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64-452: In 1895, Pepper took steps to investigate the existence of interesting remains near Tarpon Springs, Florida after Lt. Col. Charles Day Durnford reported on them. An expedition was organized, the expense of which was defrayed jointly by Pepper and Hearst. By special agreement with the Bureau of American Ethnology , the expedition was placed under the direction of Cushing, a patient of Pepper's, with

128-521: A branch) remain in museum collections and private collections, one having sold at auction for more than $ 100,000. In September 1997, an atlatl dart fragment, carbon dated to 4360 ± 50 C yr BP (TO 6870), was found in an ice patch on mountain Thandlät , the first of the southern Yukon Ice Patches to be studied. The people of New Guinea and Aboriginal people in Australia also use spear-throwers. In

192-410: A centered hole in a symmetrically shaped carved or ground stone, shaped wide and flat with a drilled hole and thus a little like a large wingnut , are an improvement to the design that created a silencing effect when swung. The use of the device would reduce the telltale "zip" of a swung atlatl to a more subtle "woof" sound that did not travel as far and was less likely to alert prey. Robert Berg's theory

256-429: A few groups of utensils, like mortar cups and pestles, and sets of tools; and there were also some bundles or packs of ceremonial objects. The pre–Columbian finds represent collections of a Shell Age phase of human development and culture. Larger timbers, like the comparatively gigantic sill, which lay along the edge of the northern bench, were absolutely intact. They were excellent examples of primitive joinery. Some of

320-460: A few shaped of stone were encountered during the entire search. Articles of wood far outnumbered all others. Many of these had been painted with black, white, gray-blue, and brownish-red pigments. Unique to archaeology as these things were, Cushing was distressed to feel that even by merely exposing and inspecting them, the expedition was dooming so many of them to destruction, rather than preserving them as permanent examples of primitive art. There were

384-414: A handful of other states list the device as legal for rough fish (those not sought for sport or food), some game birds and non-game mammals. Starting in 2007, Missouri allowed use of the atlatl for hunting wildlife (excluding deer and turkey), and starting in 2010, also allowed deer hunting during the firearms portion of the deer season (except the muzzleloader portion). Starting in 2012, Missouri allowed

448-412: A hole drilled through them. When first found in the nineteenth century, they were interpreted by French archaeologists to be symbols of authority, like a modern field marshal 's baton, and so named bâtons de commandement ("batons of command"). Though debate over their function continues, tests with replicas have found them effective aids to spear or dart throwing when used with a cord,. Another theory

512-450: A particular spear thrower tend to differ in mass by only a few percent. By the Iron Age, the amentum , a strap attached to the shaft, was the standard European mechanism for throwing lighter javelins. The amentum gives not only range, but also spin to the projectile. The spear-thrower was used by early Americans as well. It may have been introduced to America during the immigration across

576-475: A two-meter long wooden cane with a stone or long and serrated hard-wood point, sometimes tipped with poison. Equipped with their uniquely grooved atlatl, they could hurl their long darts from a great distance with accuracy, speed, and such deadly force that these easily pierced through the protective armor of the Portuguese or any other enemy. The spear-thrower was an important part of life, hunting, and religion in

640-569: A utensil for chopping game. This tool is usually 60 cm (24 in) long and 12 cm (4.7 in) wide, and comes in a concave, elliptical shape. Several Stone Age spear-throwers (usually now incomplete) are decorated with carvings of animals: the British Museum has one decorated with a mammoth , and there is one decorated with a hyena in France. Many pieces of decorated bone may have belonged to bâtons de commandement . The Aztec atlatl

704-400: Is a 17,500-year-old Solutrean atlatl made of reindeer antler, found at Combe Saunière (Dordogne), France. It is possible that the atlatl was invented earlier than this, as Mungo Man from 42,000 BP displays arthritis in his right elbow, a pathology referred to today as the "Atlatl elbow," resulting from many years of forceful torsion from using an atlatl. At present, there is no evidence for

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768-572: Is also known from Moche culture , including detailed representations on painted pottery, and in representations on textiles of the Wari culture . The Andean estólica had a wooden body with a hook that was made of stone or metal. These hooks have been found at multiple highland sites including Cerro Baúl , a site of the Wari culture. In the Andes, the tips of darts were often capped with metal. Arrow points commonly had

