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113-543: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈpeðɾo meˈnendeθ ðe aβiˈles] ; Asturian : Pedro (Menéndez) d'Avilés ; 15 February 1519 – 17 September 1574) was a Spanish admiral, explorer and conquistador from Avilés , in Asturias , Spain . He is notable for planning the first regular trans-oceanic convoys , which became known as the Spanish treasure fleet, and for founding St. Augustine, Florida , in 1565. This

226-456: A dialect continuum with Cantabrian in the east and Eonavian in the west. While this dialect continuum is for the most part smooth, a number of isoglosses cluster together parallel to the River Purón, linking the dialects of eastern Llanes , Ribadedeva , Peñamellera Alta , and Peñamellera Baja with those of Cantabria and separating them from the rest of Asturias. Cantabrian was listed in

339-518: A diglossic relationship, first in the Kingdom of Asturias and later in that of Asturias and Leon. During the 12th, 13th and part of the 14th centuries Astur-Leonese was used in the kingdom's official documents, with many examples of agreements, donations, wills and commercial contracts from that period onwards. Although there are no extant literary works written in Asturian from this period, some books (such as

452-597: A Huguenot aristocrat who had participated in the first Jean Ribault expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He reached the River May on 22 June 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline . The Crown was alarmed by these encroachments on Spanish territory in such proximity to the course of the Spanish treasure fleet. Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against further incursions by European powers,

565-451: A Spanish garrison of 200 men further up the coast, he sailed to what is today the Georgia coast making contact with the local Indians of St. Catherines Island before returning to Florida, where he expanded Spanish power throughout southeastern Florida. His position as governor now secure, Menéndez explored the area and built additional fortifications . In 1567, he marched south and encountered

678-532: A concerted effort to centralize the administration of Spanish America and more efficiently tax profits from overseas trade. One of these reforms was the granting of trading monopolies for certain regions to trading companies ran by peninsulares , such as the Guipuzcoan Company . Another involved the increased use of registered ships, or navíos de registro , traveling solo outside the fleet system to transport goods. These reforms gradually decreased reliance on

791-502: A large copy of rare languages, as Portuguese, Galician, Asturian, Catalan, Valencian, French, Tuscan..." Modern Asturian literature began in 1605 with the clergyman Antón González Reguera and continued until the 18th century (when it produced, according to Ruiz de la Peña in 1981, a literature comparable to that in Asturias in Castilian). In 1744, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos wrote about

904-402: A loyal cadre of lieutenants and officials who had blood connection to him, and had invested their own futures in his success. In early 1564 Menéndez asked permission to go to Florida to search for La Concepcion and his son, Admiral Juan Menéndez, who had been its commander. As noted above, they were lost in 1563 in a hurricane. The crown continued to refuse his request. René de Laudonnière ,

1017-563: A malo. Amen Although Spanish is the official language of all schools in Asturias, in many schools children are allowed to take Asturian-language classes from age 6 to 16. Elective classes are also offered from 16 to 19. Central Asturias ( Nalón and Caudal comarcas ) has the largest percentage of Asturian-language students, with almost 80 percent of primary-school students and 30 percent of secondary-school students in Asturian classes. Xixón , Uviéu , Eo-Navia and Oriente also have an increased number of students. According to article six of

1130-874: A movement for the language's acceptance and use began in Asturias. Based on ideas of the Asturian association Conceyu Bable about Asturian language and culture, a plan was developed for the acceptance and modernization of the language that led to the 1980 creation of the Academy of the Asturian Language with the approval of the Asturias regional council. El Surdimientu (the Awakening) authors such as Manuel Asur (Cancios y poemes pa un riscar) , Xuan Bello (El llibru vieyu) , Adolfo Camilo Díaz (Añada pa un güeyu muertu) , Pablo Antón Marín Estrada (Les hores) , Xandru Fernández (Les ruines) , Lourdes Álvarez , Martín López-Vega , Miguel Rojo and Lluis Antón González broke from

1243-538: A nós o teu reino e fágase a túa vontade aquí na terra coma no ceo. O noso pan cotián dánolo hoxe; e perdóanos as nosas ofensas como tamén perdoamos nós a quen nos ten ofendido; e non nos deixes caer na tentación, mais líbranos do mal. Amén. Pater noster, qui es in caelis, Sanctificetur nomen tuum. Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua, Sicut in caelo et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie. Et dimitte nobis debita nostra, Sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos inducas in tentationem: Sed libera nos

