The Pereshchepina Treasure ( Russian : Перещепинский клад , Ukrainian : Перещепинський скарб ) is a major deposit of Bulgar and Khazar objects from the Migration Period .
148-550: The most valuable items are the sword of Kubrat , a gift from Emperor Heraclius and the ring with the monogram of the ruler, as a " patrician ", that is, as the savior of the New (Christian) Rome. The sword is valuable as an artifact № 1 of the Hermitage and for the first time left the borders of Russia on May 24, 2019. It is presented in Sofia by Boyko Borisov to Audrey Azoulay . The deposit
296-458: A Victory , which was cast down in the reign of Michael III ; and a crowned Fortune of the city. In 965, Nikephoros II Phokas installed the captured bronze city gates of Mopsuestia in the place of the original ones. The main gate itself was covered by an outer wall, pierced by a single gate, which in later centuries was flanked by an ensemble of reused marble reliefs. According to descriptions of Pierre Gilles and English travelers from
444-450: A 1.5 m tall crenellated wall on the inner side, serving as a first line of defence. Transverse walls cross the moat, tapering towards the top so as not to be used as bridges. Some of them have been shown to contain pipes carrying water into the city from the hill country to the city's north and west. Their role has therefore been interpreted as that of aqueducts for filling the moat and as dams dividing it into compartments and allowing
592-492: A Persian client state , even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor. In a letter delivered by his ambassadors, Heraclius acknowledged the Persian empire as superior, described himself as Khosrow II's "obedient son, one who is eager to perform the services of your serenity in all things", and even called Khosrow II the "supreme emperor". Khosrow II nevertheless rejected the peace offer, and arrested Heraclius' ambassadors. With
740-448: A Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, besieged Constantinople , but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius's brother Theodore. With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius
888-750: A bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'être and was eventually abandoned. The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius. The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626). At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats , who practiced Slavic paganism . He also created
1036-462: A cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again to conquer the city back for Christians. The legend explained the later walling up of the gate as a Turkish precaution against this prophecy. After his conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II built a new fort in 1458. By adding three larger towers to the four pre-existing ones (towers 8 to 11) on
1184-494: A certain religious official in Rome to confirm if Muhammad's claim of prophethood was legitimate, and, after receiving the reply to his letter, called the Roman assembly saying, "If you desire salvation and the orthodox way so that your empire remain firmly established, then follow this prophet," to the rejection of the council.. Heraclius eventually decided against conversion but the envoy
1332-506: A corruption of the ta Meltiadou quarter, and places the gate to the west of the Mocius cistern. Other authors identified it with the Gate of Adrianople (A. M. Schneider) or with the Gate of Rhesios (A. J. Mordtmann). The double Theodosian Walls ( Greek : τεῖχος Θεοδοσιακόν , teichos Theodosiakon ), located about 2 km (1.2 miles) to the west of the old Constantinian Wall, were erected during
1480-569: A grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability. But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised, having been weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne. The war had been devastating, and left the Byzantines in a much-weakened state. Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs, ultimately leading to
1628-565: A kind of stoa . In late Byzantine times, a painting of the Crucifixion was allegedly placed on the gate, leading to its later Ottoman name, İsakapı ("Gate of Jesus "). It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1509 , but its approximate location is known through the presence of the nearby İsakapı Mescidi mosque. The identity and location of the Gate of At[t]alos ( Πόρτα Ἀτ[τ]άλου , Porta At[t]alou ) are unclear. Cyril Mango identifies it with
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#17328547526901776-632: A new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard. The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz. Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years. On 25 March 624, he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina , and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on 15 April, he campaigned in
1924-469: A new set of walls, located some 300–400 m to the west of the old ones. Little is known of the Severan Wall save for a short description of its course by Zosimus and that its main gate was located at the end of a porticoed avenue (the first part of the later Mese ) and shortly before the entrance of the later Forum of Constantine . The wall seems to have extended from near the modern Galata Bridge in
2072-594: A peace treaty, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory. This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires. Heraclius soon lost many of his newly regained lands to the Rashidun Caliphate . Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula , the Muslims quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire . In 636, the Muslims marched into Roman Syria , defeating Heraclius's brother Theodore . Within
2220-445: A prophecy, it was this gate that Western Emperor Frederick Barbarossa would enter the city through. It was re-opened in 1346, but closed again before the siege of 1453 and remained closed until 1886, leading to its early Ottoman name, Kapalı Kapı ("Closed Gate"). The gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Δευτέρου ) is located between towers 30 and 31, little remains of the original gate, and the modern reconstruction may not be accurate. The Gate of
2368-464: A renowned archaeologist , who published its description in 1914. The hoard contains more than 800 pieces, now preserved in the Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg . There are 19 silver vessels and 16 gold vessels, including a striking rhyton and remains of another. The official website of the museum speaks about a staff with gold facing, a well-preserved iron sword with an end in the form of
2516-413: A ring and gold facing on the hilt and scabbard... gold jewellery — a torque , an earring, seven bracelets and seven rings with inlays of precious stones (amethysts, sapphires, tiger-eyes, garnets, rock crystal, and emeralds)... and square gold plaques for the facing of a wooden funeral construction". The total weight of gold from the deposit exceeds 21 kilograms, that of silver objects 50 kilograms. Among
2664-603: A section of the foundation of the wall of Constantine. The names of a number of gates of the Constantinian Wall survive, but scholars debate their identity and exact location. The Old Golden Gate (Latin: Porta Aurea , Ancient Greek: Χρυσεία Πύλη ), known also as the Xerolophos Gate and the Gate of Saturninus, is mentioned in the Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae , which further states that