832-622: Is believed to have been in use by Homo sapiens since the Upper Paleolithic (around 30,000 years ago). Most stratified European finds come from the Magdalenian (late upper Palaeolithic). In this period, elaborate pieces, often in the form of animals, are common. The earliest reliable data concerning atlatls have come from several caves in France dating to the Upper Paleolithic, about 21,000 to 17,000 years ago. The earliest known example

896-510: Is often used for revived uses of spear-throwers (or the Mayan word hul'che ); in Australia, the Dharug word woomera is used instead. The ancient Greeks and Romans used a leather thong or loop, known as an ankule or amentum , as a spear-throwing device. The Swiss arrow is a weapon that works similarly to amentum. Spear-thrower designs may include improvements such as thong loops to fit

960-808: Is still used today by some Aboriginal people for hunting in Australia . Yup'ik Eskimo hunters still use the atlatl, known locally as "nuqaq" (nook-ak), in villages near the mouth of the Yukon River for seal hunting. There are numerous atlatl competitions held every year, with spears and spear-throwers built using both ancient and modern materials. Events are often held at parks, such as Letchworth State Park in New York, Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site in Illinois, or Valley of Fire State Park in Nevada. Atlatl associations around

1024-538: Is that the bannerstone was carried by hunters as a spindle weight to produce string from natural fibers gathered while hunting, for the purpose of tying on fletching and hafting stone or bone points. The woomera or ‘miru’, allow hunters to apply more force, speed and distance when launching their spears. A woomera is usually made from Mulga wood, and serves many other purposes such as a: receptacle for mixing ochre for traditional paintings for ceremonies, deflection tool of enemies’ spears in battle, fire making saw, or

1088-426: Is that they were "arrow-straighteners". Bian Jian ( Chinese : 鞭箭 , lit. 'Whip arrow') is a unique spear-thrower that was used during Song period. It can be described as a long staff sling that throws a spear-sized dart instead of a rock-like projectile. It requires two operators unlike other spear-throwers. It should not be confused with another Bian Jian ( 邊箭 ). In modern times, some people have resurrected

1152-637: The Bering Land Bridge , and despite the later introduction of the bow and arrow , atlatl use was widespread at the time of first European contact. Atlatls are represented in the art of multiple pre-Columbian cultures, including the Basketmaker culture in the American Southwest, Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula, and Moche in the Andes of South America. Atlatls were especially prominent in

1216-634: The Ohio Pawpaw Festival , or at the Bois D'Arc Primitive Skills Gathering and Knap-in, held every September in southern Missouri. Atlatl events commonly include the International Standard Accuracy Competition (ISAC), in which contestants throw ten times at a bull's-eye target. Other contests involving different distances or terrain may also be included, usually testing the atlatlist's accuracy rather than distance throwing. In

1280-544: The University of Vermont . Atlatls are sometimes used in modern times for hunting. In the U.S., the Pennsylvania Game Commission has given preliminary approval for legalization of the atlatl for hunting certain animals. The animals that would be allowed to atlatl hunters have yet to be determined, but particular consideration has been given to deer. Currently, Alabama allows the atlatl for deer hunting, while

1344-521: The 20th century, the BAE's staff included such anthropologists as John Peabody Harrington (a linguist who spent more than 40 years documenting endangered languages), Matthew Stirling , and William C. Sturtevant . The BAE supported the work of many non-Smithsonian researchers (known as collaborators), most notably Franz Boas , Frances Densmore , Garrick Mallery , Washington Matthews , Paul Radin , Cyrus Thomas and T.T. Waterman . The BAE had three subunits:

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1408-592: The Aztec atlatl were not powerful enough to penetrate Spanish steel plate armor, but they were strong enough to penetrate the mail , leather and cotton armor that most Spanish soldiers wore. Whittaker said the Aztecs started their battles with atlatl darts followed with melee combat using the macuahuitl . Another type of Stone Age artefact that is sometimes excavated is the bâton de commandement . These are shorter, normally less than one foot long, and made of antler, with

