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158-507: A Doctor of Pharmacy ( PharmD ; Neo-Latin : Pharmaciae Doctor ) is a professional doctorate in pharmacy . In some countries, it is a proficient graduate degree to practice the profession of pharmacy or to become a clinical pharmacist. In many countries, people with their Doctor of Pharmacy are allowed to practice independently and can prescribe drugs directly to patients. A PharmD program has significant experiential and/or clinical education components in introductory and advanced levels for

316-878: A Hospital Pharmacy Specialist needs 9.5 years of education and/or training. Hospital Pharmacy residents are paid during their residency period. There are other residencies available to pharmacists such as Medical Biology, Clinical Biochemistry, Immunology, Microbiology, Radiopharmacy, Pharmaceutical Analysis, and Industrial Pharmacy lasting from 2 to 4 years. Pharmacists usually work as retail pharmacists (private practice), hospital pharmacists, primary care pharmacists, medical biologists, scientists (private and public biomedical research institutions), as university professors (Pharmacy, Medicine, Biology, Food Sciences, Biochemistry, Veterinary, Nursing, etc.), and as technicians and executive managers (pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies and governmental institutions). In Sweden, Pharmacy Doctors could be considered equal to those who have earned

474-823: A Pharmacy Residency period of professional training during 4 additional years (including one full year of advanced clinical practice in different medical wards). Apart from the professional degrees, like with any other university studies, Pharmacy degree allows holders to pursue an academic career by enrolling master's and doctorates programs (MSc and PhD) in several scientific fields (pharmaceutical technology, pharmacokinetics and biopharmaceutics, biomedical sciences, cosmetics & pharmaceutical industry, pharmaceutical and organic chemistry, physical chemistry, food sciences, pharmacology, toxicology, public health, etc.). Master's usually lasts 1–2 years and PhD no less than 4 years. In summary, in Spain an entry-level pharmacy degree lasts 5 years and

632-425: A 9 months long "Basisausbildung" (literally translated: basic training). In this time, they are supposed to acquire the most important ("basic") practical skills for practicing medicine regardless of their future specialty and are supervised by a board-certified specialist. After completion, young doctors are allowed to decide whether they want to complete residency ("Facharztausbildung") or the so-called "Turnus", which

790-608: A Doctor in Pharmacy. Various universities such as Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Isfahan University of Medical Sciences , Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences and many other universities offer Pharm-D program in Iran. Founded in 1936, the College of Pharmacy at the University of Baghdad, had a graduating class of 12 students. By 1993,

948-444: A Scientific Baccalaureate from the equivalent to high schools ( lycée ). About a 100 students are accepted every year. In order to obtain the state diploma of "Doctor of Pharmacy", studies last a minimum of six years, or 11 years for students choosing residency ( hospital/clinical pharmacy , pharmaceutical industry or medical biology ). It is accessible through another two competitive exams, even more selective. The first ( Internat )

1106-546: A bachelor of Pharmaceutical Sciences who graduated before the decree of the new law, there is a Postgraduate PharmD offered by many faculties of Pharmacy for Pharmacists, The duration of the program consists of two calendar years. The first year consists of many didactic courses covering topics such as pharmacotherapy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmaceutical care of many diseases. The second year consists of clinical rotations in different specialties including ambulatory care, oncology, cardiology, nephrology, pediatrics, and others. Some of

1264-449: A broader range of courses relating to urban professions such as law and medicine. All universities required Latin proficiency, obtained in local grammar schools, to obtain admittance as a student. Throughout the period, Latin was the dominant language of university education, where rules were enforced against the use of vernacular languages. Lectures and debates took place in Latin, and writing

1422-551: A doctor with completed specialty and sub-specialty training and a Master or PhD degree, approved by the council. To become a physician in Mexico, one must study 12 years of elementary and high school before entering medical school . Medical education includes: After completing medical school, the medical student may obtain a license to work as a general physician and may opt to train in a specific field such as pediatrics, internal medicine, orthopedic surgery, etc. The doctor must complete

1580-444: A dynamic for purification and ossification of Latin, and thus its decline from a more productive medieval background. Modern Neo-Latin scholars tend to reject this, as for instance word formation and even medieval uses continued; but some see a kernel of truth, in that the standards of Latin were set very high, making it hard to achieve the necessary confidence to use Latin. In any case, other factors are certainly at play, particularly

1738-1681: A five-year professional degree is offered in various public universities in Bangladesh. Previously, it was a four-year degree (Graduation) and a one-year degree (Post-Graduation) in Pharmacy is offered in numerous universities of Bangladesh. The study material is taught in English. The textbooks, exams as well as thesis are also provided in English. The universities are the University of Dhaka since 1964, Jahangirnagar University since 1982, University of Chittagong, Rajshahi University , Khulna University , Jagannath University , Pabna University of Science & Technology , Jessore University of Science & Technology and Noakhali Science & Technology University , Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman science and technology University, Gopalganj . All of these are government universities. There are also 20 private universities in Bangladesh offering pharmacy education. Among them Gono Bishwabidyalay , BGC Trust University Bangladesh (BGCTUB), Southeast University (SEU), East West University , Northern University Bangladesh since 2003, Daffodil International University , University of Science and Technology Chittagong (USTC), Stamford University Bangladesh (SUB), Manarat International University (MIU), Dhaka International University (DIU), The University of Asia Pacific, International Islamic University Chittagong , North South University , ASA University Bangladesh (ASAUB), City University (CU) and University of Development Alternative (UODA), Bangladesh University(BU) are

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1896-472: A focus of Neo-Latin studies. For instance, stylistic borrowings flowed from Latin to the Dutch vernacular, where models were lacking in the latter. Internship (medicine) In Australia , medical graduates must complete one year in an accredited hospital post before they receive full registration. This year of conditional registration is called the intern year. An internship is not necessarily completed in

2054-500: A half years of university college (with at least 6 months of initiation to Pharmacy Practice). The Licenciado en Farmacia or Grado en Farmacia (equivalent to the PharmD-program) English degree is the only title that allows holders to practice the profession of Pharmacy in Spain. To become a Hospital Pharmacist a person with a degree in Pharmacy must enter a selection process (national selection process called FIR) to initiate

2212-414: A high level in international conferences until the mid twentieth century. Over time, and especially in its later phases after its practical value had severely declined, education that included strong emphasis on Latin and Greek became associated with elitism and as a deliberate class barrier for entry to educational institutions. Post-classical Latin, including medieval, Renaissance and Neo-Latin, makes up

2370-454: A high standard. Even in this period, an excessive focus on grammar and poor teaching methods were seen by reformers as a barrier to the acquisition of Latin. Comenius for instance was credited with significant attempts to make Latin more accessible through use of parallel Latin and native language texts, and more interesting through acquisition of vocabulary and the use of modern and more relevant information in texts. Others worried whether it

2528-427: A hospital at the same state as the graduate's medical school. In Austria, the sixth and final year of medical school is called "Klinisch-praktisches Jahr" or "KPJ" (literally translated: clinical practical year). In this internship students complete at least three rotations in surgical and non-surgical specialties before they finish medical school. After graduation and before starting residency, new doctors must complete

2686-577: A hospital for 12 months. After they complete the year of hospital work, they are licensed to work as a general practitioner. In Lebanon, universities like the American University of Beirut (AUB), the University of Balamand (UOB), or the Lebanese American University (LAU), follow a curriculum similar to that of universities in the US. The Beirut Arab University (BAU) on the other hand, follows