2812-591: A series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey ) since its founding as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great . With numerous additions and modifications during their history, they were the last great fortification system of antiquity , and one of the most complex and elaborate systems ever built. Initially built by Constantine
2960-568: A short period of time, the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia , Armenia and Egypt . Heraclius responded with reforms which allowed his successors to combat the Arabs and avoid total destruction. One of the most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek. Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans . He tried to repair
3108-424: A struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraclonas to assume the throne. When Heraclius died, he devised the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas to rule jointly with Martina as empress. Walls of Constantinople The Walls of Constantinople ( Turkish : Konstantinopolis Surları ; Greek : Τείχη της Κωνσταντινουπόλης ) are
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#17328547526903256-420: A terrace, the peribolos ( περίβολος ). Between the outer wall and the moat ( σοῦδα , souda ) there stretched an outer terrace, the parateichion ( τὸ ἔξω παρατείχιον ), while a low breastwork crowned the moat's eastern escarpment. Access to both terraces was possible through posterns on the sides of the walls' towers. The inner wall is a solid structure, 4.5–6 m thick and 12 m high. It
3404-677: A thousand virgins to the Persian King. The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. On 4 April 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia , and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched
3552-404: Is faced with carefully cut limestone blocks, while its core is filled with mortar made of lime and crushed bricks. Between seven and eleven bands of brick , approximately 40 cm thick, traverse the structure, not only as a form of decoration, but also strengthening the cohesion of the structure by bonding the stone façade with the mortar core, and increasing endurance to earthquakes . The wall
3700-581: Is fully convinced of this fulfilled prophecy, that he tried previously to convince the Romans and invite them to salvation (Islam), but none listened to him, and soon the Romans would be expelled from Syria. Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia , a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina . He had two children with Fabia ( Eudoxia Epiphania and Emperor Constantine III ) and at least nine with Martina, many of whom were sickly children. Of Martina's children at least two were disabled , which
3848-457: Is impossible to ascertain, as it lies buried beneath the modern city. From the Sea of Marmara, the wall turns sharply to the northeast until it reaches the Golden Gate, at about 14 m above sea level. From there and until the Gate of Rhegion the wall follows a more or less straight line to the north, climbing the city's Seventh Hill. From there the wall turns sharply to the northeast, climbing up to
3996-686: Is known with certainty, aside from the Old Golden Gate, is the Gate of Saint Aemilianus ( Πόρτα τοῦ ἁγίου Αἰμιλιανοῦ , Porta tou hagiou Aimilianou ), named in Turkish Davutpaşa Kapısı . It lay at the juncture with the sea walls , and served the communication with the coast. According to the Chronicon Paschale , the Church of St Mary of Rhabdos, where the Rod of Moses was kept, stood next to
4144-617: Is little specific information known about his origin. His father was a general during Emperor Maurice's war with Shah Bahram Chobin , usurper of the Sasanian Empire , during 590. After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa . In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas , who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as hypatos , though neither of them explicitly claimed
4292-639: Is no evidence outside of Islamic sources to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam, and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews. Al-Waqidi recorded a story about a trader acting as a spy in Medina from the Lakhmid kingdom who reported the coming of the Muslim forces before The Battle of the Yarmuk. He described the caliph Abu Bakr to him as an ordinary-looking man who roams
4440-517: Is no primary source that says that Heraclius [the Elder] was an Armenian and that the assertion is based on an erroneous reading of Theophylact Simocatta . In a letter, Priscus , a general who had replaced Heraclius the Elder, wrote to him "to leave the army and return to his own city in Armenia". Kaldellis interprets it as the command headquarters of Heraclius the Elder, and not his hometown. Beyond that, there
4588-439: Is of middle or late Byzantine construction. The corresponding gate in the outer wall was preserved until the early 20th century, but has since disappeared. It is very likely that this gate is to be identified with the Gate of Kalagros ( Πύλη τοῦ Καλάγρου ). Modern Yeni Mevlevihane Kapısı , located between towers 50 and 51 is commonly referred to as the Gate of Rhegion ( Πόρτα Ῥηγίου ) in early modern texts, allegedly named after
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4736-569: Is the Gate of Melantias ( Πόρτα τῆς Μελαντιάδος , Porta tēs Melantiados ), whose location is also debated. Van Millingen considered it to be a gate of the Theodosian Wall (the Pege Gate ), while more recently, Janin and Mango have rebutted this, suggesting that it was located on the Constantinian Wall. While Mango identifies it with the Gate of the Prodromos, Janin considers the name to have been
4884-446: Is the first gate to be encountered. It was the main ceremonial entrance into the capital, used especially for the occasions of a triumphal entry of an emperor into the capital on the occasion of military victories or other state occasions such as coronations. On rare occasions, as a mark of honor, the entry through the gate was allowed to non-imperial visitors: papal legates (in 519 and 868) and, in 710, to Pope Constantine . The Gate
5032-532: The peribolos by small posterns. Generally speaking, most of the surviving towers of the main wall have been rebuilt in Byzantine or Ottoman times, and only the foundations of some are of original Theodosian construction. Furthermore, while until the Komnenian period , the reconstructions largely remained true to the original model, later modifications ignored the windows and embrasures on the upper story and focused on
5180-625: The Arabah south of Lake Tiberias , taking al-Karak . Other raids penetrated into the Negev , reaching as far as Gaza . The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again. Heraclius died of an illness on 11 February 641; and most of Egypt had fallen by that time as well. Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments. He enlarged
5328-522: The Avar–Sassanian coalition, Arabs , Rus' , and Bulgars , among others. The fortifications retained their usefulness after the advent of gunpowder siege cannons, which played a part in the city's fall to Ottoman forces in 1453 but were not able to breach its walls. The walls were largely maintained intact during most of the Ottoman period until sections began to be dismantled in the 19th century, as