1472-1030: The BAE merged with the Smithsonian's Department of Anthropology to form the Smithsonian Office of Anthropology within the United States National Museum (now the Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History ). In 1968, the SOA archives became the National Anthropological Archives . The BAE's staff included some of America's earliest field anthropologists, including Frank Hamilton Cushing , James Owen Dorsey , Jesse Walter Fewkes , Alice Cunningham Fletcher , John N.B. Hewitt, Francis La Flesche , Cosmos and Victor Mindeleff, James Mooney , William Henry Holmes , Edward Palmer , James Stevenson , and Matilda Coxe Stevenson . In

1536-552: The Bureau's appointed head of the Division of Mound Exploration, eventually published his conclusions on the origins of the mounds in the Bureau's Annual Report of 1894. It is considered to be the last word in the controversy over the Mound builders' identities. After Thomas' publication, scholars generally accepted that varying cultures of prehistoric indigenous peoples , Native Americans, were

1600-453: The Chicama valley. At her feet was a group of twenty-three atlatls with handle pieces that depicted birds. These “theatrical” estòlicas are different from normal weapons. They are much longer (80–100 cm) than the regular examples (50–60 cm). Archeologists John Whittaker and Kathryn Kamp, both faculty from Grinnell College , speculate that they might have been part of a ceremony before

1664-610: The First Reconnaissance, Pepper, with the aid of several of friends and associates, made plans to fit out Cushing, during the following winter, an expedition for the more complete exploration of the region. Jacob Disston volunteered his schooner, the Silver Spray , belonging to a fleet of sponging vessels at Tarpon Springs. Major John Wesley Powell , Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, provisionally granted leave to Cushing, and promised official recognition and assistance in

1728-617: The Interior to the Smithsonian Institution . But from the start, the bureau's visionary founding director, John Wesley Powell , promoted a broader mission: "to organize anthropologic research in America." Under Powell, the bureau organized research-intensive multi-year projects; sponsored ethnographic , archaeological and linguistic field research; initiated publications series (most notably its Annual Reports and Bulletins); and promoted

1792-791: The Mound Survey (1882–1895); the Institute of Social Anthropology (1943–1952), and the River Basin Surveys (1946–1969). At the time the BAE was founded, there was intense controversy over the identity of the Mound Builders , the term for the prehistoric people who had built complex, monumental earthwork mounds . Archaeologists, both amateur and professional, were divided between believing the mounds were built by passing groups of people who settled in various places elsewhere, or believing they could have been built by Native Americans. Cyrus Thomas ,

1856-412: The Mound builders. Atlatl A spear-thrower , spear-throwing lever , or atlatl ( pronounced / ˈ æ t l æ t əl / or / ˈ ɑː t l ɑː t əl / ; Nahuatl ahtlatl [ˈaʔt͡ɬat͡ɬ] ) is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in dart or javelin -throwing, and includes a bearing surface that allows the user to store energy during

1920-558: The National Museum at Washington. Cushing's death occurred before the publication of the memoir. Bureau of American Ethnology The Bureau of American Ethnology (or BAE , originally, Bureau of Ethnology ) was established in 1879 by an act of Congress for the purpose of transferring archives, records and materials relating to the Indians of North America from the Department of

1984-563: The Territories . It developed a manuscript repository, library and illustrations section that included photographic work and the collection of photographs. In 1897, the Bureau of Ethnology's name changed to the Bureau of American Ethnology (BAE) to emphasize the geographic limit of its interests, although its staff briefly conducted research in US possessions such as Hawaii and the Philippines. In 1965,

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2048-838: The United States National Museum, also agreed to join the expedition. The Clyde Line Steamship Company furnished passes for the expeditionary members from New York City to Jacksonville ; they left Washington on December 4, 1896. Cushing and his wife left overland, and joined the group at Jacksonville from where they proceeded via Sanford, to Tarpon Springs. The Silver Spray set sail in February 1897. In addition to Sawyer, Sayford and Bergmann, Cushing's crew consisted of Antonio Gomez, Sailing Master; Thomas Brady, Mate; Alfred Hudson, Robert Clark and Frank Barnes, Sailors and Excavators; George Gause, Chief Excavator; George Hudson, Cook; and George Dorsett, Steward. Cushing later employed John Calhoun continuously, and other workmen, from time to time, to assist in

