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102-531: The Penobscot Tribe of Maine is headquartered in Indian Island, Maine. The tribal chief is Kirk Francis. The vice-chief is Mark Sockbeson. The Penobscot people long inhabited the area between present-day Old Town and Bangor , and still occupy tribal land on the nearby Penobscot Indian Island Reservation. The first European to visit the site was probably the Portuguese Estêvão Gomes in 1524, who

204-794: A scalp bounty on Penobscot. With a smaller population and greater acceptance of intermarriage, the French posed a lesser threat to the Penobscots' land and way of life. After the French defeat in the Battle of Quebec in 1759, the Penobscot were left in a weakened position as they had lost their main European ally. During the American Revolution , the Penobscot sided with the Patriots and played an important role in

306-791: A church in the Abenaki village of Norridgewock in Madison, Maine on the Kennebec River, maintained a mission at Penobscot on the Penobscot River , and built a church in the Maliseet village of Meductic on the Saint John River . In a meeting at Arrowsic, Maine in 1717, Governor Shute and representatives of the Wabanakis attempted to reach some agreement concerning encroachment on Wabanaki lands and

408-448: A household in the Indian reservation was $ 24,653, and the median income for a family was $ 24,000. Males had a median income of $ 34,500 versus $ 23,194 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $ 13,704. About 23.5% of families and 22.7% of the population were below the poverty line , including 28.3% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over. The climax of

510-438: A hunting-gathering society, with the men hunting beaver, otters, moose, bears, caribou, fish, seafood (clams, mussels, fish), birds, and possibly marine mammals such as seals. The women gathered and processed bird eggs, berries, nuts, and roots, all of which were found locally. People on the present-day Maine coast practiced some agriculture, but not to the same extent as that of Indigenous peoples in southern New England , where

612-591: A large number of tribal chiefs. The peace was reconfirmed by all except Gray Lock at a major gathering at Falmouth in the summer of 1727; other tribal envoys claimed that they were not able to locate him. Gray Lock's activity came to an end in 1727, after which he disappears from historical records. As a result of the war, the Indian population declined on the Kennebec and Penobscot Rivers, and western Maine came more strongly under British control. The terms of Dummer's Treaty were restated at every major new treaty conference for

714-540: A normalized high intake of alcohol, but Penobscot people, though familiar with alcohol, had never had access to the gross quantity of alcohol that Europeans offered. The Europeans carried endemic infectious diseases of Eurasia to the Americas, and the Penobscot had no acquired immunity. Their fatality rates from the introduction of measles , smallpox and other infectious diseases was high. The population also declined due to further encroachment by settlers who cut off access to

816-608: A permanent fishing settlement at Canso which upset the local Miꞌkmaq, who then began raiding the settlement and attacking the fishermen. In response to Wabanaki hostilities, Nova Scotia Governor Richard Philipps built a fort at Canso in 1720. Massachusetts governors Joseph Dudley and Samuel Shute built forts around the mouth of the Kennebec River: Fort George at Brunswick (1715), Fort Menaskoux at Arrowsic (1717), St. George's Fort at Thomaston (1720), and Fort Richmond (1721) at Richmond . The French built

918-532: A power dynamic in which the government treated the Penobscot as wards of the state and decided how their affairs would be managed. The government treated as charitable payments those Penobscot funds derived from land treaties and trusts, which the state had control over and used as it saw fit. In 1790, the young United States government enacted the Nonintercourse Act , which stated that the transfer of reservation lands to non-tribal members had to be approved by

1020-449: A process complete by about 1820, when Maine became a state. The tribe was eventually left with only their main village on an island upriver from Bangor, called "Indian Old Town" by the settlers. Eventually a white settlement taking the name Old Town was planted on the river bank opposite the Penobscot village, which began to be called "Indian Island." It continues as the base of the federally recognized Penobscot Nation . The reservation

1122-449: A racist sentiment with no evidence which Europeans frequently tried to exploit in dealings and trade. Penobscot people and other nations made pine beer, which had vitamin C; in addition to being an alcoholic beverage, it had the benefit of allaying the onset of scurvy . When European colonizers arrived, they brought alcohol in quantity. Europeans may have slowly developed enzymes, metabolic processes, and social mechanisms for dealing with

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1224-475: A result of the expansion of New England settlements along the coast of Maine and at Canso, Nova Scotia . The New Englanders were led primarily by Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor William Dummer , Nova Scotia Lieutenant Governor John Doucett , and Captain John Lovewell . The Wabanaki Confederacy and other Native tribes were led primarily by Father Sébastien Rale , Chief Gray Lock , and Chief Paugus . During

1326-456: A sawmill, a large sloop , and sundry houses, and killed many of their cattle. Five New Englanders were killed and seven were taken prisoner, while the New Englanders killed 20 Maliseet and Penobscot warriors. After the raid, Westbrook was given command of the fort. Following this raid, Brunswick was raided again and burned before the warriors returned to Norridgewock. In response to