2844-506: A key feature of the humanist movement. Through comparison with Latin of the Classical period , scholars from Petrarch onwards promoted a standard of Latin closer to that of the ancient Romans, especially in grammar, style, and spelling. The term Neo-Latin was however coined much later, probably in Germany in the late eighteenth century, as Neulatein , spreading to French and other languages in

3002-660: A kind of bridge of communication across religious as well as linguistic divides in the Res Publica Litterarum . One exception to the general rule of vernacular services in Protestant countries can be observed in the Anglican Church , where with the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading grammar and " public schools " (in

3160-799: A licensed pharmacist. An aggregate of 06 in the WASSCE results is currently the acceptable cut-off point. Also, a year top-up program was rolled out in the 2017/18 academic year for practicing pharmacists with the B.Pharm(Bachelor of Pharmacy) qualification to obtain the Pharm.D qualification which will soon become the minimum degree for licensure. The University of Health and Allied Sciences (UHAS) - Volta Region (2016/17 academic year), The University of Ghana - Legon, Entrance University College of Health Sciences - Spintex and Central University (Ghana) - Miotso (in 2018/19 academic year) The University for Development Studies-UDS, Tamale(2018/19 academic year), have also rolled out

3318-614: A limitless number of professional areas that range from community pharmacies, drug development, fundamental or applied research, biotechnology to areas such as forensic sciences, toxicology, regulatory affairs, clinical analysis, law enforcement (scientific police), bromatology, drug marketing, regulatory authorities, university teachers, etc. The Pharmacists can also choose to become a specialist in one of following areas of activity: Pharmaceutical Industry, Regulatory Affairs, Hospital Pharmacy, and Clinical Analysis. Each specialization requires an additional 5-year professional study program guided by

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3476-536: A longer period. In Poland, it was used as a vehicle of local government. This extended to those parts of Poland absorbed by Germany. Latin was used as a common tongue between parts of the Austrian Empire, particularly Hungary and Croatia, at least until the 1820s. Croatia maintained a Latin poetry tradition through the nineteenth century. Latin also remained the language of the Catholic Church and of oral debate at

3634-559: A master's degree in pharmacy and are actively licensed to work as a pharmacist. The master's program typically takes students 5 years to complete, which prepares students for careers in pharmacies, the pharmaceutical industry, and, more recently, clinical pharmacy. Students who have earned their master's degree in pharmacy can also choose to further specialize themselves with a wide range of Ph.D. programs, which are offered at universities in Uppsala , Gothenburg , and Umeå A special license which

3792-548: A master-equivalent pre-doctoral degree ( doctorandus ), followed by a two-year internship with responsibilities similar to a U.S. intern. The two-year training lead to an M.D. degree with license for independent practice on successful completion. With the introduction of the Bachelor/Master system as prescribed by the Bologna Process , the medical education curriculum has been modified in all eight medical schools to consist of

3950-408: A medical intern is a seventh year medical student who must complete the specialties of internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, surgery, and pediatrics. Some universities include mental health in the seventh year curriculum. Some hospitals pay interns. Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia has an internship program and externship program—in which the latter acts as an apprentice of the former, thus

4108-460: A medical student and two years as an intern, earning the degree of Médico Cirujano (equivalent to general practitioner in the US). Internships minimally include the four basic specialties (internal medicine, general surgery, gynecology and obstetrics, and pediatrics). After completing the internship, the new physician may work in primary care, hospitals, or apply to residencies for a specialty. DR Congo has

4266-570: A minimum of 5 years, or 9 years for students choosing residency ( hospital pharmacy , medical biology ) or pharmacology . In Italy the Professional degree in Pharmacy lasts 5 years, which includes a 6-month professional training in a public pharmacy or hospital. At the end of this period, the student must pass a nationwide exam to be legally entitled to practise as a pharmacist. The subscription to "Pharmacist's Order", or in Italian "Ordine dei Farmacisti",

4424-483: A mixed-approach learning programme including theory and practical experience. The education of pharmacists in the Netherlands requires a minimum of six years of university study. EU-harmonisation has led to division into three bachelor and three master years. A bachelor title is, however, not used at all professionally. The Dutch consider the educational level of their current (M.Sc.) degree in pharmacy to be comparable to

4582-526: A physician or dental surgeon. The internship should be completed through their medical/dental college, as recommended by the NMC. Only after registration with the NMC is one licensed to practice medicine or dentistry as a primary care doctor or dental surgeon. Those who study abroad are not allowed to do internship in Nepal, though it was done in past. The Netherlands historically had a four-year pre-clinical phase leading to

4740-471: A purified Classical Latin vocabulary. Recent study tends to identify a style of Latin that was closer to Classical Latin in grammar, sometimes influenced by vernaculars in syntax especially in more everyday writing, but eclectic in choice of vocabulary and generation of new words. Some authors including C. S. Lewis have criticised the Neo-Latin and classicising nature of humanistic Latin teaching for creating

4898-573: A research project. With reference to the clarification on the PharmD qualification and designation of "Dr." for graduates, it was clarified to all universities that the PharmD is a post-graduate degree and passing students can directly register for a PhD from 2012. With all the changes made to the degree, it is still only approved by the PCI, as the National Medical Commission (NMC) does not recognize

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5056-543: A residency of three to seven years (depending on the field) to get a specialist license. After four and half years of medical/dental school (degree of MBBS or BDS) every doctor in Nepal must complete a one-year compulsory rotatory internship in various specialities and pass a medical licensing examination conducted by the Nepal Medical Council (NMC) to get Temporary registration in Nepal Medical Council as

5214-466: A rigorous examination. The PharmDr. title is highly prestigious and written in front of the name. It is different from the postgraduate Ph.D. degree. In France , Pharm.D studies can only be accessed through a competitive examination (" concours ", with numerus apertus ) happening at the end of the first year of health studies. Most candidates hold a Scientific Baccalaureate from the equivalent to high schools ( lycée ). Yearly success rate depends on

5372-471: A salary. Some clinics pay a small allowance. The interns work as doctors, but are closely supervised. Doctors of medicine, who successfully finish their medical studies receive legal qualification and the status of assistant doctor immediately when taking up a medical occupation. However, they cannot enter private practice or work unsupervised until they receive a full board certification ( Facharzt ) in their chosen specialty. The housemanship (internship period)

5530-443: A separate hospital or institution before beginning a specialty-specific (or advanced) training program elsewhere, though they may be taken at the same location as an advanced residency. Preliminary internships are often specific for advanced internal medicine or surgical residencies, though they can be utilized for other specialties such as anesthesiology . A transitional internship (often shortened to just "TY" for transitional year)

5688-609: A severe shortage of pharmacists in Sweden. In 2018, the shortage was the highest ever. The education of pharmacists in Switzerland also follows the EU-harmonisation with three bachelor and two master years. A bachelor title is, however, not used at all professionally. A federal exam is required in addition to the master's degree in order to practice. Switzerland considers the educational level of their current (M.Sc.) degree in pharmacy and

5846-418: A six-month period of part-time hospital externship, and 3 to 6 months of full-time training in a pharmaceutical industry or a research lab. In Hungary, pharmacists obtain their master's degree, after five years of study. In the fifth year, students must undergo a professional training, that lasts for two+three months (autumn and spring) in a public pharmacy and one month in a hospital. At the end of this period,