2112-603: The ancient Andes . The earliest known spear-thrower of the South Americas had a proximal handle piece and is commonly referred to as an estólica in Spanish references to indigenous Andean culture . Estólica and atlatl are therefore synonymous terms. The estólica is best known archaeologically from Nazca culture and the Inca civilization , but the earliest examples are known from associations with Chinchorro mummies . The estólica

2176-599: The bow and arrow and used it not only in combat but also in sports competitions. Such was the case with the Tarairiú , a Tapuya tribe of migratory foragers and raiders inhabiting the forested mountains and highland savannahs of Rio Grande do Norte in mid-17th-century Brazil. Anthropologist Harald Prins offers the following description: The atlatl, as used by these Tarairiu warriors, was unique in shape. About 88 cm (35 in) long and 3 to 4.5 cm ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 to 1 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) wide, this spear thrower

2240-648: The broad, notched staves—which Cushing judged had been used as symbolic ancestral tablets, probably attached to the gables of houses, or set up in altars—lay on their edges. Flat boards sometimes stood on end, and other long, slender articles, stood slantingly upward, the lowermost ends or edges firmly stuck in the clay-marl of the bottom. There were seats made from flat slabs of wood from 1–2 feet (0.30–0.61 m) in length, slightly hollowed on top from end to end as well as from side to side, with rounded bottoms and substantial, prong-like pairs of feet near either end, from 2–3 inches (51–76 mm) long. Some of these stools had

2304-536: The burial or symbolic references to indicate that the royal woman in the burial had been a warrior. Estólicas are depicted along with maces, clubs, and shields on Moche vessels that illustrate warfare. The atlatl appears in the artwork of Chavín de Huantar , such as on the Black and White Portal. Among the Tlingit of Southeast Alaska, approximately one dozen old elaborately carved specimens they call "shee áan" (sitting on

2368-508: The conduct of the proposed expedition in the joint interest of the Bureau itself, and of the Department of Archaeology of the University of Pennsylvania. Funds were placed at Cushing's disposal by Pepper in November 1896. Wells M. Sawyer volunteered to be the expedition's artist and photographer while Irving Sayford agreed to be its Field Secretary. Carl F. W. Bergmann, Preparator of Collections in

2432-631: The dart thrower for sports , often using the term atlatl, throwing either for distance and/or for accuracy. The World Atlatl Association was formed in 1987 to promote the atlatl. Throws of almost 260 m (850 ft) have been recorded. Colleges reported to field teams in this event include Grinnell College in Iowa , Franklin Pierce University in New Hampshire , Alfred University in New York , and

2496-506: The ends were narrowed and truncated to form handles, the upper faces of which were usually decorated with neatly cut-in disc-like or semilunar figures or depressions. Atlatls and arrows were found, but no bows. There were a considerable variety of war clubs, as well as dirks made from the foreleg bones of deer. Personal ornaments and paraphernalia, miscellaneous ceremonial appliances, sacred and symbolical objects, carvings and paintings, as well as masks and figureheads were also described among

2560-502: The excavations. Immediately on arriving at Key Marco, Cushing made arrangements to be permitted to retain all objects discovered, and if desirable, to exploit the little triangular "Court of the Pile Dwellers" from border to border. Three or four of the team worked side by side in each section, digging inch by inch, and foot by foot, horizontally through the muck and rich lower strata, standing or crouching in puddles of mud and water. After

2624-422: The expedition's finds. The results,—the discovery, at Key Marco and Demorey Key , of ancient Floridan pile dwellings and of a highly specialized civilization,— created a sensation among Americanists . The original series was arranged and exhibited at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology while a duplicate but representative series of the pre–Columbian artifacts 2343 displayed at

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2688-418: The feet level while others were spread and beveled so that they would fit in the hollow bottoms of canoes. Portions of mats, some thick, as though for use as rugs, others enveloping various objects, and others still of shredded bark in strips so thin and flat and closely platted that they might well have served as sails, were frequently discovered, yet none of them could be preserved. It was obvious, however, that