1428-519: A scouting party of six men was sent out from Fort Dummer. Grey Lock and 14 others ambushed them just west of the Connecticut River , killing two and wounding and capturing three others. One man escaped, while two Indians were killed. Nova Scotia's governor launched a campaign to end the Miꞌkmaq blockade of Annapolis Royal at the end of July 1722. They retrieved over 86 New England prisoners taken by

1530-561: A secret compartment. Inside that compartment they found letters implicating Rale as an agent of the government of Canada, promising Indians enough ammunition to drive the British colonists from their settlements. Shute reiterated English claims of sovereignty over the disputed areas in letters to the Lords of Trade and to Governor General Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil of New France. Vaudreuil pointed out in response that France claimed sovereignty over

1632-518: A willingness to enter peace talks with Lieutenant Governor Dummer in December 1724. They were opposed in this by French authorities, who continued to encourage the conflict, but Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Dummer announced a cessation of hostilities on July 31, 1725 following negotiations in March. Dummer and Chiefs Loron and Wenemouet negotiated the terms of this preliminary agreement, which applied only to

1734-487: A written document reasserting their sovereign claims to disputed areas, delineating the areas that they claimed, and threatening violence if their territory was violated. Shute dismissed the letter as "insolent and menacing" and sent militia forces to Arrowsic. He also asserted that the Wabanaki claims were part of a French intrigue, based on Rale's influence, to further French claims to the disputed areas. Governor Shute

1836-451: Is also based on their cosmology starting with their origin story where Klose-kur-beh ( Gluskbe ) is the central character. Klose-kur-beh provides the Penobscot with "spiritual knowledge" and "practical knowledge (like how to construct a canoe)" as well instilling their "ethical precepts through" twelve 'episodes' which instill the importance of each unique value. Klose-kur-beh provides humans and animals with practical skills needed to thrive in

1938-698: Is headquartered in Penobscot Indian Island Reservation , Maine. The tribal chief is Kirk Francis. The vice-chief is Bill Thompson. The Penobscot are invited to send a nonvoting representative to the Maine House of Representatives . In 2005, Penobscot Nation began a relationship with Venezuela's government led by Hugo Chavez . It accepted aid in the form of heating oil. Tribal chief Kirk Francis traveled to New York City to meet with Chavez. Indigenous peoples are thought to have inhabited Maine and surrounding areas for at least 11,000 years. They had

2040-472: Is home to a small museum. Penobscot High Stakes Bingo, which operated from 1973 until 2015, was one of the first Native American gambling enterprises operating in the country. According to the United States Census Bureau , the Indian reservation has a total area of 22.0 square miles (57.0 km). 7.5 square miles (19.5 km) of it is land and 14.4 square miles (37.4 km) of it (65.70%)

2142-480: Is now the Penobscot Indian Island Reservation , located within the state of Maine along the Penobscot River . The Penobscot's name for themselves, Pαnawάhpskewi , means "the people of where the white rocks extend out". It originally referred to their territory on the portion of the Penobscot River between present-day Old Town and Verona Island, Maine . It was misheard by European colonizers as "Penobscot", which gives them their name today. The Penobscot Nation

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2244-469: Is our own, and that we will have." Over the next several years, New England colonists continued to settle in Wabanaki lands east of the Kennebec River, and the Wabanakis responded by stealing livestock. Canso, Nova Scotia was established as a fishing settlement disputed by all three parties but fortified by Nova Scotia and primarily occupied by Massachusetts fishermen. Miꞌkmaq and French forces attacked it in 1720, further raising tensions. Shute protested

2346-548: Is very similar to the languages of the other members of the Wabanaki Confederacy . There are no fluent speakers and the last known Penobscot speaker of Eastern Abenaki, Madeline Tower Shay, died in the 1990s. A dictionary was compiled by Frank Siebert . The elementary school and the Boys and Girls Club on Indian Island are making an effort to reintroduce the language by teaching it to the children. The written Penobscot language

2448-426: Is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 562 people, 214 households, and 157 families living in the Indian reservation. The population density was 72.5/mi (28.0/km). There were 263 housing units at an average density of 34.0/mi (13.1/km). The racial makeup of the Indian reservation was 14.59% White , 84.88% Native American , and 0.53% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.53% of

2550-595: The Abenaki and took part in their expeditions. In 1689 he accompanied Saint-Castin on the raid that resulted in the destruction of Pemaquid (1689); he left a detailed account of events. In 1692 Thury accompanied a war party against York (Maine) in what became known as the Candlemas Massacre . Benjamin Church's third expedition to Acadia during the war was in 1692 when he conducted a retaliatory raid with 450 men against

2652-508: The Indians . On the first expedition in December 1724, he and his militia company of 30 men (often called "snowshoe men") left Dunstable, New Hampshire , trekking to the north of Lake Winnipesaukee ("Winnipiscogee Lake") into the White Mountains of New Hampshire . On December 10, 1724, they and a company of rangers killed two Abenakis. In February 1725, Lovewell made a second expedition to

