behaviour is outside the chimpanzee species-typical range. Scientists have attempted to teach human language to several species of great ape. One early attempt by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in the 1960s involved spending 51 months teaching American Sign Language to

508-515: A being intermediate between the present anthropoids and Man. When in 1905 the French paleontologist , paleoanthropologist and geologist Marcellin Boule (1861–1942) published a paper demonstrating that the eoliths were in fact geofacts produced by natural phenomena ( freezing , pressure , fire ), the argument proposed by De Mortillet fell into disrepute and his definition of the term Anthropopithecus

635-450: A brief period in 1431 but was driven out by Mubarak Shah. Mughal Era The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of Punjab. During Mughal period Punjab region was divided into two provinces; Province of Multan and Province of Lahore . The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century. As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of

762-415: A captive environment. Social grooming appears to be important in the formation and maintenance of coalitions. It is more common among adult males than either between adult females or between males and females. Chimpanzees have been described as highly territorial and will frequently kill other chimpanzees, although Margaret Power wrote in her 1991 book The Egalitarians that the field studies from which

889-465: A chimpanzee jokingly named Nim Chimpsky (in allusion to the theorist of language Noam Chomsky ), trained by Herbert Terrace of Columbia University . Although his initial reports were quite positive, in November 1979, Terrace and his team, including psycholinguist Thomas Bever , re-evaluated the videotapes of Nim with his trainers, analyzing them frame by frame for signs, as well as for exact context (what

1016-490: A chimpanzee named Washoe . The Gardners reported that Washoe learned 151 signs, and had spontaneously taught them to other chimpanzees, including her adopted son, Loulis . Over a longer period of time, Washoe was reported to have learned over 350 signs. Debate is ongoing among scientists such as David Premack about chimpanzees' ability to learn language. Since the early reports on Washoe, numerous other studies have been conducted, with varying levels of success. One involved

1143-433: A choice between two persons, chimpanzees were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that chimpanzees lack theory of mind . Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools. They modify sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them when foraging for termites and ants, nuts, honey, algae or water. Despite

1270-536: A coalition allows males to dominate a third individual when they could not by themselves, as politically apt chimpanzees can exert power over aggressive interactions regardless of their rank. Coalitions can also give an individual male the confidence to challenge a dominant or larger male. The more allies a male has, the better his chance of becoming dominant. However, most changes in hierarchical rank are caused by dyadic interactions. Chimpanzee alliances can be very fickle, and one member may suddenly turn on another if it

1397-538: A consequence of a logical deduction drawn from the direct observation of the facts, that intelligent animals who knew how to make fire and cut stones in the Tertiary Period, were not men in the geological and paleontological sense of the word, but animals of another kind, precursors of Man in the chain of beings , precursors to whom I gave the name Anthropopithecus . Thus, by reasoning alone, firmly supported by precise observations, we have come to discover with certainty

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1524-467: A consortship and mate outside their community. In addition, females sometimes leave their community and mate with males from neighboring communities. These alternative mating strategies give females more mating opportunities without losing the support of the males in their community. Infanticide has been recorded in chimpanzee communities in some areas, and the victims are often consumed. Male chimpanzees practice infanticide on unrelated young to shorten

1651-501: A dark muddy colour in eastern chimpanzees, freckled on white which ages to a heavily mottled muddy colour in central chimpanzees, and black with a butterfly-shaped white mask that darkens with age in western chimpanzees. Facial pigmentation increases with age and exposure to ultraviolet light. Females develop swelling pink skin when in oestrus. Chimpanzees are adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion . Arboreal locomotion consists of vertical climbing and brachiation . On

1778-801: A dying or dead group member. When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays, and touching of the corpse. In one case chimpanzees cared for a dying elder, then attended and cleaned the corpse. Afterward, they avoided the spot where the elder died and behaved in a more subdued manner. Mothers have been reported to carry around and groom their dead infants for several days. Experimenters now and then witness behaviour that cannot be readily reconciled with chimpanzee intelligence or theory of mind . Wolfgang Köhler , for instance, reported insightful behaviour in chimpanzees, but he likewise often observed that they experienced "special difficulty" in solving simple problems. Researchers also reported that, when faced with

1905-418: A female chimpanzee were to participate in the hunting group and catch a Red Colobus, it would likely immediately be taken by an adult male. Female chimpanzees are estimated to hunt ≈ 10-15% of a community's vertebrates. Chimpanzees display numerous signs of intelligence, from the ability to remember symbols to cooperation, tool use, and varied language capabilities . They are among species that have passed

2032-438: A few individuals. These groups may consist of any combination of age and sexes. Both males and females sometimes travel alone. This fission–fusion society may include groups of four types: all-male, adult females and offspring, adults of both sexes, or one female and her offspring. These smaller groups emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organised to hunt for meat, while

2159-415: A group consisting of lactating females serves to act as a "nursery group" for the young. At the core of social structures are males, which patrol the territory, protect group members, and search for food. Males remain in their natal communities, while females generally emigrate at adolescence. Males in a community are more likely to be related to one another than females are to each other. Among males, there

2286-454: A hand. When in an aggressive mode, a chimpanzee swaggers bipedally, hunched over and arms waving, in an attempt to exaggerate its size. While travelling, chimpanzees keep in contact by beating their hands and feet against the trunks of large trees, an act that is known as "drumming". They also do this when encountering individuals from other communities. Vocalisations are also important in chimpanzee communication. The most common call in adults