6004-509: A six-year medical program start a two-year internship in a hospital. The first year is divided into three months in specialties: internal medicine , obstetrics and gynecology , surgery , and pediatrics . In the second year, students must finish various-length courses in sub-specialties (radiology, ophthalmology, psychiatry, etc.). After the two-year internship, doctors may practice independently. At that point, they must practice in under-served areas for one year—after which they may apply to study

6162-594: A six-year program like in Europe, with an internship as a post graduate 7th year. Other universities, like Universite Saint Joseph (USJ), follow the French curriculum. This excludes, for example, pre-medical studies (e.g., a BS in science). Instead, students enroll directly in a seven-year program of science and medicine. Every medical graduate, from a Malaysian public or private university, or from an overseas-approved university or college, must apply for provisional registration with

6320-789: A specialty. (This information is in accordance with the Graduation Law for Medical Professionals of the Iraqi Ministry of Health for 2019 ) To register fully with the Medical Council of Ireland as a doctor, graduates must complete twelve months of training in an approved public hospital. Internship comprises at least one surgical and one medical rotation. Interns must spend at least two months and not more than three months in another speciality, including emergency medicine , general practice , obstetrics and gynaecology , paediatrics , psychiatry , anaesthesia , and radiology . After completing

6478-508: A specialty. If they decide to work as a General Practitioner, they must first complete compulsory service in areas the Iranian Ministry of Health has designated as under-served. The internship rotates through all major and minor specialties, including emergency medicine, internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, surgery, dermatology, ophthalmology, otorhinolaryngology, infectious diseases, and psychiatry. In Iraq, graduates of

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6636-453: A strong role in education and writing in early colonial Mexico, Brazil and in other parts of Catholic Americas. Catholicism also brought Latin to India, China and Japan. Neo-Latin began in Italy with the rise of Renaissance Latin and humanist reform of Latin education, then brought to prominence in northern Europe by writers such as Erasmus , More , and Colet . Medieval Latin had been

6794-414: A three-year bachelor and a three-year master program. The bachelor phase is almost exclusively pre-clinical. The master includes internships, skills training, refresher courses, and a research internship. The "master" is awarded with an M.D. degree. All graduates of New Zealand and Australian accredited medical schools undertake pre-vocational medical training, also known as the intern training programme. It

6952-512: A tutor in the respective area of knowledge. This training includes regular evaluations by the professional competent authority ("Ordem dos Farmacêuticos"), which also requires an exam at the end of the 5-year training. After the success at the exam, the Pharmacist then becomes a specialist in its area of expertise. Faculty of Pharmacy in Ljubljana provides reformed or new Bologna study programme. For

7110-401: A two-year internship program for public health schools. Many hospitals employ Doctors prior to their full registration with the medical council (CNOM). After finishing high school, students may apply to medical school. Medical school generally consist of six years of medical school. The final year is an internship, in which students rotate through surgical and clinical specialties. Completing

7268-496: A university or teaching hospital, officially known as the National Compulsory Medical Internship Program. During this year, a graduate must complete two-month rotations in each of general surgery, internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics-gynecology and emergency-anesthesiology. They also must complete one-month rotations in a sub-specialty of their choice in internal medicine and/or surgery. After 2018

7426-473: A wider audience using the same ideas with more practical applications. Over time, the use of Latin continued where international communication with specialist audiences was paramount. Later, where some of the discourse moved to French, English or German, translations into Latin would allow texts to cross language boundaries, while authors in countries with much smaller language populations or less known languages would tend to continue to compose in Latin. Latin

7584-426: Is a more clinical and research oriented program. Some pharmacy institutes have collaboration with hospitals for providing clinical clerkship during 4th & 5th Professional year. In 2008, first batch completed Pharm.D program. Centro Escolar University Makati offers the degree Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.). The degree requires the completion of 52 units of formal course work and 36 units of clinical rotation done at

7742-585: Is a one-year period in most hospitals in Nigeria. After an internship program under the supervision of qualified licensed doctors each house officer must complete a one-year program in the National Youth Service Corp (NYSC). During this period, they must have a provisional license from the Nigeria Medical & Dental Council to practice, temporarily with little or no supervision. The residency program

7900-516: Is a professional degree in pharmaceutical sciences and according to newly adopted educational advancements, it is the minimum requirement to be licensed as a Pharmacist in Egypt, the curriculum consists of 6 years ( 5 years of Pharmaceutical & clinical studies followed by 1 year of Clinical internships ), this program is intended for students who have graduated from High school. As for the Pharmacists with

8058-449: Is a six-year academic program. The education of pharmacists in Belgium requires a minimum of five years of university study. EU-harmonisation has led to division into three bachelor and two master years. A bachelor title is, however, not used at all professionally. Belgium considers the educational level of their current (M.Sc.) degree in pharmacy to be comparable to the Pharm.D. title used in

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8216-443: Is a two-year period after graduating from medical school during which newly qualified doctors, practice under supervision in designated hospitals in the country. This involves six month rotations each in medicine, surgery, obstetrics and gynecology and pediatrics, in no particular order. Alternatively, a houseman may opt to do a rotation in anesthesia or psychiatry in place of one of the traditional four rotation areas. During this period

8374-406: Is accessible in the start of the sixth year, it grants residency after two years of internship and after the student defends their thesis. The second ( Résidanat ) is accessible after obtaining the doctorate. Residency lasts four years and gives another diploma of specialist like in medicine (DES for "diplôme d'études spécialisées" ). Presently, these are the only universities in Nigeria offering

8532-405: Is accessible through another competitive exam, even more selective. It lasts four years and gives another diploma of specialist like in medicine (DES for " diplôme d'études spécialisées " ). Students must specialise when entering the 5th year, and choose between dispensing pharmacy, pharmaceutical industry or hospital residency. In any case, a 12-month part-time hospital externship is mandatory during

8690-441: Is also referred to as "PGY-1" for "post-graduate year 1". The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) officially dropped the term "intern" in 1975, instead referring to individuals in their first year of graduate medical education as "first year residents ". Internships are typically in three tracks: transitional, preliminary, and categorical. Transitional and preliminary internships are often undertaken at

8848-495: Is also undertaken by doctors who obtained registration based on a pass in the New Zealand Registration Examination (NZREX Clinical). During postgraduate year 1 (PGY1) and postgraduate year 2 (PGY2), house officers complete a series of 13-week clinical attachments as part of their pre-vocational medical training. From 2020, one of these attachments must be community-based. The internship program (housemanship)

9006-450: Is available to any medical doctor who wants to continue in their medical career. This involves writing a postgraduate examination termed "primaries" in any faculty of choice. After completing five years of medical school, each graduate must complete a year of training at a teaching hospital, rotating through various departments. After they complete this mandatory training period, a candidate may begin residency (specialty) training. In Peru,

9164-498: Is from a natural to stylised word order. Unlike medieval schools, however, Italian Renaissance methods focused on Classical models of Latin prose style, reviving texts from that period, such as Cicero's De Inventione or Quintilian 's Institutio Oratoria . Teaching of specific, gradually harder Latin authors and texts followed rhetorical practice and learning. In Italy, during the medieval period, at different periods, Classical and Christian authors competed for attention, but