2754-534: The Midwest . The baskets were traditionally made for practical use, but after European contact, the Penobscot began making "fancy baskets" for trade with the Europeans. Basket-making is traditionally a woman's skill passed down in families. Many members of the tribe have been learning traditional forms and creating new variations. The birch bark canoe was at one time an important mode of transportation for all nations of

2856-821: The Northeastern Woodlands region. They are organized as a federally recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic provinces and Quebec . The Penobscot Nation , formerly known as the Penobscot Tribe of Maine, is the federally recognized tribe of Penobscot in the United States. They are part of the Wabanaki Confederacy , along with the Abenaki , Passamaquoddy , Wolastoqiyik , and Miꞌkmaq nations, all of whom historically spoke Algonquian languages . The Penobscots' main settlement

2958-548: The Pequawket tribe at Fryeburg, Maine . On May 9, chaplain Jonathan Frye was leading the militiamen in prayer when they spotted a lone Abenaki warrior. Lovewell and his men closed in on the warrior, leaving their packs behind in a clearing. Shortly after they left, a Pequawket war party led by Chief Paugus discovered the packs, and they set up an ambush in anticipation of their eventual return. Lovewell and his men caught up with

3060-631: The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 (not including Cape Breton Island ), but present-day New Brunswick and Maine remained contested between New England and New France. New France established Catholic missions among the four largest Native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River ( Norridgewock ), one farther north on the Penobscot River ( Penobscot Indian Island Reservation ), one on the Saint John River ( Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic ), and one at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Saint Anne's Mission). Similarly, New France established three forts along

3162-562: The United States Congress . Between the years of 1794 and 1833, the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribes ceded the majority of their lands to Massachusetts (then to Maine after it became a state in 1820) through treaties that were never ratified by the US Senate and that were illegal under the constitution, as only the federal government had the power to make such treaties. They were left only the Penobscot Indian Island Reservation . In

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3264-699: The Wabanaki-New England War , or the Fourth Anglo-Abenaki War ) was a series of battles between the New England Colonies and the Wabanaki Confederacy (specifically the Mi'kmaq , Maliseet , Penobscot , and Abenaki ), who were allied with New France . The eastern theater of the war was located primarily along the border between New England and Acadia in Maine , as well as in Nova Scotia ;

3366-687: The 1825 novel Brother Jonathan by Maine native John Neal is set on Indian Island during the American Revolutionary War . The novel features a protagonist of mixed Penobscot-English descent and describes the island as "the last encampment of the Penobscot Red men". 45°22′36″N 68°31′38″W  /  45.37667°N 68.52722°W  / 45.37667; -68.52722 Penobscot people The Penobscot ( Abenaki : Pαnawάhpskewi ) are an Indigenous people in North America from

3468-477: The 1825 novel Brother Jonathan by Maine native John Neal is set on Indian Island during the American Revolutionary War . The novel features a protagonist of mixed Penobscot-English descent and describes the island as "the last encampment of the Penobscot Red men". Many Penobscots moved to urban areas around the World War II era to Boston, Connecticut, New York City, New Jersey, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh; and

3570-609: The 1970s, at a time of increasing assertions of sovereignty by Native Americans, the Penobscot Nation sued the state of Maine for land claims , calling for some sort of compensation in the form of land, money, and autonomy for the state's violation of the Nonintercourse Act in the 19th century. The disputed land accounted for 60% of all of the land in Maine, and 35,000 people (the vast majority of whom were not tribal members) lived in

3672-475: The 21st century, some members practice traditional spirituality; others on Indian Island are Catholic or Protestant. Through their folklore, the Penobscot are taught "that the plants and animals were their helpers and companions, just as the people, in their turn, were to act as kin and companions to the living world around them.... Such stories embed their listeners in a universe of mutually interacting and intimate reciprocal relationships." This starkly contrasts

3774-689: The Atlantic Coast in present-day Canada, most settlers were French; in New England they were generally English speaking. The Penobscot sided with the French during the French and Indian War in the mid-18th century (the North American front of the Seven Years' War ) after British colonists demanded the Penobscot join their side or be considered hostile. In 1755, governor of Massachusetts Spencer Phips placed

3876-686: The Cleveland, Ohio area to settled in the West Side (of the Cuyahoga River) or "Cuyahoga" neighborhood; and in Baltimore and Washington DC. Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the Wabanaki Confederacy (from north to south): Father Rale%27s War Dummer's War (1722–1725) (also known as Father Rale's War , Lovewell's War , Greylock's War , the Three Years War ,