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1356-465: A small armada against the French corsairs who harassed the maritime commerce of Spain. After two years of fighting, Menéndez returned to his family, having conceived a plan to use part of his inheritance to build his own vessel. He built a patache , a small but fast row-sailer, suitable for patrolling the coast. He recruited a number of his relatives to sail with him in search of adventure. In this ship,

1469-582: A system of metaphony . The phenomenon of -u metaphony is uncommon, as are the falling diphthongs /ei, ou/ , usually in the west. Asturian has always been written in the Latin alphabet. Although the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana published orthographic rules in 1981, different spelling rules are used in Terra de Miranda ( Portugal ). Although they can be written, ḷḷ ( che vaqueira , formerly written " ts ") and

1582-436: A third, neuter gender, a phenomenon known as matter-neutrality. Verbs agree with their subjects in person (first, second, or third) and number, and are conjugated to indicate mood (indicative, subjunctive, conditional or imperative; some others include "potential" in place of future and conditional), tense (often present or past; different moods allow different tenses), and aspect (perfective or imperfective). Asturian

1695-543: A view to establishing a permanent settlement for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet . He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown. On 28 July 1565, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship, the San Pelayo , accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers. On the feast day of St. Augustine , 28 August,

1808-625: Is a comprehensive manual that can be used in schools to facilitate learning. Additionally, a translator that can translate English, French, Portuguese and Italian, among a few other languages, into Asturian and vice versa is offered online. This software is funded and maintained by members of the University of Oviedo. As with other Romance languages, most Asturian words come from Latin : ablana, agua, falar, güeyu, home, llibru, muyer, pesllar, pexe, prau, suañar . In addition to this Latin basis are words which entered Asturian from languages spoken before

1921-611: Is a national secret. In November 2023 the Colombian government are looking to recover the treasure. The Nuestra Señora de las Maravillas ( de ) (English: Our Lady of Miracles ) which had collided with another ship in the fleet suffered damage to its hull and sunk into a coral reef off the Bahamas in January 1656. The ship's cargo with almost 3.5 million items was recovered between 1650s and 1990s, while latest discoveries would be exhibited at

2034-434: Is an inflecting , fusional , head-initial and dependent-marking language . Its word order is subject–verb–object (in declarative sentences without topicalization ). Asturian distinguishes five vowel phonemes (these same ones are found in Spanish , Aragonese , Sardinian and Basque ), according to three degrees of vowel openness (close, mid and open) and backness (front, central and back). Many Asturian dialects have

2147-534: Is basically the same as the Asturian spoken in Asturias. The Asturian-Leonese linguistic domain covers most of the principality of Asturias, the northern and western province of León , the northeastern province of Zamora (both in Castile and León), western Cantabria and the Miranda do Douro region in the eastern Bragança District of Portugal. Traditional, popular place names of the principality's towns are supported by

2260-506: Is credited as the chief planner of the formalized Spanish treasure fleet convoy system that became the main link between Spain and her overseas territories. In partnership with Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz , he helped design the great galleons that carried the trade between Cadiz in Spain and Vera Cruz in Spanish Mexico . Later, in his capacity as adelantado , Menéndez

2373-576: Is endangered: there has been a steep decline in the number of speakers over the last century. Law 1/93 of 23 March 1993 on the Use and Promotion of the Asturian Language addressed the issue, and according to article four of the Asturias Statute of Autonomy: "The Asturian language will enjoy protection. Its use, teaching and diffusion in the media will be furthered, whilst its local dialects and voluntary apprenticeship will always be respected." However, Asturian

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2486-673: Is in a legally hazy position. The Spanish Constitution has not been fully applied regarding the official recognition of languages in the autonomous communities. The ambiguity of the Statute of Autonomy, which recognises the existence of Asturian but does not give it the same status as Spanish, leaves the door open to benign neglect. However, since 1 August 2001 Asturian has been covered under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ' "safeguard and promote" clause. A 1983 survey indicated 100,000 native Asturian speakers (12 percent of

2599-417: Is neuter, but Tien un pel u rox u (He has a red hair) is masculine; note the noun's change in ending. Plural formation is complex: Their forms are: Only before words beginning with a- : l’aigla (the eagle), l’alma (the soul). Compare la entrada (the entry) and la islla (the island). The Academy of the Asturian Language has published a grammar describing the Asturian language. It