2413-483: A junior synonym of Homo . The genus Anthropopithecus was first proposed in 1841 by the French zoologist and anatomist Henri-Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (1777–1850) in order to give a genus name to some chimpanzee material that he was studying at the time. After the genus Anthropopithecus was established by De Blainville in 1839, the British surgeon and naturalist John Bland-Sutton (1855–1936) proposed

2540-568: A leopard cub after mobbing it and its mother in their den. Four chimpanzees could have fallen prey to lions at Mahale Mountains National Park . Although no other instances of lion predation on chimpanzees have been recorded, lions likely do kill chimpanzees occasionally, and the larger group sizes of savanna chimpanzees may have developed as a response to threats from these big cats. Chimpanzees may react to lions by fleeing up trees, vocalising, or hiding in silence. Chimpanzees and humans share only 50% of their parasite and microbe species. This

2667-449: A new group if accompanied by immigrant females who have an existing relationship with this male. This gives the resident males reproductive advantages with these females, as they are more inclined to remain in the group if their male friend is also accepted. Chimpanzees use facial expressions, postures, and sounds to communicate with each other. Chimpanzees have expressive faces that are important in close-up communications. When frightened,

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2794-510: A pronounced brow ridge . It has forward-facing eyes, a small nose, rounded non-lobed ears and a long mobile upper lip. Additionally, adult males have sharp canine teeth. Like all great apes, it has a dental formula of 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.3 , that is, two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars on both halves of each jaw. Chimpanzees lack the prominent sagittal crest and associated head and neck musculature of gorillas. Chimpanzee bodies are covered by coarse hair, except for

2921-488: A resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists. At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India. The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in

3048-407: A result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups, as opposed to the much larger "parent" group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees which regularly come into contact with each other and congregate into parties in a particular area. Male chimpanzees exist in a linear dominance hierarchy . Top-ranking males tend to be aggressive even during dominance stability. This

3175-496: Is a province of Pakistan . With a population of over 127 million, it is the most populous province in Pakistan and second most populous subnational polity in the world. Located in the central-eastern region of the country, it has the largest economy , contributing the most to national GDP , in Pakistan. Lahore is the capital and largest city. Other major cities include Faisalabad , Rawalpindi , Gujranwala and Multan . It

3302-554: Is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is thus humans ' closest living relative. The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing 40–70 kg (88–154 lb) for males and 27–50 kg (60–110 lb) for females and standing 150 cm (4 ft 11 in). The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during

3429-402: Is abundant, gorilla and chimpanzee diets converge, but when fruit is scarce gorillas resort to vegetation. The two apes may also feed on different species, whether fruit or insects. Interactions between them can range from friendly and even stable social bonding, to avoidance, to aggression and even predation of infants on the part of chimpanzees. The average lifespan of a wild chimpanzee

3556-524: Is bordered by the Pakistani provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the north-west, Balochistan to the south-west and Sindh to the south, as well as Islamabad Capital Territory to the north-west and Azad Kashmir to the north. It shares an international border with the Indian states of Rajasthan and Punjab to the east and Indian-administered Kashmir to the north-east. Punjab is the most fertile province of

3683-443: Is brief, lasting approximately seven seconds. The gestation period is eight months. Care for the young is provided mostly by their mothers. The survival and emotional health of the young is dependent on maternal care. Mothers provide their young with food, warmth, and protection, and teach them certain skills. In addition, a chimpanzee's future rank may be dependent on its mother's status. Male chimpanzees continue to associate with

3810-531: Is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognisable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age. Chimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to

3937-679: Is due to the differences in environmental and dietary adaptations; human internal parasite species overlap more with omnivorous, savanna-dwelling baboons. The chimpanzee is host to the louse species Pediculus schaeffi , a close relative of P. humanus , which infests human head and body hair. By contrast, the human pubic louse Pthirus pubis is closely related to Pthirus gorillae , which infests gorillas. A 2017 study of gastro intestinal parasites of wild chimpanzees in degraded forest in Uganda found nine species of protozoa , five nematodes , one cestode , and one trematode . The most prevalent species

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4064-861: Is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more. The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range. The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties , circus acts and stage shows. Although chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role. Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in

4191-466: Is generally a dominance hierarchy, and males are dominant over females. However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, "in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest," is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is caused mainly by the large measure of individual autonomy that individuals have within their fission-fusion social groups. As

4318-609: Is historically significant because it resulted in the syncretism of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such as Greco-Buddhist art, which continued to have an impact for the ensuing centuries. Multan was the noted centre of excellence of the region which was attacked by the Greek army led by Alexander the Great . The Malli tribe together with nearby tribes gathered an army of 90,000 personnel to face

4445-439: Is made by young chimpanzees as a form of begging or when lost from the group. Chimpanzees use distance calls to draw attention to danger, food sources, or other community members. "Barks" may be made as "short barks" when hunting and "tonal barks" when sighting large snakes. When hunting small monkeys such as the red colobus , chimpanzees hunt where the forest canopy is interrupted or irregular. This allows them to easily corner

4572-403: Is more robustly built than the bonobo but less than the gorilla . The arms of a chimpanzee are longer than its legs and can reach below the knees. The hands have long fingers with short thumbs and flat fingernails. The feet are adapted for grasping, and the big toe is opposable . The pelvis is long with an extended ilium . A chimpanzee's head is rounded with a prominent and prognathous face and