3978-496: The Congressional Native American Caucus with Tom Cole (R-OK) ( Chickasaw ); Raúl Grijalva , (D-AZ), vice chair of the Congressional Native American Caucus; Ron Kind (D-WI), vice chair of the Congressional Native American Caucus; and Ben Ray Luján (D-NM), vice chair of the Congressional Native American Caucus. Penobscot people historically spoke a dialect of Eastern Abenaki , an Algonquian language . It

4080-560: The European powers consisted of land between the Kennebec River and the Isthmus of Chignecto (encompassing the eastern portion of Maine and all of the Canadian province of New Brunswick ). This land was occupied by a number of Algonquian-speaking Indian tribes loosely allied in the Wabanaki Confederacy , which also claimed sovereignty over most of this territory and had occupied portions of

4182-538: The European view which saw the land as something to be owned and commodified, highlighting the need for advocacy to improve and protect the culture and land of the Penobscot. In 1973 the nation opened Penobscot High Stakes Bingo on Indian Island. This was one of the first commercial gambling operations on a reservation in the United States. Bingo is open one weekend every six weeks. The Penobscot tribe has pushed for state legislation allowing them to add slot machines to their bingo hall, which has been granted. The climax of

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4284-460: The Indians in full possession of the village. They slaughtered 50 head of cattle and set fire to 26 houses outside the fort, then assaulted the fort, killing one New Englander but otherwise making little impression. That night, Col. Walton and Capt. Harman arrived with 30 men, to which were added approximately 40 men from the fort under Captains Penhallow and Temple. The combined force of 70 men attacked

4386-412: The Indians, but they were overwhelmed by their numbers. The New Englanders then retreated back into the fort. The Indians eventually retired up the river, viewing further attacks on the fort as useless. During their return to Norridgewock, the Indians attacked Fort Richmond with a three-hour siege. They burned homes and killed cattle, but the fort held. They destroyed Brunswick and other settlements near

4488-450: The Indians. One of these operations resulted in the Battle of Winnepang (Jeddore Harbour), in which 35 Indians and five New Englanders were killed. Only five Indian bodies were recovered from the battle, and the New Englanders decapitated the corpses and set the severed heads on pikes surrounding Canso, Nova Scotia 's new fort. During the war, a church was erected at the Catholic mission in

4590-585: The Lake Winnipesaukee area. On February 20, his force came across wigwams at the head of the Salmon Falls River in Wakefield, New Hampshire , where ten Indians were killed. Lovewell's third expedition consisted of 46 men and left from Dunstable on April 16, 1725. They built a fort at Ossipee, New Hampshire and garrisoned it with 10 men, including a doctor and John Goffe , while the rest left to raid

4692-509: The Massachusetts colonial assembly. Between 400 and 500 St. Francis ( Odanak , Quebec) and Miꞌkmaq Indians attacked Arrowsic, Maine on September 10, in conjunction with Father Rale at Norridgewock. Captain Penhallow discharged musketry from a small guard, wounding three of the Indians and killing another. This defense gave the inhabitants of the village time to retreat into the fort, leaving

4794-441: The Miꞌkmaq village of Shubenacadie (Saint Anne's Mission). In 1723, Miꞌkmaqs raided the village of Canso, killing five fishermen, so the New Englanders built a 12-gun blockhouse to guard the village and fishery. The worst moment of the war for Annapolis Royal came on July 4, 1724 when a group of 60 Miꞌkmaqs and Maliseets raided the capital. They killed and scalped a sergeant and a private, wounded four more soldiers, and terrorized

4896-497: The New England attack on Father Rale at Norridgewock in March 1722, 165 Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet fighters gathered at Minas ( Grand Pre, Nova Scotia ) to lay siege to Annapolis Royal . Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Miꞌkmaqs hostage in May to prevent the provincial capital from being attacked. In July, the Abenakis and Miꞌkmaqs blockaded Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving

4998-415: The Penobscot had contact with Europeans through the fur trade . It was lucrative and the Penobscot were willing to trade pelts for European goods such as metal axes, guns, and copper or iron cookware. Hunting for fur pelts reduced the game, however, and the European trade introduced alcohol to Penobscot communities for the first time. It has been argued that the people are genetically vulnerable to alcoholism,

5100-567: The Penobscot lived on reservations , specifically, Indian Island, which is an island in the Penobscot River near Old Town, Maine. The Maine state government appointed a Tribal Agent to oversee the tribe. The government believed that they were helping the Penobscot, as stated in 1824 by the highest court in Maine that "...imbecility on their parts, and the dictates of humanity on ours, have necessarily prescribed to them their subjection to our paternal control." This sentiment of "imbecility" set up

5202-548: The Penobscot village. Two years later, Thury worked to thwart the actions of Phips, who wanted to keep the Abenaki neutral; Thury played an important role in retaining them under French influence. He took part in the attack against Pescadouet (Oyster Bay) in New Hampshire , and was present with Robinau de Villebon and a party of Abenaki at the capture of Pemaquid by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in 1696. The bishop of Quebec made him his vicar general in 1698 and appointed him to be