5476-558: The Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh . The Persian Shah Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavad II , who soon sued for
5624-644: The Eminönü quarter south through the vicinity of the Nuruosmaniye Mosque to curve around the southern wall of the Hippodrome, and then going northeast to meet the old walls near the Bosporus. The Patria also mentions the existence of another wall during the siege of Byzantium by Constantine the Great during the latter's conflict with Licinius , in 324. The text mentions that a fore-wall ( proteichisma ) ran near
5772-604: The Late Antique Colossus of Barletta depicts Heraclius. Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost, and that the wood contained in the allegedly-still-sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake. In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe,
5920-639: The Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651. By 630, the Arabs had unified all the tribes of the Hijaz , previously too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians. They composed one of the most powerful states in the region. The first conflict between the Byzantines and the Arabs was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629. A small Arabs skirmishing force attacked
6068-461: The Philadephion , located at about the middle of the later, Constantinian city, suggesting the expansion of the city beyond the Severan Wall by this time. Like Severus before him, Constantine began to punish the city for siding with his defeated rival, but he too soon realised the advantages of Byzantium's location. From 324 to 336, the city was thoroughly rebuilt and inaugurated on 11 May 330 under
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6216-726: The Propontis coast to the area of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus ( Turkish : Tekfur Sarayı ) in the Blachernae quarter. The outer wall and the moat terminate even earlier, at the height of the Gate of Adrianople. The section between the Blachernae and the Golden Horn does not survive since the line of the walls was later brought forward to cover the suburb of Blachernae, and its original course
6364-462: The Sasanian Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies until the latter's death. Thereafter, Khosrow seized the opportunity to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer Mesopotamia . Khosrow had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius , and Khosrow demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as emperor. The war initially went
6512-595: The True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony. Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of " King of Kings " after his victory. Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as Basileus , the Greek word for "sovereign", and that title was used by the Byzantine emperors for the next 800 years. The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars to his Armenian origins. Heraclius's defeat of
6660-464: The tower terrace as the sole fighting platform . The outer wall was 2 m thick at its base, and featured arched chambers on the level of the peribolos , crowned with a battlemented walkway, reaching a height of 8.5–9 m. Access to the outer wall from the city was provided either through the main gates or through small posterns on the base of the inner wall's towers. The outer wall likewise had towers, situated approximately midway between
6808-526: The 17th century, these reliefs were arranged in two tiers, and featured mythological scenes, including the Labours of Hercules . These reliefs, lost since the 17th century with the exception of some fragments now in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum , were probably put in place in the 9th or 10th centuries to form the appearance of a triumphal gate. According to other descriptions, the outer gate
6956-596: The 670s. Although the Great Soviet Encyclopaedia was keen to ascribe the hoard to a "Slavic chieftain" who supposedly pillaged the objects during "a raid against Byzantium," and while, more recently, some scholars attempt to attribute it to the Khazars , many agree that the hoard represents, at least in its earlier phase, the treasure of Kubrat, the first attested khan of the Bulgars . The treasure would have fallen to
7104-489: The 9th century: the 11th-century historian Kedrenos records that the "wall at Exokionion", likely a portion of the Constantinian wall, collapsed in an earthquake in 867. Only traces of the wall appear to have survived in later ages, although Alexander van Millingen states that some parts survived in the region of the İsakapı until the early 19th century. In 2018 the construction of Yenikapı Transfer Center unearthed
7252-563: The Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrow and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan . In the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena , capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania , resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I . In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by
7400-530: The Elder , the Exarch of Africa , led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas . Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power, the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 . The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to
7548-471: The Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes. His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross , one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. Although the territories recovered by his defeat of the Persians were annulled again by the Early Muslim conquests , Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman emperors. His reforms of
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#17328547526907696-422: The Gate of Myriandr[i]on or Polyandrion ("Place of Many Men"), possibly a reference to its proximity to a cemetery. It is the best-preserved of the gates, and retains substantially unaltered from its original, 5th-century appearance. The so-called Fourth Military Gate stands between towers 59 and 60, and is currently walled up. Recently, it has been suggested that this gate is actually the Gate of St. Romanus, but
7844-418: The Gate of Rhegion and the Gate of Charisius, can be established directly from the literary evidence. In the traditional nomenclature, established by Philipp Anton Dethier in 1873, the gates are distinguished into the "Public Gates" and the "Military Gates", which alternated over the course of the walls. According to Dethier's theory, the former were given names and were open to civilian traffic, leading across
7992-522: The Gate of Rhegion to the Fifth Military Gate (by B. Tsangadas) or from the Gate of St. Romanus to the Gate of Adrianople (by van Millingen). The walls survived the entire Ottoman period and appeared in travelogues of foreign visitors to Constantinople/Istanbul. A 16th-century Chinese geographical treatise, for example, recorded, "Its city has two walls. A sovereign prince lives in the city...". The wall contained nine main gates, which pierced both
8140-522: The Gate of St. Romanus, located near the peak of the Seventh Hill at some 68 m above sea level. From there the wall descends into the valley of the river Lycus, where it reaches its lowest point at 35 m above sea level. Climbing the slope of the Sixth Hill, the wall then rises up to the Gate of Charisius or Gate of Adrianople, at some 76 m height. From the Gate of Adrianople to the Blachernae,