2712-597: Is the only western Romance language with three genders: masculine , feminine and neuter . Adjectives are modified by gender. Most adjectives have three endings: -u (masculine), -a (feminine) and -o (neuter): El vasu ta frí u (the glass is cold), tengo la mano frí a (my hand is cold), l’agua ta frí o (the water is cold) Neuter nouns are abstract, collective and uncountable nouns. They have no plural, except when they are used metaphorically or concretised and lose this gender: l es agü es tán frí es (Waters are cold). Tien el pel o rox o (He has red hair)

2825-581: The Llibru d'Alexandre and the 1155 Fueru d'Avilés ) had Asturian sources. Castilian Spanish arrived in the area during the 14th century, when the central administration sent emissaries and functionaries to political and ecclesiastical offices. Asturian codification of the Astur-Leonese spoken in the Asturian Autonomous Community became a modern language with the founding of the Academy of

2938-449: The San Pedro from the 1733 fleet , after being found by treasure hunters, are now protected as Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserves . The Capitana ( El Rubi ) was the flagship of the 1733 fleet; it ran aground during a hurricane near Upper Matecumbe Key , then sank. Three men died during the storm. Afterward, divers recovered most of the treasure aboard. The Capitana was

3051-757: The Santa Anna by Thomas Cavendish in 1589, the Encarnación by Woodes Rogers in 1709, the Covadonga by George Anson in 1743, and the Santísima Trinidad in 1762. The attempts to take the Rosario in 1704 and the Begonia in 1710 were foiled. Wrecks of Spanish treasure ships, whether sunk in naval combat or, as was more usually the case, by storms (with the ones which occurred 1622, 1715 , 1733 and 1750 being among

3164-555: The Ais (Jece) as he reached the Indian River near present-day Vero Beach . He returned to Spain in 1567 and was appointed governor of Cuba , in October of that year. In December 1571, Menéndez was sailing from Florida to Havana with two frigates when, as he tells it, "I was wrecked at Cape Canaveral because of a storm which came upon me, and the other boat was lost fifteen leagues further on in

3277-653: The Dutch admiral Piet Hein managed to capture an entire fleet, in the Battle in the Bay of Matanzas in 1628, after which its cargo was taken to the Dutch Republic . The English admiral Robert Blake twice attacked the fleet, in the Battle of Cádiz in 1656 and in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1657, but he captured only a single galleon and Spanish officers managed to prevent most of

3390-686: The Pacific Ocean . From Acapulco, the Asian goods were transhipped by mule train to Veracruz to be loaded onto the Caribbean treasure fleet for shipment to Spain. To better defend this trade, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and Álvaro de Bazán designed the definitive model of the galleon in the 1550s. Spain controlled the trade through the Casa de Contratación based in Seville , a river port in southern Spain. By law,

3503-521: The Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by Philip II on 20 March 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida. Menéndez was commissioned to reconnoiter North America from the Florida Keys to present-day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with

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3616-602: The Tequesta and Calusa tribes, proved hostile to Spanish settlement as war continued on and off until 1670. Menéndez later made contact with the less hostile Tequesta at their capital in El Portal (in what is now Miami) and was able to negotiate for three chieftains to accompany him to Cuba as translators to the Arawak . Although Menéndez left behind Jesuit missionaries Brother Francisco de Villareal and Padre Rogel in an attempt to convert

3729-564: The University of Oviedo charter, "The Asturian language will be the object of study, teaching and research in the corresponding fields. Likewise, its use will have the treatment established by the Statute of Autonomy and complementary legislation, guaranteeing non-discrimination of those who use it." Asturian can be used at the university in accordance with the Use of Asturian Act. University records indicate an increased number of courses and amount of scientific work using Asturian, with courses in

3842-411: The debuccalization of word-initial /f/ to [ h ] , written ⟨ ḥ ⟩ ( ḥoguera , ḥacer , ḥigos and ḥornu instead of foguera , facer , figos and fornu ; feminine plurals ending in -as ( ḥab a s , ḥormig a s , ḥiy a s , except in eastern towns, where -es is kept: ḥabes , ḥormigues , ḥiyes ); the shifting of word-final -e to -i ( xenti , tardi , ḥuenti ); retention of