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5304-461: The Penobscot village. They found a large Penobscot fort—70 yards (64 m) by 50 yards (46 m), with 14-foot (4.3 m) walls surrounding 23 wigwams. There was also a large chapel (60 by 30 feet (18.3 by 9.1 m)). The village was vacant of people, and the soldiers burned it to the ground. Starting in 1775, Condeskeag became the site of treaty negotiations by which the Penobscot people were made to give up almost all their ancestral lands,

5406-415: The Penobscot's main food source of running fish through the process of damming the Penobscot River, the loss of big game through the process of clear cutting of forests for the logging industry and through massacres carried out by settlers. This catastrophic population depletion may have contributed to Christian conversion (among other factors); the people could see that the European priests did not suffer from

5508-758: The Penobscots at first. They were allowed to retain Jesuit priests, but the two parties were in disagreement concerning land titles and British sovereignty over the Wabanakis. French Jesuit Etienne Lauverjat translated the written agreement into Abenaki; Chief Loron immediately repudiated it, specifically rejecting claims of British sovereignty over him. Despite his disagreement, Loron pursued peace, sending wampum belts to other tribal leaders, although his envoys were unsuccessful in reaching Gray Lock, who continued his raiding expeditions. Peace treaties were signed in Maine on December 15, 1725 and in Nova Scotia on June 15, 1726 involving

5610-590: The Pequawkets withdrew around sunset. Only 20 of the militiamen survived the battle; three died on the return journey. The Pequawket losses included Chief Paugus. The western theater of the war has also been referred to as " Grey Lock's War ". On August 13, 1723, Gray Lock entered the war by raiding Northfield, Massachusetts , where four warriors killed two citizens. The next day, they attacked Joseph Stevens and his four sons in Rutland, Massachusetts . Stevens escaped, two of

5712-561: The Second Indian War), and Queen Anne's War (or the Third Indian War) from 1703 to 1711. Queen Anne's War ended with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The colonial borders of northeastern America were reshaped as a result, but the treaty did not account for Indian claims to the same area. French Acadia was ceded to Great Britain which established the province of Nova Scotia , although its borders were disputed. The area disputed by

5814-635: The Wabanaki Confederacy. Each nation makes a characteristic shape of canoe. The vessels are each made from one piece of bark from a white birch tree. If done correctly, the large piece of bark can be removed without killing the tree. The Penobscot have a rich history of connection to the land and all of its bounties in Maine which is apparent in their folklore and reverence towards all things. Their rich spiritual cosmology informs their efforts of preserving land and natural resources in their sacred homeland. The landscapes of Maine are extremely valuable to

5916-637: The area, while the Wabanakis maintained possession, and he suggested that Shute misunderstood the way in which European ideas of ownership differed from those of the Indians. In response to the raid on Norridgewock, the Abenakis raided Fort George on June 13 which was under the command of Captain John Gyles . They burned the homes of the village and took 60 prisoners, most of whom were later released. On July 15, Father Lauverjat from Penobscot led 500 to 600 Indians from Penobscot and Medunic ( Maliseet ) and laid siege to Fort St. George for 12 days. They burned

6018-697: The blockhouses in the spring of 1724. During the spring of 1724, the Wabanaki Confederacy conducted ten raids on the Maine frontier which killed, wounded, or imprisoned more than 30 New Englanders. They took a sloop in Kennebunk harbor and slaughtered the entire crew. In the spring of 1724, Captain Josiah Winslow took command of St. George's Fort at Thomaston; he was the older brother of John Winslow . On 30 April 1724, Winslow and Sergeant Harvey left George's Fort with 17 men in two whale boats, and they went downriver several miles to Green Island. The following day,

6120-543: The border of New Brunswick during Father Le Loutre's War to protect it from a British attack from Nova Scotia. The Treaty of Utrecht ended Queen Anne's War , but it had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki Confederacy . The Abenaki signed the 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth , but none had been consulted about British ownership of Nova Scotia, and the Miꞌkmaq began to make raids against New England fishermen and settlements. The war began on two fronts as

6222-414: The boys were killed, and the other two sons were captured. On October 9, 1723, Gray Lock struck two small forts near Northfield, inflicting casualties and carrying off one captive. In response, Governor Dummer ordered the construction of Fort Dummer in what is now Brattleboro, Vermont . The fort became a major base of operations for scouting and punitive expeditions into Abenaki country. Fort Dummer

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6324-445: The capital. The Indians captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners in raids from Cape Sable Island to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels working in the Bay of Fundy . On July 25, Governor Shute formally declared war on the Wabanakis. Lieutenant Governor William Dummer conducted the Massachusetts involvement in the war, since Shute sailed for England at the end of 1722 to deal with ongoing disputes that he had with