8288-440: The Golden Gate's construction is uncertain, with scholars divided between Theodosius I and Theodosius II . Earlier scholars favored the former, but the current majority view tends to the latter, meaning that the gate was constructed as an integral part of the Theodosian Walls. The debate has been carried over to a now-lost Latin inscription in metal letters that stood above the doors and commemorated their gilding in celebration of
8436-422: The Great, the walls surrounded the new city on all sides, protecting it against attack from both sea and land. As the city grew, the famous double line of the Theodosian Walls was built in the 5th century. Although the other sections of the walls were less elaborate, they were, when well-manned, almost impregnable for any medieval besieger. They saved the city, and the Byzantine Empire with it, during sieges by
8584-470: The Holy Roman Empire. The story was included in the Golden Legend , the famous 13th-century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo , and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer ( Städel , Frankfurt). Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I 's mother Saint Helena , traditionally responsible for
8732-450: The Old Golden Gate; van Millingen places it on the Seventh Hill, at a height probably corresponding to one of the later gates of the Theodosian Wall in that area; and Raymond Janin places it further north, across the Lycus and near the point where the river passed under the wall. In earlier centuries, it was decorated with many statues, including one of Constantine, which fell down in an earthquake in 740. The only gate whose location
8880-405: The Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews , seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross , and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618. When the Sasanians reached Chalcedon in 615, it was at this point, according to Sebeos , that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become
9028-406: The Persian general Shahrbaraz . In early Islamic and Arab histories, Heraclius is the most popular Roman emperor, who is discussed at length. Owing to his role as Roman emperor at the time Islam emerged, he is remembered in Arabic literature , such as the Islamic hadith and sira . He is also indirectly mentioned in Sura Ar-Rum and his victory against Sassanid empire was prophesied here. In
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#17328547526909176-417: The Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay. Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and
9324-425: The Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621, the whole province was in their hands) and to devastate Anatolia, while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction. In 613,
9472-435: The Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire. Kavad II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. Ardashir III , Heraclius's ally Shahrbaraz , and Khosrow's daughters Boran and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when Yazdegerd III ,
9620-464: The Persians under Rhahzadh at the Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrow's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrow was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavad II , who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629 Heraclius restored
9768-422: The Persians' way, partly because of Phocas's brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt , enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a " tyrant " (in its original meaning of the word, i.e. illegitimate king by the rules of succession),
9916-410: The Romans. Even the Strategicon of Maurice , a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length. The religious zeal of the Arab army, which was a recent development following the rise of Islam , ultimately contributed to the latter's success in its campaigns against the Romans. The following year, the Arabs launched an offensive into
10064-413: The Second Military Gate, which is located further north. Its name derives from the fact that it led to a wooden circus ( amphitheatre ) outside the walls. The gate complex is approximately 12 m wide and almost 20 m high, while the gate itself spans 5 m. According to a story related by Niketas Choniates , in 1189 the gate was walled off by Emperor Isaac II Angelos , because according to
10212-595: The Spring or Pēgē Gate ( Πύλη τῆς Πηγῆς in Greek) was named after a popular monastery outside the Walls, the Zōodochos Pēgē (" Life-giving Spring ") in the modern suburb of Balıklı . Its modern Turkish name, Gate of Selymbria (Tr. Silivri Kapısı or Silivrikapı , Gk. Πύλη τῆς Συλημβρίας ), appeared in Byzantine sources shortly before 1453. It lies between the heptagonal towers 35 and 36, which were extensively rebuilt in later Byzantine times: its southern tower bears an inscription dated to 1439 commemorating repairs carried out under John VIII Palaiologos . The gate arch
10360-401: The True Cross with a negotiator in 628. After a tour of the Empire, Heraclius returned the cross to Jerusalem on 21 March 629 or 630. For Christians of Western Medieval Europe, Heraclius was the "first crusader". The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint-Michel ( c. 1060 ), and then it became popular, especially in France, the Italian Peninsula, and
10508-422: The area of the Hagia Sophia , in a loop towards the northeast, crossed the regions known as Topoi and Arcadianae and reached the sea at the later quarter of Mangana. This wall was protected by twenty-seven towers and had at least two landward gates, one which survived to become known as the Arch of Urbicius, and one where the Milion monument was later located. On the seaward side, the wall was much lower. Although
10656-404: The authenticity of Heraclius' letter due to the documentation of such letters in the majority of both early and later sources. Furthermore, she notes that the formulation and the wordings of different sources are very close and the differences are ones of detail: They concern the date on which the letter was sent and its exact phrasing. Muhammad Hamidullah , an Islamic research scholar, argues for
10804-766: The authenticity of the letter sent to Heraclius, and in a later work reproduces what is claimed to be the original letter. The account as transmitted by Muslim historians is translated as follows: In the name of God, the Gracious One, the Merciful From Muhammad, servant of God and His apostle to Heraclius, premier of the Romans: Peace unto whoever follows the guided path! Thereafter, verily I call you to submit your will to God. Submit your will to God and you will be safe. God shall compensate your reward two-folds. But if you turn away, then upon you will sins of
10952-639: The author of the Patria asserts that this wall dated to the time of Byzas, the French researcher Raymond Janin thinks it more likely that it reflects the situation after the city was rebuilt by the Spartan general Pausanias , who conquered the city in 479 BC. This wall is known to have been repaired, using tombstones, under the leadership of a certain Leo in 340 BC, against an attack by Philip II of Macedon . Byzantium