9322-400: Is issued by Socialstyrelsen is required in order to work in healthcare as a pharmacist ( i.e. as a pharmacy clerk or a clinical pharmacist), Sweden does not refer to licensed and practicing pharmacists as pharmacy doctors . Instead, pharmacists refer to themselves as apotekare or farmaceuter , which is an informal academic title referring to their master's degree in pharmacy. There is

9480-595: Is not fully approved as a major and it is not given its full value, instead graduates can fill employment positions such as pharmacists or pharmacists assistant. Neo-Latin Neo-Latin (sometimes called New Latin or Modern Latin ) is the style of written Latin used in original literary, scholarly, and scientific works, first in Italy during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and then across northern Europe after about 1500, as

9638-487: Is required for working in private and public pharmacies or hospitals. It is not required if the pharmacist is working at a pharmaceutical company. Besides the professional degree in pharmacy, the title of Doctor of Pharmacy can be achieved in Italy by obtaining a MSc in Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology (Chimica e Tecnologia Farmaceutiche, CTF) and then subscribing to the "Pharmacist's Order". In Malta,

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9796-553: Is seen as a vital context for understanding the vernacular cultures in the periods when Latin was in widespread productive use. Additionally, Classical reception studies have begun to assess the differing ways that Classical culture was understood in different nations and times. Classicists use the term "Neo-Latin" to describe the Latin that developed in Renaissance Italy as a result of renewed interest in classical civilization in

9954-495: Is similar to the clinical years of medical school in that the intern rotates through a variety of medical services over the year such as neurology, general surgery, and pediatrics. After completion of a transitional year, the resident may go onto an advanced, specialty-specific program. After a physician completes an internship and Step 3 of the United States Medical Licensing Examination or Level 3 of

10112-682: Is supervised and monitored by the Association of Philippine Medical Colleges (APMC), and its completion is a requirement for the Physician Licensure Examination (PLE). In Poland internship starts after six years of medical school. During thirteen months interns have to attend rotations in internal medicine, general and trauma surgery, anesthesiology and intensive care, emergency medicine, pediatrics and neonatology, gynecology and obstetrics, psychiatry, family medicine and additionally few courses: medical law, bioethics, etc. After finishing

10270-415: Is the allmäntjänstgöring (AT, "general practice"), which is required for obtaining a medical license. It takes at least 18 months, but usually lasts longer—21 months in most cases. Students must fulfill at least nine months in medicine and surgery (at least three months of each, but mostly six + six months), three months in psychiatry, and six months as a general practitioner. After the allmäntjänstgöring ,

10428-527: Is the approx. 3.5 year long training in general medicine. Only after successfully completing residency or the "Turnus" and subsequent board-certification, doctors are allowed to practice medicine unsupervised. In Brazil , medical school consists of six years or twelve semesters. The final two years (or one and a half years, depending on the university in question) are the internship. During this time, students work extensive hospital hours and do basic hospital work while supervised by residents and staff. This period

10586-573: Is the foundation year 1 (F1, FY1) doctor, who is on the first year of their two-year Foundation Programme , and has provisional registration with the General Medical Council . Before the introduction of the Foundation Programme in 2005, the equivalent post was called a " house officer " (also known as junior house officer and latterly, pre-registration house officer or PRHO). Despite its technical obsolescence, many clinicians still use

10744-485: Is usually divided among internal medicine, surgery, gynecology and obstetrics, pediatrics, emergency medicine, family medicine, and a final elective period in which the student chooses an area for further experience. On conclusion of the internship, the student becomes a doctor and may work unsupervised or enter a residency program to gain a specialty. After high school, a medical education in Chile takes seven years—five years as

10902-443: Is where a student arranges to visit a hospital for a short period (three to six months) to gain experience in a different medical context. They work under supervision, mentored by experienced doctors. It is primarily a learning experience. They cannot work independently, and must register with HPCSA if they are a foreign student. 1 year internship is obligation to enter 3-4 year residency . The Swedish equivalent to an internship

11060-534: The COMLEX-USA , they may practice as a general practitioner , though they are not yet board certified . However, most physicians go on to complete a specialty track residency program over two to six years after their intern year, depending on the specialty. Specialty residencies that incorporate the internship year into the program and provide all training necessary for a particular specialty are known as categorical residencies. Venezuela has two internship types:

11218-458: The Medical Council of Thailand (TMC). In the first year, internships are generally held at larger provincial hospitals, while second to third years are spent in smaller community hospitals. Upon completion of the first year, interns will receive a certificate of initial training (Thai:ใบรับรองการปฏิบัติงานแพทย์เพิ่มพูนทักษะ). The duration spent in internship depends on the specialty the graduate wishes to study. The British equivalent of an intern

11376-515: The National Medical Commission (NMC) as a physician licensed to practice as a primary care doctor throughout India. Every medical graduate from an Indonesian public or private university, or from an overseas-approved institution, after an adaptation process, must apply for internship registration to the Indonesian Medical Council ( Konsil Kedokteran Indonesia (KKI)). After the council approves their application, an intern must apply to

11534-478: The 14th and 15th centuries. Scientific nomenclatures sometimes prefer the term "New Latin", to show where their terms were coined in the same period. Neo-Latin describes the use of the Latin language for any purpose, scientific or literary, during and after the Renaissance. The beginning of the period cannot be precisely identified. The spread of secular education, the acceptance of humanistic literary norms, and

11692-463: The 1800s among linguists and scientists . Neo-Latin can be said to be the current style of Latin writing, but different periods in its evolution can be seen. Neo-Latin writings were seen as less relevant and deserving of less attention than Classical Latin during the 1800s, as Classical models were asserted as the prime focus for study. Productive use of Latin for most purposes ended in the early 1800s. While Latin remained an actively used language,

11850-498: The Bologna third cycle studies, and experimental part in suitable departments of pharmaceutical industry, pharmacies, institutions and faculties. After successful completion of the programme, the student must write the specialist thesis and pass the specialist exam in order to be granted the academic title for the appropriate field. Specialist study programme Clinical chemistry includes training which lasts 48 months in form of lectures within

12008-527: The Bologna third cycle studies, and professional part in the laboratories of specialization institutions authorized by the Ministry of Health. It is concluded by the specialist (theoretical and practical) exam. The gained title Specialist of Medicinal Biochemistry is equivalent to (and formally and legally acknowledged as) the title European Specialist of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics. In Spain, Pharmacy studies can be accessed after completing five and

12166-534: The Catholic church affirmed their commitment to Latin in the liturgy and as a working language within the hierarchy at the Council of Trent in 1545–63. Jesuit schools were particularly well known for their production of Latin plays , exclusive use of spoken Latin and emphasis on classical written style. However, the standards ultimately achieved by the whole school system were uneven. Not all students would acquire Latin to

12324-483: The Council registers them as a Medical Graduate Officer with a Provisional Registration Number, which allows them to serve as house officers (called H.O. for short), also known as housemen, working in major government hospitals only (ones with adequate consultants of each specialty or department). Interns must complete six four month rotations in: This adds up to 24 months of housemanship. They are then “Fully Registered” by

12482-554: The Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD.) program. These are the University of Benin, Benin City, Bayero University, Kano, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, University of Jos, Gombe State University, University of ilorin, and University of Ibadan, and the State University of Medical And Applied Sciences, Igbo Eno. The University of Benin (Uniben) commenced the program in 2001 following the approval given for