6426-409: The climate was more temperate. Food was potentially scarce only toward the end of the winter, in February and March. For the rest of the year, the Penobscot and other Wabanaki likely had little difficulty surviving because the land and ocean waters offered much bounty, and the number of people was sustainable. The bands moved seasonally, following the patterns of game and fish. During the 16th century

6528-502: The conflicts which occurred around the border between British Canada and the United States. Despite this the new American government did not seem to recognize their contributions. Anglo-American settlers continued to encroach on Penobscot lands. In the following centuries, the Penobscot attempted to make treaties in order to hold on to some form of land, but, because they had no power of enforcement in Massachusetts or Maine, Americans kept encroaching on their lands. From about 1800 onward,

6630-461: The disputed territory. The Penobscot and the state reached a settlement, Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act (MICSA), in 1980, resulting in an $ 81.5-million-dollar settlement that the Penobscot could use to acquire more tribal land. The terms of the settlement provided for such acquisition, after which the federal government would hold some of this land in trust for the tribe, as is done for reservation land. The tribe could also purchase other lands in

6732-412: The earth'). That combination leads him to 'reach forth his hand to grasp all things for his comfort' and, in the process, virtually destroy the world". This warning from such a prominent figurehead in Penobscot beliefs highlights that they upheld the values of preservation and protection of Maine's land and ecological resources. The French missionaries converted many Penobscot people to Christianity . In

6834-523: The end of Father Le Loutre's War , with the defeat of Le Loutre at Fort Beauséjour . This was the only war fought by the Wabanakis against the British on their own terms and for their own reasons, rather than in support of French interests. The final major battle of the war was the Battle of Pequawket , or "Lovewell's Fight", which was celebrated in song and story in the 19th century. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Battle of Lovells Pond," and Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote " Roger Malvin's Burial " about

6936-446: The establishment of provincially operated trading posts. Kennebec sachem Wiwurna objected to colonists establishing settlements and constructing forts; he claimed sovereign control of the land, while Shute reasserted colonial rights to expand into the territory. The Wabanakis were willing to accede to existing settlements if a proper boundary was delineated, beyond which settlement would not be allowed. Shute responded, "We desire only what

7038-503: The fort. The Tarrantine Indians were reported to have lost more than 25 men. Indians killed one man and wounded another at Purpooduck on May 27. In June, Indians raided Dover, New Hampshire and took Elizabeth Hanson into captivity. They also engaged in a canoe campaign, assisted by the Miꞌkmaqs from Cape Sable Island. In just a few weeks, they had captured 22 vessels, killing 22 New Englanders and taking more prisoner. They also made an unsuccessful siege of St. George's Fort. In

7140-473: The land before the colonists. Massachusetts Governor Joseph Dudley organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire . In negotiations there and at Casco Bay , the Wabanaki objected to British assertions that the French had ceded their territory to Britain in eastern Maine and New Brunswick , but they agreed to confirm the boundaries at the Kennebec River and to establish government-run trading posts in their territory. The Treaty of Portsmouth

7242-401: The mouth of the Kennebec. On March 9, 1723, Colonel Thomas Westbrook led 230 men to the Penobscot River and traveled approximately 32 miles (51 km) upstream to the Penobscot Village . They found a large Penobscot fort some 70 by 50 yards (64 by 46 m), with 14-foot (4.3 m) walls surrounding 23 wigwams. There was also a large chapel (60 by 30 feet [18.3 by 9.1 m]). The village

7344-547: The next 30 years, but there was no major conflict in the area until King George's War in the 1740s. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Dummer's Treaty marked a significant shift in British relations with the Miꞌkmaqs and Maliseets, who refused to declare themselves British subjects. The French lost their footholds in Maine, while New Brunswick remained under French control for a number of years. The peace in Nova Scotia lasted for 18 years. The British took control of New Brunswick at

7446-414: The opening moments of the battle, a leading chief was killed, and nearly two dozen women and children. The colonists had casualties of two militiamen and one Mohawk . Harmon destroyed the Abenaki farms, and those who had escaped were forced to abandon their village and move northward to the Abenaki village of St. Francis and Bécancour, Quebec . Captain John Lovewell made three expeditions against

7548-542: The pandemics. The latter said that the Penobscot had died because they did not believe in Jesus Christ. At the beginning of the 17th century, Europeans began to live year-round in Wabanaki territory. At this time, there were probably about 10,000 Penobscot (a number which fell to below 500 by the early 19th century). As contact became more permanent, after about 1675, conflicts arose through differences in cultures, conceptions of property, and competition for resources. Along

7650-428: The population. As of the 2009 U.S Census Bureau estimate, there were 541 people living in the reservation. There were 214 households, out of which 44.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.0% were married couples living together, 25.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.6% were non-families. 22.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who

7752-683: The power to regulate hunting and fishing by tribal members. The Nation filed suit against the state in August 2012, contending in Penobscot Nation v. State of Maine, that the 1980 MICSA settlement gave the Nation jurisdiction and regulatory authority over hunting and fishing in the "Main Stem" of the Penobscot River as well as on its reservation. At the request of the Nation, the US Department of Justice has joined