3955-552: The early Middle Ages . Asturian was closely linked with the Kingdom of Asturias (718–910) and the ensuing Leonese kingdom. The language had contributions from pre-Roman languages spoken by the Astures , an Iberian Celtic tribe, and the post-Roman Germanic languages of the Visigoths and Suevi . The transition from Latin to Asturian was slow and gradual; for a long time they co-existed in

4068-613: The galleons of the great Armada de la Carrera , or Spanish Treasure Fleet , on their return voyage from the Caribbean and Mexico to Spain. Menéndez determined the route they followed, which led through the Florida Strait ( Spanish : Estrecho de Florida ) and up the east coast of Florida, taking advantage of the current of the Gulf Stream . In 1561, however, Menéndez was jailed by Casa officials for alleged smuggling, but he got his case transferred to court and won his release. Menéndez

4181-705: The 11 million arriving in 1590, 2 million went to France for imports, 6 million to Italy for imports and military expenses, of which 2.5 went up the Spanish Road to the Low Countries and 1 million to the Ottoman Empire . 1.5 million was shipped from Portugal to Asia. Of the 2 million pesos reaching the Dutch Republic in that year, 75% went to the Baltic for naval stores and 25% went to Asia. The income of

4294-690: The 2009 UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . The inclusion of Eonavian (spoken in western Asturias, bordering Galicia) in the Galician language is controversial, since it has traits in common with western Asturian. Asturian is one of the Astur-Leonese languages which form part of the Iberian Romance languages , close to Galician-Portuguese and Castilian and further removed from Navarro-Aragonese . It

4407-589: The Americas, most significantly silver from Mexico and Peru , were sent back to Spain. Fleets of fifty or more ships sailed from Spain, one bound for the Mexican port of Veracruz and the other for Panama and Cartagena. From the Spanish ports of Seville or Cádiz , the two fleets bound for the Americas sailed together down the coast of Africa, and stopped at the Spanish territory of the Canary Islands for provisions before

4520-450: The Asturian Language ( Academia Asturiana de la Llingua ) in 1980. The Leonese dialects and Mirandese are linguistically close to Asturian. Efforts have been made since the end of the Francoist period in 1975 to protect and promote Asturian. In 1994 there were 100,000 native speakers and 450,000 second-language speakers able to speak (or understand) Asturian. However, the language

4633-422: The Asturian population) and 250,000 who could speak or understand Asturian as a second language. A similar survey in 1991 found that 44 percent of the population (about 450,000 people) could speak Asturian, with from 60,000 to 80,000 able to read and write it. An additional 24 percent of the Asturian population said that they understood the language, making a total of about 68 percent of the Asturian population. At

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4746-537: The Asturian-Leonese tradition of rural themes, moral messages and dialogue-style writing. Currently, the Asturian language has about 150 annual publications. The Bible into the Asturian language was completed in 2021 after over 30 years of translation work, beginning in September 1988. Astur-Leonese's geographic area exceeds Asturias, and the language known as Leonese in the autonomous community of Castile and León

4859-533: The Bahama Channel, in a river they call the Ais , because the cacique (chief) is so called. I, by a miracle reached the fort of St. Augustine with seventeen persons I was taking with me. Three times the Indians gave the order to attack me, and the way I escaped them was by ingenuity and arousing fear in them, telling them that behind me many Spaniards were coming who would slay them if they found them." The Ais, like

4972-466: The Caribbean coast of Panama to load Peruvian silver. This had been shipped from the Pacific coast port of Callao and transported across the isthmus of Panama by mule. Other ships went to the Caribbean island of Margarita , off the coast of Venezuela , to collect pearls which had been harvested from offshore oyster beds. After loading was complete, both fleets sailed for Havana , Cuba, to rendezvous for

5085-563: The Department of Philology and Educational Sciences. In accordance with the Bologna Process , Asturian philology will be available for study and teachers will be able to specialise in the Asturian language at the University of Oviedo. Asturian government websites, council webpages, blogs, and entertainment webpages exist. Free software is offered in Asturian, and Ubuntu offers Asturian as an operating-system language. Free software in

5198-756: The Dutch occupied Curaçao in 1634. Other losses to foreign powers came later. In 1713 as part of the Treaty of Utrecht after the War of the Spanish Succession , the Spanish crown was forced to make concessions which included trading privileges for England that violated the previous Spanish monopoly on legal trade to its colonial holdings. In 1739 during the War of Jenkin's Ear , the British admirals Francis Hosier and later Edward Vernon blockaded Portobello in an attempt to prevent