12640-565: The EU system) and a professional internship. Finished the degree, the academic title of Doctor of Pharmacy is issued. The graduate can then enroll in the regulatory institution for the Pharmacist profession in Portugal called, "Portuguese Pharmaceutical Society" or, in Portuguese, "Ordem dos Farmacêuticos". After the enrollment, the title of Pharmacist is issued. Afterwards, Pharmacists can start their career in

12798-617: The German Celtis . In the late 1400s, some schools in the Low Countries were using the new Italian standards of Latin. Erasmus and other pupils promoted the new learning and Latin standards. The Low Countries established itself as a leading centre of humanism and Neo-Latin; Rotterdam and Leuven were especially well known for these intellectual currents. Neo-Latin developed in advance of and in parallel with vernacular languages, but not necessarily in direct competition with them. Frequently

12956-568: The HPCSA. They are employed by the institution they work at, and this option is generally only available to South African citizens or permanent residents. Foreign-qualified doctors who have recently qualified and do not have the required medical experience to register with the HPCSA may be told to do an internship to qualify for full registration. They may intern in their country of origin or in South Africa. In South Africa, an elective for medical students

13114-534: The KKI. A full registered doctor can practice as a general practitioner or pursue postgraduate education for a specialty and sub-specialty. In Iran, a seven-year medical education ends with an 18-month internship in a university hospital. On completing the internship, a person may work independently as a Medical Doctor (MD) or take the National Comprehensive Residency Exam and continue studies in

13272-949: The MOHE for all pharmacy colleges in Iraq. A ministry of higher education decree established the Faculty of Pharmacy at Knowledge University in 2020 in Erbil City of Kurdistan Region of Iraq. It is five years under-graduate program that is designed according to the Bologna system which includes updated courses in pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy, clinical pharmacokinetics, therapeutics, pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmaceutical analysis, pharmacology, pharmacoeconomic, toxicology, pharmacognosy, clinical microbiology, clinical biochemistry, physiology, pathology, histology, human biology, genetics, immunology, anatomy, hospital training, and quality control, in addition to courses in English, mathematics, and computer science. In Israel

13430-726: The Makati Medical Center and The Medical City. It is a 2-year first postbaccalaureate degree open to licensed pharmacists in the Philippines. In Taiwan , Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.) program was first introduced in National Taiwan University since Fall 2009. PharmD program in Taiwan is a six-year academic program, while Bachelor of Science in pharmacy (BSc. Pharm.) is a four-year or five-year program. Students taking either PharmD or BSc Pharm. program are all eligible to take

13588-487: The Malaysian Medical Council. Once the council approves their application, they are listed as 'Approved for Consideration'. This approval is required for them to apply for the position of Medical Graduate Officer (Pegawai Perubatan Siswazah) from the government, to be accepted into the government service. Once the government accepts the application (through an interview and government servant compulsory course),

13746-536: The Malaysian Medical Council. Government service is compulsory for every medical graduate who wants full registration with the Malaysian Medical Council—after which, they may practice independently. Sometimes the council extends the 24-month housemanship due to incompetency or health reasons. A fully registered doctor (called medical officer, MO) may choose to work in the government sector or private sector. Consultants in this country, largely, refers to

13904-528: The Ministry of Health (MoH) for an internship position. After the MoH accepts the application, the intern serves supervised rotations in a hospital emergency department , hospital inpatient / outpatient and public primary healthcare . After completing the internship, they receive an Internship Completion Certificate ( Surat Tanda Selesai Internsip , STSI) from the MoH—which is the requirement for full registration in

14062-568: The Neo-Latin period is likewise indeterminate, but Latin as a regular vehicle of communicating ideas became rare following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and after the Congress of Vienna , where French replaced Latin as the language of diplomacy. By 1900, Latin survived primarily in international scientific vocabulary and taxonomy , or more actively, in the upper echelons of the Catholic Church . The term "Neo-Latin" came into use during

14220-486: The Pharm.D program. The first graduating group of the Pharm.D course in Ghana graduated in °2018. PharmD is a program offered at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Rabat. and the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca. In Morocco, Pharm.D studies can only be accessed through a competitive examination (" concours ", with numerus clausus ) happening at the start of the first year of health studies. All candidates hold

14378-543: The PharmD degree program. Since 2006, Pharm.D is a post-graduate course being offered by Rhodes University . The PharmD program has been available in Tunisia since 1975. There is only one faculty in Tunisia that provides education for PharmD; Faculty of pharmacy of Monastir. It is a diverse program focusing on pharmaceutical sciences, chemistry and biology along with marketing and management. It can have two minors : biological pharmacy and industrial pharmacy. At present

14536-863: The PharmD in Uniben is a six-year undergraduate program. Upon successful completion of the program in Uniben, students are awarded both the Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) degree and the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) degree. Prior to the commencement of the program, the university offered a five-year BPharm degree program which commenced in 1970. In the PharmD program, students are given extensive didactic preclinical/professional clinical preparation as well as clinical training (including pharmaceutical care) in different hospitals and community pharmacies. Students are prepared to have knowledge on patients counseling, drug information, pharmaceutical care, adverse drug reaction reporting, pharmacovigilance and much more. Pharmacy council of Nigeria and

14694-872: The PharmD-program is offered only by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . Unlike the United States and European countries, in order to practice pharmacy in Israel, only a bachelor's degree is required. In Palestine, the PharmD-program is offered by the Birzeit University also in Al-Najah University as a bachelor program. The program takes a duration of 6 years with the sixth year as a practicum year. PharmD-program faces challenges with legislation in Palestine, it

14852-486: The PharmD-title in use in the United States. Before the harmonization, a four-year Master of Science was superseded by two more years of university education preparing for pharmacy practice. To become a hospital pharmacist, a four-year residency program has to be completed after that. In Portugal, studies consists of four years of basic school, five years of preparatory school, and three years of high school, where afterward

15010-605: The Renaissance and Neo-Latin period saw a decisive move back to authors from the Classical period, and away from non-Classical 'minor' authors such as Boethius , whose language was simpler. The changes to schooling in Northern Europe were more profound, as methods had not evolved as quickly. Adopting Italian innovations, changes to the teaching of grammar and rhetoric were promoted by reformers including Calvin , Melanchthon and Luther . Protestants needed Latin to promote and disseminate their ideas, so were heavily involved with

15168-483: The United States. To become a hospital pharmacist, a three-year residency program has to be completed after obtaining the M.Sc. in pharmaceutical sciences. In both countries, the PharmDr. (Pharmaciae doctor) diploma can be obtained by pharmacists who have previously graduated in pharmacy ( Magister , Mgr.) (the undergraduate study of pharmacy takes five years). Applicants must defend a research or experimental thesis, and pass

15326-517: The bounds of the Church. Nevertheless, studies and criticism of Biblical translations were a particular and important focus of early Humanism, in Italy and beyond. Prominent Neo-Latin writers who were admired for their style in this early period included Pontano , Petrarch , Salutati , Bruni , Ficino , Pico della Mirandola in Italy; the Spaniard Juan Luis Vives ; and in northern Europe,

15484-408: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. As the humanist reformers sought both to purify Latin grammar and style, and to make Latin applicable to concerns beyond the ecclesiastical, they began to create a body of Latin literature outside