11100-472: The besiegers when they ran out of other projectiles. Severus punished the city harshly: the strong walls were demolished, and the town was deprived of its civic status, being reduced to a mere village dependent on Heraclea Perinthus . However, appreciating the city's strategic importance, Severus eventually rebuilt it and endowed it with many monuments, including a Hippodrome and the Baths of Zeuxippus , as well as
11248-521: The body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city. On 5 October 610, Heraclius was crowned in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace . He then married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia . After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and was very unpopular. In the reign of Heraclius's two sons,
11396-492: The city outgrew its medieval boundaries. Despite lack of maintenance, many parts of the walls survived and are still standing today. A large-scale restoration program has been underway since the 1980s. According to tradition, the city was founded as Byzantium by Greek colonists from the Attic town of Megara , led by the eponymous Byzas , around 658 BC. The city then consisted of a small region around an acropolis located on
11544-399: The city wall itself in the region around it was "ornately decorated". The gate stood somewhere on the southern slopes of the Seventh Hill. Its construction is often attributed to Constantine, but is in fact of uncertain age. It survived until the 14th century, when the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras described it as being built of "wide marble blocks with a lofty opening", and crowned by
11692-541: The city's "inner wall" from an earthquake on 25 September 478, which likely refers to the Constantinian wall. When repairs were being undertaken, to prevent an invasion by Atilla , the Blues and Greens, the supporters of chariot-racing teams , supplied 16,000 men between them for the building effort. Theophanes the Confessor reports renewed earthquake damage in 557 . It appears that large parts survived relatively intact until
11840-475: The city. When he reached the capital, the Excubitors , an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law Priscus , deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas's reply—"And will you rule better?"—so enraged Heraclius that he beheaded Phocas on the spot. He later had the genitalia removed from
11988-458: The damage. Theodosius II ordered the praetorian prefect Constantine to supervise the repairs, made all the more urgent as the city was threatened by the presence of Attila the Hun in the Balkans . Employing the city's chariot-racing factions in the work, the walls were restored in a record 60 days, according to the Byzantine chroniclers and three inscriptions found in situ . It is at this date that
12136-407: The defeat of an unnamed usurper: Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata tyranni. aurea saecla gerit qui portam construit auro. (English translation) Theodosius adorned these places after the downfall of the tyrant. He brought a golden age who built the gate from gold. While the legend has not been reported by any known Byzantine author, an investigation of the surviving holes wherein
12284-459: The defeat of the usurper Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388) and was only later incorporated into the Theodosian Walls. The gate, built of large square blocks of polished white marble fitted together without cement, has the form of a triumphal arch with three arched gates, the middle one larger than the two others. The gate is flanked by large square towers, which form the 9th and 10th towers of
12432-525: The divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue. Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage. During his Balkan campaigns , Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after a mutiny. Khosrow II (Chosroes) of
12580-607: The easternmost hill (corresponding to the modern site of the Topkapı Palace ). According to the late Byzantine Patria of Constantinople , ancient Byzantium was enclosed by a small wall that began on the northern edge of the acropolis, extended west to the Tower of Eugenios, then went south and west towards the Strategion and the Baths of Achilles , continued south to the area known in Byzantine times as Chalkoprateia , and then turned, in
12728-425: The emerging Islamic forces. The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further, stating that "Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings. He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor." Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as
12876-550: The excavation of the cross. The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the Golden Legend , he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch. At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord. Local tradition suggests that
13024-463: The exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. [...] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal , no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire. Heraclius was long remembered favourably by the Western church for his reputed recovery of the True Cross from the Persians. As Heraclius approached the Persian capital during the final stages of
13172-505: The first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by
13320-500: The first tower of the land walls, at the junction with the sea wall. It features a wreathed Chi-Rhō Christogram above it. It is also known as the Tabak Kapı ('Gate of the Tannery') in reference to the nearby leather works. Following the walls from south to north, the Golden Gate (Greek: Χρυσεία Πύλη , Chryseia Pylē ; Latin: Porta Aurea ; Turkish: Altınkapı or Yaldızlıkapı ),
13468-566: The fort by Sultan Bayezid I (r. 1389–1402), who otherwise threatened to blind his son Manuel , whom he held captive. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos attempted to rebuild it in 1434, but was thwarted by threats from Sultan Murad II . According to one of the many Greek legends about the Constantinople's fall to the Ottomans, when the Turks entered the city, an angel rescued the emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos , turned him into marble and placed him in
13616-417: The gate and extending a wall some 350 m to the sea walls, thus forming a separate fortified enceinte inside the city to serve as a final refuge. In the event, John V was soon after forced to flee there from a coup led by his grandson, John VII . The fort held out successfully in the subsequent siege that lasted several months, and in which cannons were possibly employed. In 1391 John V was compelled to raze
13764-558: The gate. The Old Gate of the Prodromos ( Παλαιὰ Πόρτα τοῦ Προδρόμου , Palaia Porta tou Prodromou ), named after the nearby Church of St John the Baptist (called Prodromos , "the Forerunner", in Greek), is another unclear case. Van Millingen identifies it with the Old Golden Gate, while Janin considers it to have been located on the northern slope of the Seventh Hill. The last known gate
13912-459: The government of Bosra after the Byzantine defeat of the Persians and reconquest of Jerusalem . Islamic sources say that after the letter was read to him, he was so impressed by it that he gifted the messenger of the epistle with robes and coinage. Alternatively, he also put it on his lap. He then summoned Abu Sufyan ibn Harb to his court, at the time an adversary to Muhammad but a signatory to