2752-433: The fingers, the use of flexible shafts or stone balance weights. Dart shafts can be made thinner and highly flexible for added power and range, the fletching can be spiralized to add spin to the dart making it more stable and accurate. Darts resemble large arrows or small spears and are typically from 1.2 to 2.7 m (4 to 9 ft) in length and 9 to 16 mm (3/8" to 5/8") in diameter. Another important improvement to

2816-446: The first day's work, Cushing had no doubt as to the unique outcome of the excavations, or as to the desirability of searching through the entire contents of the court. Relics not only of the kind previously discovered, but of new and even more interesting varieties began at once to be found, and continued to be found day after day, throughout the entire five weeks of work in the one locale. Cushing stated, "that never in all my life, despite

2880-680: The fledgling discipline of anthropology . It prepared exhibits for expositions and collected anthropological artifacts for the Smithsonian United States National Museum. In addition, the BAE was the official repository of documents concerning American Indians collected by the various US geological surveys, especially the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region and the Geological Survey of

2944-593: The iconography of the warriors of the Teotihuacan culture of Central Mexico. A ruler from Teotihuacan named Spearthrower Owl is an important figure described in Mayan stelae . Complete wooden spear-throwers have been found on dry sites in the western United States and in waterlogged environments in Florida and Washington . Several Amazonian tribes also used the atlatl for fishing and hunting. Some even preferred this weapon over

3008-432: The mid Holocene , Aboriginal people in Australia developed spear-throwers, known as woomeras . As well as its practical use as a hunting weapon, it may also have had social effects. John Whittaker suggests the device was a social equalizer in that it requires skill rather than muscle power alone. Thus, women and children would have been able to participate in hunting. Whittaker said the stone-tipped projectiles from

3072-487: The peoples who had inhabited the court understood well, not only platting, but weaving and basketry-making too. A few examples of pottery were discovered, showing evidence of having been used as cooking bowls or pots. Associated with them were household utensils— spoons made from bivalves, ladles made from the greater halves of hollowed-out well-grown conch shells; and cups, bowls, trays and mortars of wood. Trays were comparatively shallow, oval in outline and varying in length;

3136-501: The same appearance as these Andean tips . The length of a common estòlica was about 50 cm. Estólica handles were commonly carved and modeled to represent real world accounts like animals and deities. Examples of estòlicas with no handle pieces have been interpreted as children's toys . Archaeologists found decorated examples in the Moche culture burial of the Lady of Cao at El Brujo in

3200-515: The same principle. A spear-thrower is a long-range weapon and can readily impart to a projectile speeds of over 150 km/h (93 mph). Spear-throwers appear early in human history in several parts of the world, and have survived in use in traditional societies until the present day, as well as being revived in recent years for sporting purposes. In the United States, the Nahuatl word atlatl

3264-400: The sea-wall itself, and likewise composed of well-compacted shells. Around the upper end, and down the outer side of this ridge, led an inlet canal, bordered by similar ridges beyond, and joined by an outlet canal at the lower end – that continued through various low-banked enclosures in the mangrove swamps toward the south, down to the terminus of the seawall itself. Upon Cushing's return from

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3328-414: The southward. At Key Marco, Cushing discovered a small, triangular, pond which he named, "Court of the Pile Dwellers". It lay close alongside the sea-wall at the southwestern edge of the key and just below a succession of shell benches, themselves formerly abandoned and filled-up courts of a similar character. The side opposite the seawall, on the east, was formed by an extended ridge – scarcely less high than

3392-512: The spear with the fingers. The dart is thrown by the action of the upper arm and wrist. The throwing arm together with the atlatl acts as a lever. The spear-thrower is a low-mass, fast-moving extension of the throwing arm, increasing the length of the lever. This extra length allows the thrower to impart force to the dart over a longer distance, thus imparting more energy and higher speeds. Common modern ball throwers (such as molded plastic arms used for throwing tennis balls for dogs to fetch) use

3456-509: The spear-thrower was supplemented by the bow and arrow in the Epi-Paleolithic . Along with improved ease of use, the bow offered the advantage that the bulk of elastic energy is stored in the throwing device, rather than the projectile. Arrow shafts can therefore be much smaller and have looser tolerances for spring constant and weight distribution than atlatl darts. This allowed for more forgiving flint knapping: dart heads designed for