15642-431: The commencement of the program by the regulatory government agency for pharmacy education and practice in the country, Pharmacy Council of Nigeria (PCN). However, it was not until 2016 that the overall regulatory government agency for all university degree programs in the country, National Universities Commission (NUC), formally approved the PharmD degree program. Like other Universities approved for PharmD program in Nigeria,

15800-542: The continued use of Latin in Scandinavian countries and Russia – places that had never belonged to the Roman Empire – to disseminate knowledge until the early nineteenth century. Neo-Latin includes extensive new word formation . Modern scholarly and technical nomenclature , such as in zoological and botanical taxonomy and international scientific vocabulary , draws extensively from this newly minted vocabulary, often in

15958-585: The cultural heritage of Ancient Greece and Byzantium , as well as Greek and Old Church Slavonic languages. Latin was taught extensively in the USA , during the colonial period on the European model of Latin medium education, but was among the first to allow this monopoly to recede. Both Latin and the Classics were very influential nevertheless, and supported an active Latin literature, especially in poetry. Latin played

16116-568: The degree in India. After the Amendment in August 2019, it is now compulsory for hospitals to develop a DIC (Drug Information Centre). It will be head by a PharmD graduate; similarly, another cadre was created, the "Clinical Pharmacist". The only minimum educational qualification required for the cadre is the PharmD. The Clinical Pharmacist must also assist the physician and other medical representatives to promote

16274-482: The extent of potential records, even regarding printed works, there is extensive basic work to be done in cataloguing what is available, as well as in digitisation and translation of important works. Neo-Latin was, at least in its early days, an international language used throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe, as well as in the colonies of the major European powers. This area consisted of most of Europe, including Central Europe and Scandinavia ; its southern border

16432-666: The federal degree to be equivalent to the Pharm.D. title used in the United States. The pharmacists have indeed a research and a clinical experience during their degree. The master's degree in Pharmacy was available at Tehran University since 1926. In 1930, Tehran University changed the Pharmacy degree from a master's to a doctorate, and the duration of the study was increased to 5 years. Currently, in Iranian universities, graduates need to present and defend their thesis in different fields of pharmacy, and this adds another year to their studies, and generally after 6 years, students can graduate as

16590-453: The fifth year, although some flexibility is possible for students choosing industry. Sixth year for industry is generally dedicated to further specialisation with a former Professional master's degree or a former Research master's degree including internship. In France, since the harmonization of European Union in September 2005, the student who chooses the industry/research orientation have

16748-438: The form of classical or neoclassical compounds . Large parts of this new Latin vocabulary have seeped into English , French and several Germanic languages, particularly through Neo-Latin. In the eighteenth century, Latin was increasingly being learnt as a written and read language, with less emphasis on oral fluency. While it still dominated education, its position alongside Greek was increasingly attacked and began to erode. In

16906-508: The graduate can go into a specialty program or practice general medicine. There are two kinds of internships: In both programs, every intern gets a month off. Some applicants prefer the rotating program because it generally is not as strenuous as a straight internship. However, a straight year can provide better preparation for the second year of residency. In Jordan, after finishing medical school (6 years), medical students receive an M.D. degree, but may only practice medicine after they work in

17064-508: The houseman (intern) holds provisional registration status with the Ghana Medical and Dental Council. After the student successfully completes the housemanship, they receive full registration status and the rank of Medical Officer (M.O.). After 4.5 years of medical school to earn their MBBS degree, every doctor in India must complete a one-year Compulsory Rotating Medical Internship in various specialties to achieve permanent registration from

17222-501: The internship and passing medical exam young doctors can start residency to earn chosen specialty or work as a doctor without specific medical specialty. In Slovenia, medical graduates, after six-years of medical school, must complete a six-month paid internship at a medical institution. During the internship, they rotate through internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, OB/GYN, ENT, ophthalmology, emergency medicine, and anesthesiology—with emphasis on emergencies in each department. Completing

17380-659: The internship is a condition for taking the professional medical exam, passing which earns a doctor a license to practice medicine in Slovenia and apply for a specialty. An internship is a compulsory requirement for newly qualified medical doctors who are registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa in order to obtain a medical license to practice. They work in designated hospitals under supervision for two years. They may work independently in specified medical disciplines, and for periods of time designated by

17538-530: The internship, doctors obtain a certificate of satisfactory service. On receipt of the certificate, the Medical Council permits the provisionally registered doctor to apply for full registration in the General Register of Medical Practitioners. In Israel, medical graduates must complete a one-year internship in an accredited hospital before they receive full registration. After completing the intern year,

17696-641: The learner with spoken vocabulary for common topics, such as play and games, home work and describing travel. In short, Latin was taught as a "completely normal language", to be used as any other. Colloquia would also contain moral education. At a higher level, Erasmus' Colloquia helped equip Latin speakers with urbane and polite phraseology, and means of discussing more philosophical topics. Changes to Latin teaching varied by region. In Italy, with more urbanised schools and Universities, and wider curricula aimed at professions rather than just theology, Latin teaching evolved more gradually, and earlier, in order to speed up

17854-423: The learning of Latin. For instance, initial learning of grammar in a basic Latin word order followed the practice of medieval schools. In both medieval and Renaissance schools, practice in Latin written skills would then extend to prose style composition, as part of 'rhetoric'. In Italy, for prose for instance, a pupil would typically be asked to convert a passage in ordo naturalis to ordo artificialis , that

18012-510: The length of medical school has been reduced to five years and the internship has been extended to two years. On completion of the internship they take the Egyptian Medical Licensing Examination (EMLE) and they are licensed to practice. The last year of the medical studies in Germany is a mandatory clinical internship called Praktisches Jahr or PJ (literally translated: practical year). This internship comes without

18170-423: The level of abstract thought addressed to other specialists. To begin with, knowledge was already transmitted through Latin and it maintained specialised vocabularies not found in vernacular languages. This did not preclude scientific writings also existing in vernaculars; for example Galileo , some of whose scientific writings were in Latin, while others were in Italian, the latter less academic and intended to reach

18328-572: The liturgy, resisting attempts even in the New World and China to diverge from it. As noted above, Jesuit schools fuelled a high standard of Latinity, and this was also supported by the growth of seminaries, as part of the Counter Reformation 's attempts to revitalise Catholic institutions. While in Protestant areas Latin was pushed out of the Church, this did not make Protestants hostile to Latin in education or universities. In fact, Latin remained

18486-449: The medical student has two years of medical practice. Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas has an internship program and two years of externship program, thus the medical student has three years of medical practice. After earning their Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree through a four-year post-baccalaureate program, medical graduates are required to complete one year of internship in authorized hospitals and health centers. The program

18644-536: The most well known example. Throughout this period, Latin was a universal school subject, and indeed, the pre-eminent subject for elementary education in most of Europe and other places of the world that shared its culture. Schools were variously known as grammar schools in Britain, Latin schools in France, Germany, the Netherlands and colonial North America, and also Gymnasia in Germany and many other countries. Latin

18802-465: The national professional body of pharmacists, Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria (PSN), have envisaged that in the near future, PharmD degree will become the minimum educational qualification for the registration/licensing of fresh graduates of Nigeria's pharmacy schools for practice in the country. Through the efforts of the PCN, most pharmacy schools in Nigeria are now intensifying their preparations to commence