14060-565: The government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas's reign, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt. The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised
14208-449: The hands of later, Khazar Turks as Bulgars left the region. The Pereshchepina hoard ranks among the most vivid manifestations of the typical ancient material culture of Old Great Bulgaria . Heraclius Heraclius ( Ancient Greek : Ἡράκλειος , romanized : Hērákleios ; c. 575 – 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius
14356-529: The help of God. He helps whom He wills. And He is The Almighty, The Compassionate." According to Islamic traditions, a letter was sent from Muhammad to Heraclius, through the Muslim envoy Dihyah bin Khalifah al-Kalbi , although Shahid suggests that Heraclius may never have received it. He also advances that more positive sub-narratives surrounding the letter contain little credence. According to Nadia El Cheikh, Arab historians and chroniclers generally did not doubt
14504-462: The imperial title at this time. Heraclius's younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt ; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus . As he approached Constantinople , he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in
14652-640: The inner Theodosian wall, he formed the Fortress of the Seven Towers ( Turkish : Yedikule Hisarı or Zindanları ). It lost its function as a gate, and for much of the Ottoman era, it was used as a treasury, archive, and state prison. It eventually became a museum in 1895. The Xylokerkos or Xerokerkos Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Ξυλοκέρκου/Ξηροκέρκου ), now known as the Belgrade Gate ( Belgrat Kapısı ), lies between towers 22 and 23. Alexander van Millingen identified it with
14800-504: The inner Theodosian wall. With the exception of the central portal, the gate remained open to everyday traffic. The structure was richly decorated with numerous statues, including a statue of Theodosius I on an elephant-drawn quadriga on top, echoing the Porta Triumphalis of Rome, which survived until it fell down in the 740 Constantinople earthquake . Other sculptures were a large cross, which fell in an earthquake in 561 or 562;
14948-412: The inner and the outer walls, and a number of smaller posterns . The exact identification of several gates is debatable for a number of reasons. The Byzantine chroniclers provide more names than the number of the gates, the original Greek names fell mostly out of use during the Ottoman period, and literary and archaeological sources provide often contradictory information. Only three gates, the Golden Gate,
15096-477: The inner wall's towers, and acting in supporting role to them. They are spaced at 48–78 m, with an average distance of 50–66 m. Of the outer wall's towers, 62 survive. With few exceptions, they are square or crescent-shaped, 12–14 m tall and 4 m wide. They featured a room with windows on the level of the peribolos , crowned by a battlemented terrace, while their lower portions were either solid or featured small posterns, which allowed access to
15244-458: The later sea gates of St. Aemilianus and Psamathos. Already by the early 5th century, Constantinople had expanded outside the Constantinian Wall in the extramural area known as the Exokionion or Exakionion . The wall survived during much of the Byzantine period, even though it was replaced by the Theodosian Walls as the city's primary defense. An ambiguous passage refers to extensive damage to
15392-537: The magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni . When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos's nose and hands cut off , and he was exiled to Prinkipo , one of the Princes' Islands . Theodorus received the same treatment, but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern-day Gozo Island ) with additional instructions to cut off one leg. During the last years of Heraclius's life, it became evident that
15540-481: The majority of scholars believe the second, outer wall to have been added, as well as a wide moat opened in front of the walls, but the validity of that interpretation is questionable; the outer wall was possibly an integral part of the original fortification concept. Throughout their history, the walls were damaged by earthquakes and floods of the Lycus river . Repairs were undertaken on numerous occasions, as testified by
15688-458: The market ensuring the strong fulfill the rights of the weak, and that he treats the strong and the weak equally. He then describes his physical features, and Heraclius states that there is a successor to the prophet Muhammad who is described as black-eyed, tall, wheat-colored like a lion, and would expel his enemies from their lands. The Lakhmid spy responds that he has a companion (the second caliph, Umar ) like this. Heraclius then responded that he
15836-402: The metal letters were riveted verified its accuracy. It also showed that the first line stood on the western face of the arch, while the second on the eastern. According to the current view, this refers to the usurper Joannes (r. 423–425), while according to the supporters of the traditional view, it indicates the gate's construction as a free-standing triumphal arch in 388–391 to commemorate
15984-445: The moat ended at the Gate of St. Romanus, and did not resume until after the Gate of Adrianople. The weakest section of the wall was the so-called Mesoteichion ( Μεσοτείχιον , "Middle Wall"). Modern scholars are not in agreement over the extent of that portion of the wall, which has been variously defined from as narrowly as the stretch between the Gate of St. Romanus and the Fifth Military Gate (by A.M. Schneider) to as broad as from
16132-474: The moat on bridges, and the latter were known by numbers, were restricted to military use and led only to the outer sections of the walls. Today that division is, if retained at all, only a historiographical convention. There is sufficient reason to believe that several of the "Military Gates" were also used by civilian traffic. In addition, a number of them have proper names, and the established sequence of numbering them, based on their perceived correspondence with
16280-488: The most interesting finds is a necklace of gold Byzantine gold coins , dating from the reign of Emperor Maurice (582–602 AD) to that of Constans II (641–668 AD), precisely down to 646 AD, which have often been taken to set the terminus post quem for the site. There is also a Sassanian dish bearing an image of Shapur the Great (309–379 AD), and a Byzantine dish with an inscription of the early 6th-century bishop of Tomis . Other finds must probably be dated to as late as
16428-463: The name of "New Rome" or "Second Rome". Eventually, the city would most commonly be referred to as Constantinople, the "City of Constantine", in dedication to its founder. New Rome was protected by a new wall about 2.8 km (15 stadia ) west of the Severan wall. Constantine's fortification consisted of a single wall, reinforced with towers at regular distances, which began to be constructed in 324 and
16576-456: The names of certain city quarters lying between the Constantinian and Theodosian Walls, which have numerical origins, has been shown to be erroneous. For instance, the Deuteron , the "Second" Quarter, was located not in the southwest behind the Gate of the Deuteron or "Second Military Gate", as would be expected, but in the northwestern part of the city. The gate is a small postern, which lies at