3520-579: The spear-thrower's design was the introduction of a small weight (between 60 and 80 grams) strapped to its midsection. Some atlatlists maintain that stone weights add mass to the shaft of the device, causing resistance to acceleration when swung and resulting in a more forceful and accurate launch of the dart. Others claim that spear-thrower weights add only stability to a cast, resulting in greater accuracy. Based on previous work done by William S. Webb, William R. Perkins claims that spear-thrower weights, commonly called " bannerstones ", and characterized by

3584-524: The sufferings this labor involved, was I so fascinated with or interested in anything so much, as in the finds thus daily revealed". The objects found in these deposits were in various conditions of preservation, from those which looked fresh and almost new, to those which could be hardly distinguished from the briny peat mire where they were embedded. They consisted of wood, cordage and like perishable materials associated with implements and ornaments of more enduring substances, such as shell, bone and horn. Only

3648-404: The throw. It may consist of a shaft with a cup or a spur at the end that supports and propels the butt of the spear. It's usually about as long as the user's arm or forearm. The user holds the spear-thrower in one hand, gripping near the end farthest from the cup. The user puts the butt end of the spear, or dart, in the cup, or grabs the spur with the end of the spear. The spear is much longer than

3712-408: The thrower. The user holds the thrower at the grip end, with the spear resting on the thrower and the butt end of the spear resting in the thrower's cup. The user can hold the spear, with the index and thumb, with the same hand as the thrower, with the other fingers. The user reaches back with the spear pointed at the target. Then they make an overhand throwing motion with the thrower while letting go of

3776-470: The understanding that the Smithsonian Institution should receive duplicates when such were found, and should publish the scientific results of the expedition, to be known as the "Pepper–Hearst Expedition." In May 1895, with two men and a little fishing sloop, Cushing began exploration of the islands and capes of Charlotte Harbor , Pine Island Sound , Caloosa Bay , and the lower more open coast as far as Key Marco, approximately 90 miles (140 km) away to

3840-434: The use of atlatls during the fall archery deer and turkey hunting seasons and, starting in 2014, allowed the use of atlatls during the spring turkey hunting season as well. Missouri also allows use of the atlatl for fishing, with some restrictions (similar to the restrictions for spearfishing and bowfishing ). The Nebraska Game and Parks Commission allows the use of atlatls for the taking of deer as of 2013 . The woomera

3904-727: The use of atlatls in Africa. Peoples such as the Maasai and Khoisan throw spears without any aids, but the use of atlatls in hunting is limited in comparison to spears because the animal must be close and already immobile. During the Ice Age, the atlatl was used by humans to hunt Megafauna . Ice Age Megafauna offered a large food supply when other game was limited, and the atlatl gave more power to pierce their thicker skin. In this time period, atlatls were usually made of wood or bone. Improvements made to spears' edge made it more efficient as well. In Europe,

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3968-773: The world host a number of local atlatl competitions. Chimney Point State Historic Site in Addison, Vermont hosts the annual Northeast Open Atlatl Championship. In 2009, the Fourteenth Annual Open Atlatl Championship was held on Saturday and Sunday, September 19 and 20. On the Friday before the Championship, a workshop was held to teach modern and traditional techniques of atlatl and dart construction, flint knapping, hafting stone points, and cordage making. Competitions may be held in conjunction with other events, such as

4032-442: Was a tapering piece of wood carved of brown hard-wood. Well-polished, it was shaped with a semi-circular outer half and had a deep groove hollowed out to receive the end of the javelin, which could be engaged by a horizontal wooden peg or spur lashed with a cotton thread to the proximal and narrower end of the throwing board, where a few scarlet parrot feathers were tied for decoration. [Their] darts or javelins ... were probably made of

4096-494: Was often decorated with snake designs and feathers, potentially evocative of its association with Ehecatl , the Aztec wind deity. Wooden darts were known at least since the Middle Paleolithic ( Schöningen , Torralba , Clacton-on-Sea and Kalambo Falls ). While the spear-thrower is capable of casting a dart well over one hundred meters, it is most accurately used at distances of twenty meters or less. The spearthrower

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