18960-513: The next two batches for further continuation of the Pharm D program. Pharmacy Council of Pakistan (PCP) is the professional regulatory authority for Pharmacists in Pakistan. Earlier (before 2003), pharmacy degree was a 4-year undergraduate B.Pharmacy ( Bachelor of Pharmacy ) that focused mainly on drug manufacturing and pharmaceutics but later in 2004, Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and Pharmacy Council of Pakistan collaboratively changed

19118-516: The nineteenth century, education in Latin (and Greek) focused increasingly on reading and grammar, and mutated into the 'classics' as a topic, although it often still dominated the school curriculum, especially for students aiming for entry to university. Learning moved gradually away from poetry composition and other written skills; as a language, its use was increasingly passive outside of classical commentaries and other specialised texts. Latin remained in active use in eastern Europe and Scandinavia for

19276-462: The nineteenth century. Medieval Latin had diverged quite substantially from the classical standard and saw notable regional variation and influence from vernacular languages. Neo-Latin attempts to return to the ideal of Golden Latinity in line with the Humanist slogan ad fontes . The new style of Latin was adopted throughout Europe, first through the spread of urban education in Italy, and then

19434-411: The number of disciplines offered in the college expanded to the chemistry pharmaceuticals, pharmacists, drugs and medicinal plants, and drugs and toxins, and the laboratory sciences, clinical, and clinical pharmacy. The period of study at the college is 5 years. The college follows the seasonal semester system where the academic year is made up of 2 independent semester courses. This system is accredited by

19592-512: The period, English schools established with charitable structures open to the general public; now a kind of private academy), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin. In this period, it was common for poets and authors to write in Latin, either in place of or in addition to their native language. Latin was a language for "high art" in an "eternal language", that authors supposed might outlast contemporary vernacular writings. It allowed for an international readership that shared

19750-465: The pharmacist licensure exam. The universities offering Pharm. D. program or BSc. Pharm. program are listed below. (6-year program) (4-year program) (5-year program) In Thailand , Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharmaceutical Care) program first curriculum in Asia was established at Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University in 1913. The PharmD Program (Pharmaceutical care or Industrial Pharmacy)

19908-463: The practical working language of the Roman Catholic Church , and was taught throughout Europe to clerics through the medieval university system. It was a flexible language, with many neologisms. Changes in grammatical practices regarding syntax and other elements such as conjunctions had become established. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by

20066-471: The process of emulating Classical models did not become complete. For instance, Catholic traditions preserved some features of medieval Latin, given the continued influence of some aspects of medieval theology. In secular texts, such as scientific, legal and philosophical works, neologisms continued to be needed, so while Neo-Latin authors might choose new formulations, they might also continue to use customary medieval forms, but in either case, could not aim for

20224-561: The program earns the student the title of Médico Cirujano (equivalent to general practitioner in the US). Additionally, a doctor must complete one year of community medicine to obtain a medical register and license from the Public Health Ministry (MSP). After this, the MD may enter a residency or apply to a specialty. Before 2018 and upon graduating from a six-year medical school, students undergo one year of internship or clerkship training at

20382-434: The reform of Latin teaching. Among the most influential of these reformers was Calvin's Latin teacher and educational collaborator Corderius , whose bilingual colloquies were aimed at helping French-speaking children learn to speak Latin. Among Latin schools, the rapid growth of Jesuit schools made them known for their dedication to high attainment in written and spoken Latin to educate future priests. This took place after

20540-708: The reform of the new secular Latin teaching. The heyday of Neo-Latin was 1500–1700, when in the continuation of the Medieval Latin tradition, it served as the lingua franca of science, medicine, legal discourse, theology, education, and to some degree diplomacy in Europe. This coincided with the growth of printed literature; Latin dominated early publishing. Classic works such as Thomas More 's Utopia were published. Other prominent writers of this period include Dutchmen Grotius and Secundus and Scotsman George Buchanan . Women, while rarely published, also wrote and composed poetry in Latin, Elizabeth Jane Weston being

20698-479: The rise of the printing press and of early modern schooling. Latin was learnt as a spoken language as well as written, as the vehicle of schooling and University education, while vernacular languages were still infrequently used in such settings. As such, Latin dominated early publishing, and made up a significant portion of printed works until the early nineteenth century. In Neo-Latin's most productive phase, it dominated science, philosophy, law, and theology, and it

20856-705: The safe and effective use of drugs. Experiential education prepares graduates to be practice-ready, as they already have spent a significant amount of time training in areas of direct patient care and research. In Algeria, Doctor of Pharmacy degree replaced the state's diploma of pharmacist in 2011, thus concepts on clinical pharmacy and pharmaceutical care were taught for the first time. Algeria has 01 Faculty of Pharmacy (University of Algiers 1) and 08 Pharmacy Department ( University of Batna 2, University of Blida 1, University of Tlemcen , University of Tizi Ouzzou , University of Sétif 1, University of Sidi Bel Abbes, University of Annaba , University of Constantine 3). PharmD

21014-503: The same Classical and recent Latin cultural reference points. The literature did not stand apart from vernaculars, as naturally allusions and the same reference points could flow across language boundaries. However, these dynamics have become less well understood, as academics and other readers are not as familiar with the Latin works of the period, sometimes resulting in simplistic notions of competition and replacement of Latin over time. The actual processes were more complicated and are now

21172-435: The same people were codifying and promoting both Latin and vernacular languages, in a wider post-medieval process of linguistic standardisation. However, Latin was the first language that was available, fully formed, widely taught and used internationally across a wide variety of subjects. As such, it can be seen as the first "modern European language". It should also be noted that for Italian reformers of written Latin, there

21330-700: The scholarship by the Renaissance Humanists . Although scholarship initially focused on Ancient Greek texts, Petrarch and others began to change their understanding of good style and their own usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of author's works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

21488-517: The student is submitted to nationwide exams for their university application. The process is the same for every degree the student chooses, from medicine to pharmacy to engineering. The student takes the master's degree in Pharmaceutical Sciences (equivalent to the PharmD program) in one of the nine Pharmacy faculties with their own respective numerous clausus which comprises a six-year rigorous study (5 year as an integrated masters according to

21646-399: The student must pass a nationwide exam to be legally entitled for practicing the profession of pharmacy, after acquiring the pharmacist work license. According to the new law in 2008, which is valid from 2009, all pharmacists, who have acquired the master's degree of pharmacy, are entitled to the Doctor of Pharmacy. In order to obtain the state diploma of "Doctor of Pharmacy", the studies last

21804-497: The students must complete a test from the National Board of Health and Welfare ( Socialstyrelsen ), to receive a medical license. This is followed by specialisttjänstgöring (ST, "specialization practice"), the equivalent of residency. After graduation from medical school, most newly qualified doctors are required to undertake a compulsory placement at a provincial hospital outside Bangkok (internship) for up to 3 years according to

21962-803: The study of pharmacy the 5+0 uniform master's studies lasts 5 years - first and second cycles combined. Students have 5 months of pharmacy practice in their last yeat at the university. After completing master's studies it is possible to contitune and finish one of Specialist study programmes. Those are intended for the candidates who have finished the university pharmacy programme and passed the professional examination or Uniform master's study programme Pharmacy. Those programmes are: Medicinals design, Medicinals testing, Clinical pharmacy, Pharmacognosy, Community pharmacy or Clinical chemistry (Medical Biochemistry). All specialist study programmes, except for Clinical chemistry, include training which lasts 36 months and theoretical part (1st year) in form of lectures and exams within