5311-611: The European economy as a whole. The flow of precious metals made many traders wealthy, both in Spain and abroad. As a result of the discovery of precious metals in Spanish America, Spain's money supply increased tenfold. The increase in gold and silver on the Iberian market caused high inflation in the 17th century , affecting the Spanish economy. As a consequence, the Crown was forced to delay

5424-551: The French settlement at Fort Caroline on the St. Johns River . On 20 September 1565, they made a surprise attack and killed all the adult males they encountered, but spared women and children; 132 Frenchmen were killed . Laudonnière and several score Frenchmen escaped into the woods. Menéndez left a Spanish garrison at the captured fort, now renamed San Mateo. (In 1568 French soldiers led by Dominique de Gourgues returned and destroyed it, killing

5537-716: The Iberian Peninsula, especially the Visigoths and the Suevi , added words such as blancu, esquila, estaca, mofu, serón, espetar, gadañu and tosquilar . Arabisms could reach Asturian directly, through contacts with Arabs or al-Andalus , or through the Castilian language. Examples include acebache, alfaya, altafarra, bañal, ferre, galbana, mandil, safase, xabalín, zuna and zucre . Asturian has also received much of its lexicon from other languages, such as Spanish , French , Occitan and Galician . In number of loanwords, Spanish leads

5650-421: The New Spain fleet and commanded by his son Admiral Juan Menéndez, had disappeared off the coast of South Carolina, and was assumed to be dead. The ship was lost in a hurricane that scattered the fleet as it was returning to Spain, at the latitude of Bermuda off the coast of South Carolina. Menéndez conceived a plan for a voyage to La Florida to search for his son, who he believed might have reached there, but he

5763-416: The River Nalón in Asturias and north of León. The model for the written language, it is characterized by feminine plurals ending in -es , the monophthongization of /ou/ and /ei/ into /o/ and /e/ and the neuter gender in adjectives modifying uncountable nouns ( lleche frío , carne tienro ). East Asturian is spoken between the River Sella, Llanes and Cabrales . The dialect is characterized by

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5876-401: The Spanish merchant ship Encarnación , part of the Tierra Firme fleet, was discovered in 2011 with much of its cargo still aboard and part of its hull intact. The Encarnación sank in 1681 during a storm near the mouth of the Chagres River on the Caribbean side of Panama. The Encarnación sank in less than 40 feet of water. The remains of the Urca de Lima from the 1715 fleet and

5989-463: The Spanish crown from all sources was about 2.5 million pesos in 1550, 14 million in the 1590s, about 15 million in 1760 and 30 million in 1780. In 1665 the debts of the Spanish crown were 30 million pesos short-term and 300 million long-term. Most of the New World production was silver, but Colombian mines produced mostly gold. The following table gives the estimated legal production. It necessarily excludes smuggling, which

6102-445: The Spanish garrison in retaliation for the 1565 massacre.) Menéndez pursued Jean Ribault, who had already left with four ships to attack the Spanish at St. Augustine. After Ribault had put out to sea, he was surprised by a storm that wrecked three of his ships near what is now the Ponce de Leon Inlet . His flagship was grounded near present-day Cape Canaveral. Informed by Indian allies that the French survivors were walking northward on

6215-467: The Spanish silver mines in central Mexico, as the Spanish mistakenly thought the Appalachian Mountains were part of a range extending that far. In the next couple of years, Pardo and his men traveled into present-day South Carolina and Western North Carolina , stopping at the Mississippian chiefdom of Joara , where they built Fort San Juan and wintered over. In total, his expedition built six forts along this route, including one known as San Pedro at Olamico,

6328-413: The Spanish treasure fleet; that year he departed with the fleet and brought it back safely to Spain. He was affirmed in his belief of the strategic importance of the Bahama Channel and that Havana , on the island of Cuba , was the key port to conduct a rendezvous of the annual Flota of treasure galleons. The appointment was highly prestigious, and it was unusual for the Crown to make the appointment. In

6441-485: The Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic . The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber , various metal resources such as silver and gold , gems , pearls , spices , sugar , tobacco , silk , and other exotic goods from