4699-657: Is probably due to the chimpanzee's fission-fusion society, with male chimpanzees leaving groups and returning after extended periods of time. With this, a dominant male is unsure if any "political maneuvering" has occurred in his absence and must re-establish his dominance. Thus, a large amount of aggression occurs within five to fifteen minutes after a reunion. During these encounters, displays of aggression are generally preferred over physical attacks. Males maintain and improve their social ranks by forming coalitions, which have been characterised as "exploitative" and based on an individual's influence in agonistic interactions. Being in

4826-419: Is relatively short. They usually live less than 15 years, although individuals that reach 12 years may live an additional 15 years. On rare occasions, wild chimpanzees may live nearly 60 years. Captive chimpanzees tend to live longer than most wild ones, with median lifespans of 31.7 years for males and 38.7 years for females. The oldest-known male captive chimpanzee to have been documented lived to 66 years, and

4953-482: Is the " pant-hoot ", which may signal social rank and bond along with keeping groups together. Pant-hoots are made of four parts, starting with soft "hoos", the introduction; that gets louder and louder, the build-up; and climax into screams and sometimes barks; these die down back to soft "hoos" during the letdown phase as the call ends. Grunting is made in situations like feeding and greeting. Submissive individuals make "pant-grunts" towards their superiors. Whimpering

5080-435: Is to his advantage. Low-ranking males frequently switch sides in disputes between more dominant individuals. Low-ranking males benefit from an unstable hierarchy and often find increased sexual opportunities if a dispute or conflict occurs. In addition, conflicts between dominant males cause them to focus on each other rather than the lower-ranking males. Social hierarchies among adult females tend to be weaker. Nevertheless,

5207-617: The Greek god , while the specific name troglodytes was taken from the Troglodytae , a mythical race of cave-dwellers. The first great ape known to Western science in the 17th century was the " orang-outang " (genus Pongo ), the local Malay name being recorded in Java by the Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius . In 1641, the Dutch anatomist Nicolaes Tulp applied the name to a chimpanzee or bonobo brought to

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5334-617: The Indian independence movement . Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed. When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements. Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed

5461-700: The Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C. The migrating Indo-Aryan tribes gave rise to the Iron Age Vedic civilization , which lasted till 500 BC. During this era, the Rigveda was composed in Punjab , laying the foundation of Hinduism . Frequent intertribal wars in the post-Vedic period stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas . Achaemenid emperor Darius

5588-578: The Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , and Sutlej rivers which traverse Punjab north to south – the fifth of the "five waters" of Punjab, the Beas River , lies exclusively in the Indian state of Punjab. The landscape is amongst the most heavily irrigated on earth and canals can be found throughout the province. Punjab also includes several mountainous regions, including the Sulaiman Mountains in the southwest part of

5715-700: The Lahore Fort , the archaeological excavations at Taxila , and the Rohtas Fort , among others. The name Punjab is of Persian origin, with its two combined words meaning ( پنج , panj , 'five' and آب , āb , 'water') and it was introduced and started to be widely used during the Mughal Empire rule over the region. It is considered to be the cognate of the Sanskrit words पञ्‍च , pañca , 'five' and अप् , áp , 'water', of

5842-821: The Langah Sultanate in Multan . The Sultanate included regions of southern and central Punjab and some areas of present day Khyber. A large number of Baloch settlers arrived and the towns of Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan were founded. During the most of 15th century, the Khokhars and Gakhars tribes were in general revolt in the Pothohar region. Jasrath Khokhar was one of their major chiefs who helped Sultan Zain Ul Abideen of Kashmir to gain his throne and ruled over vast tracts of Jammu and North Punjab . He also conquered Delhi for

5969-780: The Maurya Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in 302 B.C.E. Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made Sagala (present-day Sialkot ) the capital of the Indo-Greek Kingdom . Menander is noted for becoming a patron and converting to Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. Islamic conquest Islam emerged as the major power in Punjab after the Umayyad caliphate led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered

6096-474: The Middle Pleistocene . According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at George Washington University , bonobos, along with chimpanzees, split from the human line about 8 million years ago; then bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago. Another 2017 genetic study suggests ancient gene flow ( introgression ) between 200,000 and 550,000 years ago from the bonobo into

6223-712: The Soan Valley of the Pothohar , between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers , where Soanian culture developed between 774,000 BC and 11,700 BC. This period goes back to the first interglacial period in the second Ice Age , from which remnants of stone and flint tools have been found. The Punjab region was the site of one of the earliest cradle of civilizations , the Bronze Age Harrapan civilization that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following

6350-455: The chimp , is a species of great ape native to the forests and savannahs of tropical Africa . It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee . The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan . Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan

6477-636: The mirror test , suggesting self-awareness . In one study, two young chimpanzees showed retention of mirror self-recognition after one year without access to mirrors. Chimpanzees have been observed to use insects to treat their own wounds and those of others. They catch them and apply them directly to the injury. Chimpanzees also display signs of culture among groups, with the learning and transmission of variations in grooming, tool use and foraging techniques leading to localized traditions. A 30-year study at Kyoto University 's Primate Research Institute has shown that chimpanzees are able to learn to recognise

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6604-458: The species name Anthropopithecus troglodytes in 1883 to designate the common chimpanzee . However, the genus Pan had already been attributed to chimpanzees in 1816 by the German naturalist Lorenz Oken (1779–1851). Since any earlier nomenclature prevails over subsequent nomenclatures, the genus Anthropopithecus definitely lost its validity in 1895, becoming from that date a junior synonym of