22120-558: The superiority of vernacular literatures, and the idea that only writing in one's first language could produce genuinely creative output, found in nationalism and Romanticism. More recently, the lack of trained Latinists has added to the barriers. More academic attention has been given to Neo-Latin studies since 1970, and the role and influence of Latin output in this period has begun to be reassessed. Rather than being an adjunct to Classical Latin forms, or an isolated, derivative and now largely irrelevant cultural output, Neo-Latin literature

22278-451: The syllabus and upgraded the B.Pharmacy degree to Pharm.D. Pharm.D (Doctor of Pharmacy) is a 5-year professional degree in Pakistan. Admission requirements for Pharm.D is 12-years of schooling or HSSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) in pre-medical subjects (Biology, Chemistry and Physics etc.) or A-levels in similar subjects. Passing an aptitude test is mandatory for getting admission into Pharm.D program. As compared to B.Pharm., Pharm.D

22436-448: The term house officer . (The term " senior house officer " or SHO is still used to refer to a tier of doctors that may include both those in the second year of Foundation Programme, and those who have begun a specialty training programme). The Foundation Programme is a 2 year long training period in which competencies are developed and documented. A medical or surgical internship typically lasts one year and usually begins on July 1. It

22594-627: The top rated private universities. It is the best for home and abroad students. The B.Pharm. is completed in 4 years and the M.Pharm. in one year. Pharmacy Council of Bangladesh (PCB) is the Professional Regulatory Authority for Pharmacists in Bangladesh. The PharmD degree was introduced by the Government of India and Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) in 2008. It is a post-graduate professional doctorate of 6 years which includes 5 years of study and 1 year of internship or residency. It

22752-615: The universities that offer this degree include Cairo University, Ain Shams University, Mansoura University, Tanta University, Alexandria University, Suez Canal University, Beni- Suef University and Galala University. PharmD is a 6-year course offered in Ghana from the academic year 2012/2013, initially by the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). It leads to the award of the Doctor of Pharmacy certificate making one eligible to qualify, register and operate as

22910-438: The university's current numerus clausus and the number or registered students, ranging from 10 to 30% bearing in mind that second-time participants are three to four times more likely to succeed than students trying for the first time. In order to obtain the state diploma of "Doctor of Pharmacy", the studies last a minimum of six years, or nine years for students choosing residency ( hospital pharmacy or medical biology ). It

23068-415: The vast majority of extant Latin output, estimated as well over 99.99% of the totality. Given the size of output and importance of Latin, the lack of attention to it is surprising to many scholars. The trend is a long one, however, dating back to the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as Neo-Latin texts became looked down on as non-classical. Reasons could include the rising belief during this period in

23226-586: The warrant to practice as a pharmacist is given after the Master of Pharmacy course is completed successfully. The University of Malta, however, offers a Level 8 Postgraduate Degree known as the Doctorate in Pharmacy (PharmD) which expands the pharmacist's knowledge on clinical, pharmacoeconomic, and regulatory aspects. The Doctorate in Pharmacy course is offered in collaboration with the University of Illinois in Chicago and uses

23384-697: The wellness and correct use of medications for patients. Nepal started three years post baccalaureate Pharm.D in 2010 in Department of Pharmacy, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre. It is the first batch in Nepal pursuing the degree. The first batch is now currently involved in a 1 years internship at different well established teaching hospitals of Nepal. The students are enrolled in Manipal Teaching Hospital, Pokhara, College of Medical Sciences Bharatpur and KIST medical College, Lalitpur for their internship of 1 year. Kathmandu University has already enrolled

23542-413: The wide availability of Latin texts following the invention of printing , mark the transition to a new era of scholarship at the end of the 15th century, but there was no simple, decisive break with medieval traditions. Rather, there was a process of change in education, a choice of literary and stylistic models, and a move away from medieval techniques of language formation and argumentation. The end of

23700-417: The widening of education and its needs to address many more practical areas of knowledge, many of which were being written about for national audiences in the vernacular. The exact size of the Neo-Latin corpus is currently incalculable, but dwarfs that of Latin in all other periods combined. Material includes personal, unpublished, bureaucratic, educational, and academic output such as notes and theses. Given

23858-453: Was appropriate to put so much emphasis on abstract language skills such as Latin poetry composition. As time went on, the difficulties with Latin teaching began to lead to calls to move away from an emphasis on spoken Latin and the introduction of more native-language-medium teaching. At the beginning of the Renaissance, universities in northern Europe were still dominated by theology and related topics, while Italian universities were teaching

24016-412: Was frequently the normal medium of education, both for teaching the Latin language, and for other subjects. Fluency in spoken Latin was an objective as well as the ability to read and write; evidence of this includes the emphasis on use of diacritics to maintain understanding of vowel quantity, which is important orally, and also on the use of Colloquia for children's learning, which would help to equip

24174-684: Was important for history, literature, plays, and poetry. Classical styles of writing, including approaches to rhetoric, poetical metres, and theatrical structures, were revived and applied to contemporary subject matter. It was a pan-European language for the dissemination of knowledge and communication between people with different vernaculars in the Republic of Letters (Res Publica Litterarum) . Even as Latin receded in importance after 1650, it remained vital for international communication of works, many of which were popularised in Latin translation, rather than as vernacular originals. This in large part explains

24332-446: Was in Latin, across the curriculum. Many universities hosted newly or recently-written Latin plays , which formed a significant body of literature before 1650. Plays included satires on student life, such as the play Studentes (Students), which went through many reprints. Enforcement of Latin-only rules tended to decline especially after 1650. Latin dominated topics of international academic and scientific interest, especially at

24490-568: Was introduced to improve clinical pharmacy services in the country and is the only service which is in direct contact with the patient health care system. The first batch of post-baccalaureate PharmD students graduated in August 2011 and the first regular batch graduated in June 2014. The PharmD degree requires 5 years of classroom and hospital-based didactic study (two years didactic post-baccalaureate course), followed by one year of internship training in hospitals in addition to ongoing practicals and finishing

24648-423: Was no clear divide between Italian and Latin; the latter was seen by Petrarch for example as an artificial and literary version of the spoken language. While Italian in this period also begins to be used as a separate written language, it was not always seen as wholly separate from Latin. The Protestant Reformation (1520–1580), though it removed Latin from the liturgies of the churches of Northern Europe, promoted

24806-647: Was of course the major language of Christian theology. Both Catholic and Protestant writers published in Latin. While Protestant writers would also write in vernaculars, Latin was important for the international dissemination of ideas. Legal discourse, medicine, philosophy and sciences started from a strong Latin tradition, and continued as such. This began to change in the late seventeenth century, as philosophers and others began to write in their native language first, and translate into Latin for international audiences. Translations would tend to prioritise accuracy over style. The Catholic Church made exclusive use of Latin in

24964-658: Was the Mediterranean Sea, with the division more or less corresponding to the modern eastern borders of Finland , the Baltic states , Poland , Slovakia , Hungary and Croatia . Russia 's acquisition of Kyiv in the later 17th century introduced the study of Latin to Russia. Russia relied on Latin for some time as a vehicle to exchange scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, the use of Latin in Orthodox eastern Europe did not reach pervasive levels due to their strong cultural links to

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