6554-432: The Tequesta to Roman Catholicism, the tribe were indifferent to their teachings. The Jesuits returned to St. Augustine after a year. Menéndez voyaged to La Florida for the last time in 1571, with 650 settlers for Santa Elena , as well as his wife and family. In August 1572, Menéndez led a ship with thirty soldiers and sailors to take revenge for the killing of the Jesuits of the Ajacán Mission in present-day Virginia. At

6667-403: The alphabet. Asturian has several digraphs , some of which have their own names. The letter h and the digraph ll can take an under-dot to indicate additional sounds, for ḥ and digraph ḷḷ Asturian grammar is similar to that of other Romance languages. Nouns have three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), two numbers (singular and plural) and no cases . Adjectives may have

6780-782: The arrival of Latin (its substratum ), afterwards (its superstratum) and loanwords from other languages. Although little is known about the language of the ancient Astures , it may have been related to two Indo-European languages : Celtic and Lusitanian . Words from this language and the pre–Indo-European languages spoken in the region are known as the prelatinian substratum; examples include bedul, boroña, brincar, bruxa, cándanu, cantu, carrascu, comba, cuetu, güelga, llamuerga, llastra, llócara, matu, peñera, riega, tapín and zucar . Many Celtic words (such as bragues, camisa, carru, cerveza and sayu ) were integrated into Latin and, later, into Asturian. Asturian's superstratum consists primarily of Germanisms and Arabisms. The Germanic peoples in

6893-485: The beginning of the rule of the Bourbon dynasty over the Spanish Empire, which brought with it the Bourbon Reforms . These reforms, designed to halt Spain's decline and increase tax revenue, resulted in a series of changes to the fleet system throughout the 18th century. Philip V began the reforms by sending investigators to report on conditions in Spanish America, who brought back evidence of fraud. He and following Bourbon kings, notably including Charles III , would make

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7006-487: The chaplain of the expedition, celebrated the first Thanksgiving Mass on the grounds. The formal Franciscan outpost, Mission Nombre de Dios , was founded at the landing point, perhaps the first mission in what would become the continental United States . The mission served nearby villages of the Mocama , a Timucua group, and was at the center of an important chiefdom in the late 16th and 17th century. Menéndez marched his soldiers overland from St. Augustine to destroy

7119-466: The coast of La Florida , Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567. He was appointed governor of Cuba , in October of that year. After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on 17 September 1574. Menéndez traveled to southwest Florida, looking for his son. There he made contact with the Calusa tribe, an advanced maritime people, at what is now known as Charlotte harbor . He negotiated an initial peace with their leader, Carlos , which

7232-440: The coast, Menéndez began to search for them, finding the party at the banks of the Matanzas River 's south entrance. After several parleys with the Spanish, Ribault and the 150–350 Frenchmen with him (sources differ) surrendered. The Spanish executed nearly all of them in the dunes near the inlet. It was later known as Matanzas (Spanish for "slaughters"). Having taken control of the Florida coast, Menéndez had his soldiers complete

7345-472: The colonies could trade only with Seville, the one designated port in the mother country. Maritime archaeology has shown that the quantity of goods transported was sometimes higher than that recorded at the Archivo General de Indias . Spanish merchants and Spaniards acting as fronts ( cargadores ) for foreign merchants sent their goods on these fleets to the New World. Some resorted to contraband to transport their cargoes untaxed. The Crown of Spain taxed

7458-444: The eastern ḥ aspiration (also written " h. " and cooccurring with ll and f ) are absent from this model. Asturian has triple gender distinction in the adjective , feminine plurals with -es , verb endings with -es, -en, -íes, íen and lacks compound tenses (or periphrasis constructed with " tener "). (*) also zeda , ceda The letters K (ka), J (jota) and W (uve doble) are only used in loanwords and are not part of

7571-459: The end of his life, he was appointed as governor of Cuba shortly after his arrival. Menéndez died of typhus at Santander, Spain , on 17 September 1574. Asturian language Asturian is the historical language of Asturias, portions of the Spanish provinces of León and Zamora and the area surrounding Miranda do Douro in northeastern Portugal. Like the other Romance languages of the Iberian peninsula, it evolved from Vulgar Latin during

7684-427: The end of the 20th century the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana (Academy of the Asturian Language) attempted to provide the language with tools needed to promote its survival: a grammar , a dictionary and periodicals . In addition a new generation of Asturian writers has championed the language. In 2021 the first complete translation of the Bible into Asturian was published. Although some 10th-century documents have