7854-634: The presence of the French Jesuit priest Sébastien Rale , who lived among the Kennebec tribe at Norridgewock in central Maine, and he demanded that Rale be removed. The Wabanakis refused in July 1721 and demanded that hostages be released (who had been given in surety during earlier negotiations) in exchange for a delivery of furs made in restitution for their raiding. Massachusetts made no official response. The Wabanakis then went to extraordinary lengths to produce

7956-581: The regular manner. The act established the Maine Indian Tribal-State Commission, whose function was to oversee the effectiveness of the Act and to intervene in certain areas such as fishing rights, etc. in order to settle disputes between the state and the Penobscot or Passamaquoddy. Because it is a federally recognized sovereign nation with direct relations with the federal government, the Penobscot have disagreed with state assertions that it has

8058-406: The sap of Abies balsamea over sores, burns, and cuts. The Penobscot traditionally made baskets out of sweet grass , brown ash , and birch bark . These materials grow in wetlands throughout Maine. However, the species are threatened due to habitat destruction and the emerald ash borer . This insect threatens to destroy all ash trees in Maine, much as it already has devastated ash forests in

8160-454: The sawmill, a large sloop , and sundry houses, and killed many of their cattle. Five New Englanders were killed and seven were taken prisoner, while the New Englanders killed twenty Maliseet and Penobscot warriors. During Father Rale's War , Father Lauverjat was established at the mission. On March 9, 1723, Colonel Thomas Westbrook from Thomaston led 230 men to the Penobscot River and traveled approximately 32 miles (51 km) upstream to

8262-404: The second half of 1724, the New Englanders launched an aggressive campaign up the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers. On August 22, captains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon led 200 rangers to Norridgewock to kill Father Rale and destroy the settlement. There were 160 Abenakis, many of whom chose to flee rather than fight. At least 31 chose to fight, and most of them were killed. Rale was killed in

8364-542: The state, as a result of the 1980 settlement of its land claim. Some analysts predict that this case will be as significant to Indian law and sovereignty as the fishing rights cases of Native American tribes in the Pacific Northwest in the 1970s, which resulted in the 1974 Boldt decision affirming their rights to fishing and hunting in their former territories. The five members of the Congressional Native American Caucus who filed are Betty McCollum (D-MN), co-chair of

8466-416: The suit on behalf of the tribe. In addition, in an unprecedented step, five members of the Congressional Native American Caucus representing other jurisdictions filed an amici curiae brief in support of the Penobscot in this case. In addition to its reservation, the Nation owns islands in the river extending 60 mi (97 km) upriver; it also acquired hundreds of thousands of acres of land elsewhere in

8568-718: The superior of the missions in Acadia. Madockawando and others from Penobscot fought alongside Hertel Portneuf and St. Castin at the Battle of Fort Loyal (May 1690). They were also involved in Raid on Wells (1692) . Finally they accompanied Villie in the Raid on Oyster River in 1694. He died during the war in 1697. On 15 July 1722, Father Lauverjat from Penobscot led 500-600 natives from Penobscot and Medunic ( Maliseet ) to lay siege to Fort St. Georges in Colonel Thomas Westbrook's home town of Thomaston for twelve days. They burned

8670-447: The survival and beliefs of the Penobscot; their namesake river is personified, and most dear to them. Annette Kolodny describes "how deeply rooted the Penobscot cosmology is within the Maine landscape; their ethic of mutual obligation to a land full of spirits, animal-people, and daunting power is fundamentally geographic, every place name helping to orient a traveler in relation to both physical space and spiritual power." Their reverence

8772-636: The three largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River ( Norridgewock ); one farther north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot) and one on the Saint John River ( Medoctec ). For their part, in response to King Philip's War , the five Indian tribes in the region of Acadia created the Wabanaki Confederacy to form a political and military alliance with New France to stop the New England expansion. On Abbé Petit's advice, Father Louis-Pierre Thury settled at Pentagouet ( Castine, Maine ) in 1690, near Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin, where he remained eight years. He acquired great influence over

8874-524: The two whale boats became separated and approximately 200 to 300 Abenakis descended on Harvey's boat, killing Harvey and all of his men except three Indian guides who escaped to the Georges fort. Captain Winslow was then surrounded by 30 to 40 canoes which came off from both sides of the river and attacked him. After hours of fighting, Winslow and his men were killed except for three friendly Indians who escaped back to

8976-462: The unforgiving climate of the North East and punishes those who operated outside of his code. Since Klose-kur-beh dates back to creation, according to Penobscot cosmology he was aware of other races and warned of the arrival of the white man, "What makes the white man dangerous is the lethal combination of his greed ('he [. . .] wanted the whole earth') and his lust for power ('he wants the power over all