6731-614: The 10th century, the tribe of the Gakhars / Khokhars , formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta . Ghaznavid The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century attacked the regions of Punjab. Multan and Uch were conquered after 3 attacks and Multan's ruler Abul Fateh Daud was defeated, famous Sun Temple was destroyed. This attack ended the 3 centuries of Islamic rule over Punjab. Ghaznavids overthrew

6858-470: The 2023 census, the population of Punjab, Pakistan was 127,688,922. With 124,462,897 adherents, Muslims comprise the largest religious group, with a Sunni Hanafi majority and a Shia Ithna 'ashariyah minority, forming approximately 97.75 percent of the population. The largest non-Muslim minority is Christians with 2,458,924 adherents, forming roughly 1.93 percent of the population. Hindus form 249,716 people, comprising approximately 0.20 percent of

6985-731: The 2nd edition, 1885), De Mortillet writes: Nous sommes donc forcément conduits à admettre, par une déduction logique tirée de l’observation directe des faits, que les animaux intelligents qui savaient faire du feu et tailler des pierres à l’époque tertiaire, n’étaient pas des hommes dans l’acception géologique et paléontologique du mot, mais des animaux d’un autre genre, des précurseurs de l’homme dans l’échelle des êtres, précurseurs auxquels j’ai donné le nom d’Anthropopithecus. Ainsi, par le seul raisonnement, solidement appuyé sur des observations précises, nous sommes arrivés à découvrir d’une manière certaine un être intermédiaire entre les anthropoïdes actuels et l’homme . We are therefore forced to admit, as

7112-702: The Gombe group. A study published in 2010 found that the chimpanzees wage wars over territory, not mates. Patrols from smaller groups are more likely to avoid contact with their neighbours. Patrols from large groups even take over a smaller group's territory, gaining access to more resources, food, and females. While it was traditionally accepted that only female chimpanzees immigrate and males remain in their natal troop for life, there are confirmed cases of adult males safely integrating themselves into new communities among West African chimpanzees, suggesting they are less territorial than other subspecies. Chimpanzees mate throughout

7239-814: The Great , in 518 BCE crossed the Indus and annex the regions up to the Jhelum River . Taxila is considered to be site of one of the oldest education centre of south asia and was part of the Achaemenid province of Hindush. One of the early kings in Punjab was Porus , who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great . The battle is thought to have resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he

7366-515: The Greek army. This was perhaps the largest army faced by the Greeks in the entire Indian subcontinent. During the siege of the city's citadel, Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel, where he faced the Mallians' leader. Alexander was wounded by an arrow that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured. The city was conquered after a fierce battle. The region was then divided between

7493-699: The Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquests of key Punjab cities of Uch, Multan and Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik. Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate and for some time independent sultanates ruled by various Sultans. The Delhi Sultanate ruled Punjab for

7620-533: The Netherlands from Angola. Another Dutch anatomist, Peter Camper , dissected specimens from Central Africa and Southeast Asia in the 1770s, noting the differences between the African and Asian apes. The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach classified the chimpanzee as Simia troglodytes by 1775. Another German naturalist, Lorenz Oken , coined the genus Pan in 1816. The bonobo was recognised as distinct from

7747-468: The Punjab is Punjabi , representing the largest language spoken in the country. The Punjabi language is spoken in the form of many dialects across the province including Majhi , Multani , Pothwari , Thali , Jhangvi , Dhanni , Shahpuri , Derawali , Riasti and others. Many of these dialects are grouped together in the form of varieties such as Saraiki in the south consisting of southern dialects including Multani, Derawali and Riasti; and Hindko in

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7874-407: The Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement , many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra , Sukhdev Thapar , Ajit Singh Sandhu , Bhagat Singh , Udham Singh , Kartar Singh Sarabha , Bhai Parmanand , Choudhry Rahmat Ali , and Lala Lajpat Rai . After Independence At the time of partition in 1947, the province

8001-495: The Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority. The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets. Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation. Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I , providing men and resources to

8128-484: The United States. Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success. The English word chimpanzee is first recorded in 1738. It is derived from Vili ci-mpenze or Tshiluba language chimpenze , with a meaning of " ape ", or "mockman". The colloquialism "chimp" was most likely coined some time in the late 1870s. The genus name Pan derives from

8255-442: The aggressive data came, Gombe and Mahale, used artificial feeding systems that increased aggression in the chimpanzee populations studied. Thus, the behaviour may not reflect innate characteristics of the species as a whole. In the years following her artificial feeding conditions at Gombe, Jane Goodall described groups of male chimpanzees patrolling the borders of their territory, brutally attacking chimpanzees that had split off from

8382-429: The ancestors of central and eastern chimpanzees. Four subspecies of the chimpanzee have been recognised, with the possibility of a fifth: A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published in 2005 and encodes 18,759 proteins, (compared to 20,383 in the human proteome). The DNA sequences of humans and chimpanzees are very similar and the difference in protein number mostly arises from incomplete sequences in

8509-472: The area or has caused it to rain so hard that floods have resulted. June and July are oppressively hot. Although official estimates rarely place the temperature above 46 °C, newspaper sources claim that it reaches 51 °C and regularly carry reports about people who have succumbed to the heat. Heat records were broken in Multan in June 1993, when the mercury was reported to have risen to 54 °C. In August