16724-594: The numerous inscriptions commemorating the emperors or their servants who undertook to restore them. The responsibility for these repairs rested on an official variously known as the Domestic of the Walls or the Count of the Walls ( Δομέστικος/Κόμης τῶν τειχέων , Domestikos/Komēs tōn teicheōn ), who employed the services of the city's populace in this task. After the Latin conquest of 1204,
16872-574: The office of sakellarios , a comptroller of the treasury. Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II . Edward Gibbon , in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , wrote: Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In
17020-401: The outer terrace. The outer wall was a formidable defensive edifice in its own right: in the sieges of 1422 and 1453, the Byzantines and their allies, being too few to hold both lines of wall, concentrated on the defence of the outer wall. The moat was situated at a distance of about 20 m from the outer wall. The moat itself was over 20 m wide and as much as 10 m deep, featuring
17168-479: The peasants. Then "O People of the Scripture , come to a term equitable between us and you that we worship none but God and associate with Him nothing, and we take not one another as Lords apart from God. But if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we peace makers." Seal : Muhammad, Apostle of God According to Islamic reports, Muhammad dispatched Dihyah al-Kalbi to carry the epistle to " Caesar " through
17316-452: The problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ . Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon . Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism but this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and
17464-590: The province of Arabia in response to the Arab ambassador's death at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor, but were repulsed. Since the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military organization of the region. The Roman military wasn't accustomed to fighting Arab armies at scale, much like the Islamic forces of Hijaz who had no prior experience in their engagements against
17612-556: The reign of Emperor Arcadius . This initial construction consisted of a single curtain wall with towers, which now forms the inner circuit of the Theodosian Walls. Both the Constantinian and the original Theodosian walls were severely damaged in two earthquakes, on 25 September 437 and 6 November 447 . The latter was especially powerful and destroyed large parts of the wall, including 57 towers. Subsequent earthquakes, including another major one in January ;448, compounded
17760-601: The reign of Emperor Theodosius II ( r. 402–450 ), after whom they were named. The work was carried out in two phases, with the first phase erected during Theodosius' minority under the direction of Anthemius , the praetorian prefect of the East , and was finished in 413 according to a law in the Codex Theodosianus . An inscription discovered in 1993 however records that the work lasted for nine years, indicating that construction had already begun c. 404/405 , in
17908-708: The ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity. El-Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add "little to our historical knowledge" of the emperor; rather, they are an important part of "Islamic kerygma ," attempting to legitimize Muhammad's status as a prophet. Most Western academic historians view such traditions as biased and proclamatory and of little historical value. Furthermore, they argue that any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition. According to Kaegi, there
18056-547: The schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites , by promoting a compromise doctrine called monothelitism . The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in the process. Eventually, this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute. Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder , who is almost universally recognized as being of Armenian origin. His mother, Epiphania,
18204-547: The shore of present-day Kenya ) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ("The Book of Heraclius"). In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's request to renounce his belief in Christianity: he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces. In Muslim tradition, he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with
18352-496: The suburb of Rhegion (modern Küçükçekmece ), or as the Gate of Rhousios ( Πόρτα τοῦ Ῥουσίου ) after the hippodrome faction of the Reds ( ῥούσιοι , rhousioi ) which was supposed to have taken part in its repair. From Byzantine texts it appears that the correct form is Gate of Rhesios ( Πόρτα Ῥησίου ), named according to the 10th-century Suda lexicon after an ancient general of Greek Byzantium . A.M. Schneider also identifies it with
18500-427: The then-recent Treaty of Hudaybiyyah , who was trading in the region of Syria at the time. Asked by Heraclius about the man claiming to be a prophet, Abu Sufyan responded, speaking favorably of Muhammad's character and lineage and outlining some directives of Islam. Heraclius was seemingly impressed by what he was told of Muhammad, and felt that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was valid. . Later reportedly he wrote to
18648-411: The third and fourth verses, the Muslim community is promised that the Byzantines will reverse their defeat into a victory and retake Jerusalem "in a few years' time". "The Romans were vanquished in the closer region, and they, after being vanquished, will prevail within a certain number of (from 3 to 9) years. To God belongs the command before and after. And that day, ones who believe will be glad with
18796-428: The top. Its interior was usually divided by a floor into two chambers, which did not communicate with each other. The lower chamber, which opened through the main wall to the city, was used for storage, while the upper one could be entered from the wall's walkway, and had windows for view and for firing projectiles. Access to the wall was provided by large ramps along their side. The lower floor could also be accessed from
18944-412: The true faith and Muhammad as its prophet, by comparing Islam to Christianity. Islamic historians often cite a letter in which they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: "I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament. Jesus, son of Mary, announced you." According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert
19092-434: The walls fall to a level of some 60 m. From there the later walls of Blachernae project sharply to the west, reaching the coastal plain at the Golden Horn near the so-called Prisons of Anemas. The Theodosian Walls consist of the main inner wall ( μέγα τεῖχος , mega teichos , "great wall"), separated from the lower outer wall ( ἔξω τεῖχος , exō teichos or μικρὸν τεῖχος , mikron teichos , "small wall") by
19240-431: The walls fell increasingly into disrepair, and the revived post-1261 Byzantine state lacked the resources to maintain them, except in times of direct threat. In their present state, the Theodosian Walls stretch for about 5.7 km (3.5 mi) from south to north, from the "Marble Tower" ( Turkish : Mermer Kule ), also known as the "Tower of Basil and Constantine " (Greek: Pyrgos Basileiou kai Konstantinou ) on