9078-600: The village. They also burned houses and took prisoners. The New Englanders responded by executing one of the Miꞌkmaq hostages on the same spot where the sergeant was killed. They also burned three Acadian houses in retaliation. As a result of the raid, they built three blockhouses to protect the town. They moved the Acadian church closer to the fort so that it could be more easily monitored. In 1725, 60 Abenakis and Miꞌkmaqs launched another attack on Canso, destroying two houses and killing six people. Penobscot tribal chiefs expressed

9180-556: The war, Father Rale was killed by a force of New England militia at Norridgewock. The Native population retreated from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers to St. Francis and Becancour, Quebec , and New England took over much of the Maine territory. Dummer's War is also known as the Fourth Anglo-Abenaki War. The three previous Indian Wars were King Philip's War (or the First Indian War) in 1675, King William's War (or

9282-433: The warrior and exchanged gunfire. Lovewell and one of his men were wounded in the encounter, and the Indian was killed by Ensign Seth Wyman, Lovewell's second in command. Lovewell's force then returned to their packs and the ambush was sprung. Lovewell and eight of his men were killed and two were wounded when the Pequawkets opened fire. The survivors managed to retreat to a strong position, and fended off repeated attacks until

9384-460: The western theater was located in northern Massachusetts and Vermont in the frontier areas between Canada (New France) and New England. The root cause of the conflict on the Maine frontier concerned the border between Acadia and New England, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British control after the Siege of Port Royal in 1710 and

9486-463: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 2.97. In the Indian reservation the population was spread out, with 33.3% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.7 males. The median income for

9588-541: Was Vermont's first permanent colonial settlement, made under the command of Lieutenant Timothy Dwight. On June 18, 1724, Grey Lock attacked a group of men working in a meadow near Hatfield, Massachusetts . He then moved on and killed men at Deerfield , Northfield, and Westfield over the summer. In response to the raids, Dummer ordered more soldiers for Northfield, Brookfield , Deerfield, and Sunderland, Massachusetts . On October 11, 1724, 70 Abenakis attacked Fort Dummer and killed three or four soldiers. In September 1725,

9690-474: Was convinced that the French were behind Wabanaki claims, so he sent a military expedition under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook of Thomaston to capture Father Rale in January 1722. Most of the tribe was away hunting, and Westbrook's 300 soldiers surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale, but he was forewarned and escaped into the forest. They found his strongbox among his possessions, however, which contained

9792-632: Was developed with a modified Roman alphabet ; distinct characters have been developed to represent sounds that do not exist in the Roman alphabet. In 1643, Roger Williams wrote A Key into the Language of America . In this work, Williams explained that the language of the Narragansett people (and tribes they'd overtaken or forced into submission) used a language differing only from the northern Algonquian people, in dialect. He wrote that if one tribe's language

9894-602: Was known, communication with the other tribe was possible; this was the case all the way north to remote areas of Labrador . Natives in Labrador spoke Algonquian and the Labrador neighbors were of same linguistic stock as the Narragansett tribe. (Williams wrote that this was not the case with the drastically different Iroquois language .) Fluent in many languages, Williams had lived with native people to improve his native language skill before embarking on missionary work and authoring prayer conversion booklets. His opinion, Williams wrote,

9996-505: Was one of the last northern regions to become part of New England . One of the most important Penobscot chiefs was Madockawando . There were tensions on the border between New England and Acadia , which New France defined as reaching the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts (whose charter included the Maine area) had expanded their settlements into Acadia. To secure New France's claim to present-day Maine, New France established Catholic missions among

10098-473: Was ratified on July 13, 1713 by eight representatives of the Wabanaki Confederacy, however, which asserted British sovereignty over their territory. Over the next year, other Abenaki tribal leaders also signed the treaty, but no Miꞌkmaq ever signed it or any other treaty until 1726. Following the peace, New England settlements expanded east of the Kennebec River , and significant numbers of New Englanders began fishing in Nova Scotia waters. They established

10200-472: Was that the Narragansett (hence the Algonquian) in many cases had words that were Hebrew or in a few cases Greek that he recognized from his work in old Hebrew and Greek biblical text translations. His book A Key into the Language of America includes a phonetic English dictionary that Williams wished to publish so that his knowledge of this Native American language would not die with him. The Penobscot smear

10302-469: Was vacant, and the soldiers burned it to the ground. The Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia orchestrated a total of 14 raids against towns along the border of New England throughout 1723, primarily in Maine. The raids started in April and lasted until December, during which 30 people were killed or taken captive. The Indian attacks were so fierce along the Maine frontier that Dummer ordered residents to evacuate to

10404-470: Was working for Spain. He was followed by the French explorer Samuel de Champlain in 1605. Champlain was looking for the mythical city of Norumbega , thought to be where Bangor now lies. French missionary priests settled among the Penobscot. This valley was contested between France and Britain into the 1750s; after Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, the territory became dominated by England. It

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