8636-422: The attribution of these remains to a genus different than Anthropopithecus and he renamed the specimen of Java with the name Pithecanthropus erectus (1893 paper, published in 1894). Pithecanthropus is a genus that German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) had created in 1868. Years later, in the 20th century, the German physician and paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873-1948) compared in detail

8763-519: The characters of Dubois' Java Man, then named Pithecanthropus erectus , with the characters of the Peking Man , then named Sinanthropus pekinensis . Weidenreich concluded in 1940 that because of their anatomical similarity with modern humans it was necessary to gather all these specimens of Java and China in a single species of the genus Homo , the species Homo erectus . By that time, the genus Anthropopithecus had already been abandoned since 1895 at

8890-637: The chimpanzee by 1933. Despite a large number of Homo fossil finds, Pan fossils were not described until 2005. Existing chimpanzee populations in West and Central Africa do not overlap with the major human fossil sites in East Africa, but chimpanzee fossils have now been reported from Kenya. This indicates that both humans and members of the Pan clade were present in the East African Rift Valley during

9017-425: The chimpanzee genome. Both species differ by about 35 million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events and various chromosomal rearrangements . Typical human and chimpanzee protein homologs differ in an average of only two amino acids . About 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein. Duplications of small parts of chromosomes have been

9144-604: The chimpanzee genus as the latter was being understood at the time. A famous example of a fossil Anthropopithecus is that of the Java Man , discovered in 1891 in Trinil , nearby the Solo River , in East Java , by Dutch physician and anatomist Eugène Dubois , who named the discovery with the scientific name Anthropopithecus erectus . This Dubois paper, written during the last quarter of 1892,

9271-482: The chimpanzee inhabits multistage secondary deciduous forest , which has grown after shifting cultivation , as well as primary forest and grassland. At Taï , it is found in the last remaining tropical rain forest in Ivory Coast. The chimpanzee has an advanced cognitive map of its home range and can repeatedly find food. The chimpanzee builds a sleeping nest in a tree in a different location each night, never using

9398-562: The country as the Indus River and its four major tributaries Ravi , Jhelum , Chenab and Sutlej flow through it. The province forms the bulk of the transnational Punjab region , divided in 1947 among Pakistan and India. The government , legislature , and other institutions of the province are based in the capital, Lahore. The province is represented in the federal parliament through 173, out of 336, seats in National Assembly ,

9525-435: The day. The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools , modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey , termites , ants , nuts and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals. Its gestation period

9652-776: The earliest. The term Anthropopithecus is scientifically obsolete in the present day but did become widespread in popular culture, mainly in France and Belgium : Il dormait bien, le général Mac Kackmale, sur ses deux oreilles, plus longues que ne le comporte l’ordonnance. Avec ses bras démesurés, ses yeux ronds, enfoncés sous de rudes sourcils, sa face encadrée d’une barbe rêche, sa physionomie grimaçante, ses gestes d’ anthropopithèque , le prognathisme extraordinaire de sa mâchoire, il était d’une laideur remarquable, – même chez un général anglais. Un vrai singe, excellent militaire, d’ailleurs, malgré sa tournure simiesque. He slept well, did General MacKackmale, with both eyes shut, though longer than

9779-559: The emperor. Mongol invasion The 15th century saw the rise of many prominent Muslims from Punjab. Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty , the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs. In 1398, Timur attacked the Punjab region. After his invasion, Khizr Khan established the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. According to Richard M. Eaton , Khizr Khan

9906-405: The face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. Chimpanzees lose more hair as they age and develop bald spots. The hair of a chimpanzee is typically black but can be brown or ginger. As they get older, white or grey patches may appear, particularly on the chin and lower region. Chimpanzee skin that is covered with body hair is white, while exposed areas vary: white which ages into

10033-498: The females they impregnated and interact with and support their offspring. Newborn chimpanzees are helpless. For example, their grasping reflex is not strong enough to support them for more than a few seconds. For their first 30 days, infants cling to their mother's bellies. Infants are unable to support their own weight for their first two months and need their mothers' support. When they reach five to six months, infants ride on their mothers' backs. They remain in continual contact for

10160-498: The genus Pan . In 1879, the French archaeologist and anthropologist Gabriel de Mortillet (1821–1898) proposed the term Anthropopithecus to designate a " missing link ", a hypothetical intermediate between ape and man that lived in the Tertiary and that supposedly, following De Mortillet's theory, produced eoliths . In his work of 1883 Le Préhistorique, antiquité de l'homme ( The Prehistoric: Man's Antiquity , below quoted after

10287-477: The grip strength of an adult chimpanzee is estimated to be 200 kg (440 lb), while other sources claim figures of up to 330 kg (730 lb). The chimpanzee is a highly adaptable species. It lives in a variety of habitats, including dry savanna , evergreen rainforest, montane forest , swamp forest , and dry woodland -savanna mosaic. In Gombe , the chimpanzee mostly uses semideciduous and evergreen forest as well as open woodland. At Bossou ,

10414-480: The ground, chimpanzees move both quadrupedally and bipedally. These movements appear to have similar energy costs. As with bonobos and gorillas, chimpanzees move quadrupedally by knuckle-walking , which probably evolved independently in Pan and Gorilla . Their muscles are 50% stronger per weight than those of humans due to higher content of fast twitch muscle fibres , one of the chimpanzee's adaptations for climbing and swinging. According to Japan's Asahiyama Zoo ,