19388-423: The war, Khosrow fled from his favourite residence—Dastagird near Baghdad —without offering resistance. Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed Khosrow's eldest son Kavad II , who had been imprisoned by his father, and proclaimed him King on the night of 23–24 February, 628. Kavad, however, was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir. So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent
19536-451: The water to be retained over the course of the walls. According to Alexander van Millingen , there is little direct evidence in the accounts of the city's sieges to suggest that the moat was ever actually flooded. In the sections north of the Gate of St. Romanus, the steepness of the slopes of the Lycus valley made the construction maintenance of the moat problematic; it is probable therefore that
19684-441: Was crowned co-emperor ( augustus ) on 22 January 613, at the age of 8 months. Heraclonas was made caesar on 1 January 632, aged 6, and was later crowned augustus on 4 July 638. They ruled for a few months in 641, but were eventually succeeded by Constans II , the son of Constantine III, by the end of the year. Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos , who conspired against Heraclius with his cousin,
19832-589: Was able to bring the Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate , under Ziebel , who invaded Persian Transcaucasia . Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrow had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution. Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated
19980-457: Was also topped by a statue of Victory , holding a crown. Despite its ceremonial role, the Golden Gate was one of the strongest positions along the walls of the city and withstood several attacks during the various sieges. With the addition of transverse walls on the peribolos between the inner and outer walls, it formed a virtually separate fortress. Its military value was recognized by John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354), who records that it
20128-559: Was completed under his son Constantius II (r. 337–361). Only the approximate course of the wall is known: it began at the Church of St. Anthony at the Golden Horn, near the modern Atatürk Bridge , ran southwest and then southwards, passed east of the great open cisterns of Mocius and of Aspar , and ended near the Church of the Theotokos of the Rhabdos on the Propontis coast, somewhere between
20276-494: Was discovered in 1912 in the village of Mala Pereshchepina (20 km from Poltava , Ukraine ) by a shepherd boy who stumbled over a golden vessel and fell into what is sometimes believed to be the grave of Kubrat , the founder of Great Bulgaria and father of Asparuh , the founder of the First Bulgarian Empire . The hoard, first described by Makarenko, was extracted under the supervision of Count Aleksey Bobrinsky ,
20424-603: Was emulated elsewhere, with several cities naming their principal entrance thus, for instance Thessaloniki (also known as the Vardar Gate) or Antioch (the Gate of Daphne), as well as the Kievan Rus' , who built monumental "Golden Gates" at Kiev and Vladimir . The entrance to San Francisco Bay , California , was similarly named the Golden Gate in the mid-19th century, in a distant historical tribute to Byzantium. The date of
20572-516: Was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship. By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed;
20720-485: Was probably of Cappadocian origin. Walter Kaegi considers Heraclius' Armenian origin "probable" and speculates that he was presumably "bilingual (Armenian and Greek) from an early age, but even this is uncertain". According to the 7th century Armenian historian Sebeos , Heraclius was related to the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . Elizabeth Redgate considers his Armenian origin likely. Anthony Kaldellis argues that there
20868-476: Was relatively unimportant during the early Roman period. Contemporaries described it as wealthy, well peopled and well fortified, but that affluence came to an end because the city supported Pescennius Niger ( r. 193–194 ) in his war against Septimius Severus ( r. 193–211 ). According to the account of Cassius Dio , the city held out against Severan forces for three years, until 196, with its inhabitants resorting even to throwing bronze statues at
21016-404: Was replaced in the Ottoman period. In addition, in 1998 a subterranean basement with 4th/5th century reliefs and tombs was discovered underneath the gate. Van Millingen identifies this gate with the early Byzantine Gate of Melantias (Πόρτα Μελαντιάδος), but more recent scholars have proposed the identification of the latter with one of the gates of the city's original Constantinian Wall. It
21164-524: Was returned to Medina with the felicitations of the emperor. Scholarly historians disagree with this account, arguing that any such messengers would have received neither an imperial audience or recognition, and that there is no evidence outside of Islamic sources suggesting that Heraclius had any knowledge of Islam. This letter is mentioned in Sahih Al Bukhari. The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka , an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off
21312-416: Was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage: Fabius had a paralyzed neck and Theodosius was a deaf-mute . The latter married Nike, daughter of the Persian general Shahrbaraz , or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius. Two of Heraclius's children would become emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III) , his son with Eudokia, and Martina's son Heraclius (Heraclonas) . Constantine
21460-403: Was strengthened with 96 towers, mainly square but also a few octagonal ones, three hexagonal and a single pentagonal one. They were 15–20 m tall and 10–12 m wide, and placed at irregular distances, according to the rise of the terrain: the intervals vary between 21 and 77 m, although most curtain wall sections measure between 40 and 60 meters. Each tower had a battlemented terrace on
21608-757: Was through this gate that the forces of the Empire of Nicaea , under General Alexios Strategopoulos , entered and retook the city from the Latins on 25 July 1261. The Third Military Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Τρίτου ), named after the quarter of the Triton ("the Third") that lies behind it, is situated shortly after the Pege Gate, exactly before the C-shaped section of the walls known as the " Sigma ", between towers 39 and 40. It has no Turkish name, and
21756-481: Was used for triumphal entries until the Komnenian period ; thereafter, the only such occasion was the entry of Michael VIII Palaiologos into the city on 15 August 1261, after its reconquest from the Latins . With the progressive decline in Byzantium's military fortunes, the gates were walled up and reduced in size in the later Palaiologan period , and the complex converted into a citadel and refuge. The Golden Gate
21904-401: Was virtually impregnable, capable of holding provisions for three years and defying the whole city if need be. He repaired the marble towers and garrisoned the fort, but had to surrender it to John V Palaiologos (r. 1341–1391) when he abdicated in 1354. John V undid Kantakouzenos' repairs and left it unguarded, but in 1389–90 he too rebuilt and expanded the fortress, erecting two towers behind
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