10541-517: The hill station of Fort Munro in Dera Ghazi Khan. Most areas in Punjab experience extreme weather with foggy winters, often accompanied by rain. By mid-February the temperature begins to rise; springtime weather continues until mid-April, when the summer heat sets in. The onset of the southwest monsoon is anticipated to reach Punjab by May, but since the early 1970s, the weather pattern has been irregular. The spring monsoon has either skipped over

10668-454: The honey out of the hive if the bees are stingless . For hives of the dangerous African honeybees , chimpanzees use longer and thinner sticks to extract the honey. Chimpanzees also fish for ants using the same tactic. Ant dipping is difficult and some chimpanzees never master it. West African chimpanzees crack open hard nuts with stones or branches. Some forethought in this activity is apparent, as these tools are not found together or where

10795-541: The hot and barren south to the cool hills of the north. The foothills of the Himalayas are found in the extreme north as well, and feature a much cooler and wetter climate, with snowfall common at higher altitudes. The province is home to over half the population of Pakistan , and is the world's second-most populous subnational entity , and the most populous outside of India and China . Languages of Punjab, Pakistan (2023 Census) The major native language spoken in

10922-462: The interbirth intervals in the females. Females sometimes practice infanticide. This may be related to the dominance hierarchy in females or may simply be pathological. Inbreeding was studied in a relatively undisturbed eastern bisexual chimpanzee community. Despite an increased inbreeding risk incurred by females who do not disperse before reaching reproductive age, these females were still able to avoid producing inbred offspring. Copulation

11049-534: The lack of complexity, forethought and skill are apparent in making these tools. Chimpanzees have used stone tools since at least 4,300 years ago. A chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first nonhuman animal reported making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound. At Taï, chimpanzees simply use their hands to extract termites. When foraging for honey, chimpanzees use modified short sticks to scoop

11176-643: The likes of Meher Ali Shah , Baba Farid , Bari Imam and Sultan Bahu , spread across the province. Guru Nanak , the founder of Sikhism , was born in the town of Nankana Sahib , near Lahore. Punjab is also the site of the Katas Raj Temples , which feature prominently in Hindu mythology . Several of the World Heritage Sites listed by UNESCO are located in Punjab, including the Shalimar Gardens ,

11303-454: The lower house; and 23, out of 96, seats in Senate , the upper house. Punjab is Pakistan's most industrialized province, with the industrial sector comprising 24 percent of the province's gross domestic product. It is known for its relative prosperity, and has the lowest rate of poverty among all Pakistani provinces. However, a clear divide is present between the northern and southern regions of

11430-730: The major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material; about 2.7% of the corresponding modern genomes represent differences, produced by gene duplications or deletions , since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. Adult chimpanzees have an average standing height of 150 cm (4 ft 11 in). Wild adult males weigh between 40 and 70 kg (88 and 154 lb), and females weigh between 27 and 50 kg (60 and 110 lb). In exceptional cases, certain individuals may considerably exceed these measurements, standing over 168 cm (5 ft 6 in) on two legs and weighing up to 136 kg (300 lb) in captivity. The chimpanzee

11557-531: The majority of their diet consists of fruits, leaves, roots, and other plant matter. Female chimpanzees appear to consume much less animal flesh than males, according to several studies. Jane Goodall documented many occasions within Gombe Stream National Park of chimpanzees and western red colobus monkeys ignoring each other despite close proximity. Chimpanzees do not appear to directly compete with gorillas in areas where they overlap. When fruit

11684-407: The monkeys when chasing them in the appropriate direction. Chimpanzees may also hunt as a coordinated team, so that they can corner their prey even in a continuous canopy. During an arboreal hunt, each chimpanzee in the hunting groups has a role. "Drivers" serve to keep the prey running in a certain direction and follow them without attempting to make a catch. "Blockers" are stationed at the bottom of

11811-515: The new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide-scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson , in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in

11938-646: The next three hundred years, led by five unrelated dynasties, the Mamluks , Khalajis , Tughlaqs , Sayyids and Lodis . Tughlaqs Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, the former governor of Multan and Dipalpur founded the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi and ruled the subcontinent region. Earlier, he served as the governor of Multan and fought 28 battles against Mongols from there and saved Punjab and Sindh regions from advances of Mongols and survived. After his death, his son Muhammad Tughlaq became

12065-498: The northwest consisting of a group of northwestern dialects. Saraiki and Hindko varieties of the language have been separately enumerated from Punjabi (general) in Pakistani censuses from 1981 and 2017, respectively. Pashto is also spoken in some parts of Punjab, especially in Attock , Mianwali and Rawalpindi districts. Religion in Punjab, Pakistan (2023 Census) According to

12192-405: The numbers 1 to 9 and their values. The chimpanzees further show an aptitude for eidetic memory , demonstrated in experiments in which the jumbled digits are flashed onto a computer screen for less than a quarter of a second. One chimpanzee, Ayumu , was able to correctly and quickly point to the positions where they appeared in ascending order. Ayumu performed better than human adults who were given

12319-625: The nuts are collected. Nut cracking is also difficult and must be learned. Chimpanzees also use leaves as sponges or spoons to drink water. West African chimpanzees in Senegal were found to sharpen sticks with their teeth, which were then used to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees. An eastern chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel . Whilst experimental studies on captive chimpanzees have found that many of their species-typical tool-use behaviours can be individually learnt by each chimpanzees,

12446-410: The oldest female, Little Mama , was nearly 80 years old. Leopards prey on chimpanzees in some areas. It is possible that much of the mortality caused by leopards can be attributed to individuals that have specialised in killing chimpanzees. Chimpanzees may react to a leopard's presence with loud vocalising, branch shaking, and throwing objects. There is at least one record of chimpanzees killing

12573-542: The oppressive heat is punctuated by the rainy season, referred to as barsat , which brings relief in its wake. The hardest part of the summer is then over, but cooler weather does not come until late October. In early 2007, the province experienced one of the coldest winters in the last 70 years. Punjab's region temperature ranges from −2° to 45 °C, but can reach 50 °C (122 °F) in summer and can touch down to −10 °C in winter. Climatically, Punjab has three major seasons: Weather extremes are notable from

12700-755: The province, the Margalla Hills in the north near Islamabad , and the Salt Range which divides the most northerly portion of Punjab, the Pothohar Plateau , from the rest of the province. Sparse deserts can be found in southern Punjab near the border with Rajasthan and the Sulaiman Range. Punjab also contains part of the Thal and Cholistan deserts. In the South, Punjab's elevation reaches 2,327 metres (7,635 ft) near

12827-457: The province; with northern Punjab being more developed than south Punjab. Punjab is also one of the most urbanized regions of South Asia , with approximately 40 percent of its population being concentrated in urban areas. Punjabi Muslims , predominantly adhering to Sunni Islam , are natives of the province, comprising nearly 98 percent of the total population. Punjabis are the third-largest predominantly Islam-adhering Muslim ethnicity in

12954-627: The region in 711 AD . The city of Multan became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. After the Umayyads conquered the key cities of Uch and Multan, they ruled the far areas of Punjab and included Kashmir. Islam spread rapidly. In the ninth century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty originating from the region of Oddiyana replaced the Taank kingdom in the Punjab, ruling much of Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan. In

13081-671: The region. Contested by Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the Sikhs, who expanded and established the Sikh empire as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab and territories north into the Himalayas. The Sikh Empire ruled Punjab from 1799 until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars . British Rule Most of

13208-676: The rest of their first year. When they reach two years of age, they are able to move and sit independently and start moving beyond the arms' reach of their mothers. By four to six years, chimpanzees are weaned and infancy ends. The juvenile period for chimpanzees lasts from their sixth to ninth years. Juveniles remain close to their mothers, but interact an increasing amount with other members of their community. Adolescent females move between groups and are supported by their mothers in agonistic encounters. Adolescent males spend time with adult males in social activities like hunting and boundary patrolling. A captive study suggests males can safely immigrate to

13335-613: The same meaning. The word pañjāb is thus calque of Indo-Aryan pañca-áp and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Sutlej , and Beas . All are tributaries of the Indus River , the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the Mahabharata , in which one of the regions is named as Panchanada ( Sanskrit : पञ्चनद , romanized :  pañca-nada , lit.   'five rivers'). Earlier, Punjab

13462-642: The same nest more than once. Chimpanzees sleep alone in separate nests except for infants or juvenile chimpanzees, which sleep with their mothers. The chimpanzee is an omnivorous frugivore . It prefers fruit above all other food, but it also eats leaves, leaf buds, seeds, blossoms, stems, pith , bark, and resin . A study in Budongo Forest , Uganda found that 64.5% of their feeding time concentrated on fruits (84.6% of which being ripe), particularly those from two species of Ficus , Maesopsis eminii , and Celtis gomphophylla . In addition, 19% of feeding time

13589-556: The same test. In controlled experiments on cooperation , chimpanzees show a basic understanding of cooperation, and recruit the best collaborators. In a group setting with a device that delivered food rewards only to cooperating chimpanzees, cooperation first increased, then, due to competitive behaviour, decreased, before finally increasing to the highest level through punishment and other arbitrage behaviours. Great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling . This

13716-641: The southwest, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and the Islamabad Capital Territory and Azad Kashmir in the north. Punjab borders Jammu and Kashmir in the north, and the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east. The capital and largest city is Lahore which was the capital of the wider Punjab region since 17th century. Other important cities include Faisalabad , Rawalpindi , Gujranwala , Sargodha , Multan , Sialkot , Bahawalpur , Gujrat , Sheikhupura , Jhelum , Rahim Yar Khan and Sahiwal . The undivided Punjab region

13843-451: The status of an adult female may be important for her offspring. Females in Taï have also been recorded to form alliances. While chimpanzee social structure is often referred to as patriarchal , it is not entirely unheard of for females to forge coalitions against males. There is also at least one recorded case of females securing a dominant position over males in their respective troop, albeit in

13970-565: The top of preferred mammal prey. Other mammalian prey include red-tailed monkeys , infant and juvenile yellow baboons , bush babies , blue duikers , bushbucks , and common warthogs . Despite the fact that chimpanzees are known to hunt and to collect both insects and other invertebrates, such food actually makes up a very small portion of their diet, from as little as 2% yearly to as much as 65 grams of animal flesh per day for each adult chimpanzee in peak hunting seasons. This also varies from troop to troop and year to year. However, in all cases,

14097-486: The trees and climb up to block prey that takes off in a different direction. "Chasers" move quickly and try to make a catch. Finally, "ambushers" hide and rush out when a monkey nears. While both adults and infants are taken, adult male colobus monkeys will attack the hunting chimps. When caught and killed, the meal is distributed to all hunting party members and even bystanders. Male chimpanzees hunt in groups more than females. Female chimpanzees tend to hunt solitarily. If

14224-473: The war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti-colonial activities. Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued. At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society. In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled

14351-414: The western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951. Punjab is Pakistan 's second largest province by area after Balochistan with an area of 205,344 square kilometres (79,284 square miles). It occupies 25.8% of the total landmass of Pakistan . Punjab province is bordered by Sindh to the south, the province of Balochistan to

14478-544: The world, globally, after Arabs and Bengalis . Muhammad Iqbal , the National poet of Pakistan and one of the leading Islamic thought leaders and Islamic revivalists of the 20th century, who is also widely regarded as having animated the pulse for the Pakistan Movement , was born and raised in Punjab. Punjabi culture has been strongly influenced by Islamic culture and Sufism , with numerous Sufi shrines of

14605-515: The year, although the number of females in oestrus varies seasonally in a group. Female chimpanzees are more likely to come into oestrus when food is readily available. Oestrous females exhibit sexual swellings . Chimpanzees are promiscuous : during oestrus, females mate with several males in their community, while males have large testicles for sperm competition . Other forms of mating also exist. A community's dominant males sometimes restrict reproductive access to females. A male and female can form

14732-579: Was dropped. Yet the chimpanzee meaning of the genus persisted throughout the 19th century, even to the point of being a genus name attributed to fossil specimens . For example, a fossil primate discovered in 1878 by the British malacologist William Theobald (1829-1908) in the Pakistani Punjab in British India was first named Palaeopithecus in 1879 but later renamed Anthropopithecus sivalensis , assuming that these remains had to be brought back to

14859-415: Was happening both before and after Nim's signs). In the reanalysis, Terrace and Bever concluded that Nim's utterances could be explained merely as prompting on the part of the experimenters, as well as mistakes in reporting the data. "Much of the apes' behaviour is pure drill", he said. "Language still stands as an important definition of the human species." In this reversal, Terrace now argued Nim's use of ASL

14986-453: Was home to six rivers, of which five flow through Pakistan's Punjab province. From west to east, the rivers are: the Indus , Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi and Sutlej . It is the nation's only province that touches every other province; it also surrounds the federal enclave of the national capital city at Islamabad . Punjab's landscape mostly consists of fertile alluvial plains of the Indus River and its four major tributaries in Pakistan,

15113-484: Was known as Sapta Sindhu in the Rigveda or Hapta Hendu in Avesta , translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus and Kabul which are included in the greater Punjab region. The ancient Greeks referred to the region as Pentapotamía ( Greek : Πενταποταμία ), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab. It is believed that the earliest evidence of human habitation in Punjab traces to

15240-556: Was not like human language acquisition . Nim never initiated conversations himself, rarely introduced new words, and mostly imitated what the humans did. More importantly, Nim's word strings varied in their ordering, suggesting that he was incapable of syntax . Nim's sentences also did not grow in length, unlike human children whose vocabulary and sentence length show a strong positive correlation. Punjab, Pakistan Punjab ( / p ʌ n ˈ dʒ ɑː b / ; Punjabi , Urdu : پنجاب , pronounced [pənˈd͡ʒɑːb] )

15367-508: Was permitted by regulations. With his long arms, his round eyes deeply set under their beetling brows, his face embellished with a stubbly beard, his grimaces, his semi-human gestures, the extraordinary jutting-out of his jaw, he was remarkably ugly, even for an English general. Something of a monkey but an excellent soldier nevertheless, in spite of his apelike appearance. Common chimpanzee The chimpanzee ( / tʃ ɪ m p æ n ˈ z i / ; Pan troglodytes ), also simply known as

15494-404: Was published by the Dutch government in 1893. In those early 1890s, the term Anthropopithecus was still being used by zoologists as the genus name of chimpanzees, so Dubois' Anthropopithecus erectus came to mean something like "the upright chimpanzee", or "the chimpanzee standing up". However, a year later, in 1893, Dubois considered that some anatomical characters proper to humans made necessary

15621-408: Was spent on arboreal leaves, mostly Broussonetia papyrifera and Celtis mildbraedii . While the chimpanzee is mostly herbivorous , it does eat honey, soil, insects, birds and their eggs, and small to medium-sized mammals, including other primates. Insect species consumed include the weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda , Macrotermes termites , and honey bees . The red colobus ranks at

15748-400: Was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan. The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition , with casualties estimated to be in the millions. Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity that occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to

15875-465: Was the protozoan Troglodytella abrassarti . Recent studies have suggested that human observers influence chimpanzee behaviour. One suggestion is that drones , camera traps, and remote microphones should be used to record and monitor chimpanzees rather than direct human observation. Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from around 15 to more than 150 members but spend most of their time traveling in small, temporary groups consisting of

16002-513: Was the son of a Punjabi chieftain. He was a Khokhar chieftain who travelled to Samarkand and profited from the contacts he made with the Timurid society Later on, Delhi Sultanate, weakened by the invasion of Emir Timur , could not control all regions of the Empire and different local kingdoms appeared. Langah Sultanate In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah , a Jat Zamindar tribe established

16129-432: Was wounded and his force routed. When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king". Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him. Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom. The battle

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