7797-473: The escorted convoys of the fleet system. In the 1780s, Spain opened its colonies to freer trade. In 1790, the Casa de Contratación was abolished, bringing to an end the great general purpose cargo convoys. Thereafter small groups of naval frigates were assigned specifically to transferring bullion as required. Every year, two fleets left Spain loaded with European goods in demand in Spanish America; they were guarded by military vessels. Valuable cargo from

7910-457: The first of the 1733 ships to be found again in 1938. Salvage workers recovered items from the sunken ship over more than 10 years. Additional gold was recovered in June 2015. The ship's location: is 24° 55.491' north, 80° 30.891' west. The San José was sunk in 1708 by British forces near Colombian's coasts. Its wreckage was discovered in 2015 and is believed to contain the record 17B US$ in gold, silver, and other precious stones. Its place

8023-545: The fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel that the French called the River of Dolphins. This was developed as the site of the present-day city of St. Augustine. Menéndez sailed north and confronted Ribault's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On 6 September, he returned to his first landfall, naming the site it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies. Father Francisco López de Mendoza Grajales,

8136-577: The fleet, the Armada de Barlovento. Between 1703 and 1705 Spanish corsair Amaro Pargo began to participate in the West Indies Fleet. In this period he was the owner and captain of the frigate El Ave María y Las Ánimas , a ship which he sailed from the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife to Havana . He reinvested the benefits of the Canarian-American trade in his estates, devoted to the cultivation of

8249-520: The fort in St. Augustine. He also established missions to the natives for the Catholic Church, and explored the east coast and interior of the peninsula. In May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, building a wooden fort there. In 1572,

8362-481: The grapevines of Malvasía and Vidueño , whose wine products (mainly Vidueño) were sent to America . Walton gives the following figures in pesos. For the 300-year period the peso or piece of eight had about 25 grams of silver, about the same as the German thaler and Dutch rijksdaalder . A single galleon might carry 2 million pesos. The modern approximate value of the estimated 4 billion pesos produced during

8475-421: The growth in trade was strong in the early years. Numbering 17 ships in 1550, the fleets expanded to more than 50 much larger vessels by the end of the century. By the second half of the 17th century, that number had dwindled to less than half of its peak. As economic conditions gradually recovered from the last decades of the 17th century, fleet operations slowly expanded again, once again becoming prominent during

8588-539: The historic and cultural value of Asturian, urging the compilation of a dictionary and a grammar and the creation of a language academy . Notable writers included Francisco Bernaldo de Quirós Benavides (1675), Xosefa Xovellanos (1745), Xuan González Villar y Fuertes (1746), Xosé Caveda y Nava (1796), Xuan María Acebal (1815), Teodoro Cuesta (1829), Xosé Benigno García González, Marcos del Torniello (1853), Bernardo Acevedo y Huelves (1849), Pin de Pría (1864), Galo Fernández and Fernán Coronas (1884). In 1974,

8701-458: The journey back to Spain. The overland journey by mule train, as well as supplies provided by local farmers to prepare the fleets for long ocean voyages, invigorated the economy of colonial Spanish America. Preparation and the transport of goods required porters, innkeepers, and foodstuffs to help facilitate travel. However, in Mexico in 1635, there was an increase of the sales tax levied to finance

8814-488: The king of the strategic importance of exploring the Florida coast for discovery of trade passages to the riches of China and Molucca. There was the hope that such waterways might also lead to the mines of New Spain in central Mexico and to the Pacific. He proposed colonizing several areas to defend the territory against incursions by the Indians and foreign powers. Menéndez expected to make vast profits for himself and to increase

8927-440: The language is available from Debian , Fedora , Firefox , Thunderbird , LibreOffice , VLC , GNOME , Chromium and KDE . Minecraft also has an Asturian translation. Misplaced Pages offers an Asturian version of itself, with 136,000+ pages as of November 2024. Spanish treasure fleet The Spanish treasure fleet , or West Indies Fleet ( Spanish : Flota de Indias , also called silver fleet or plate fleet ; from

9040-467: The law on usage of Asturian, the principality's 2003–07 plan for establishing the language and the work of the Xunta Asesora de Toponimia , which researches and confirms the Asturian names of requesting villages, towns, conceyos and cities (50 of 78 conceyos as of 2012). Asturian has several dialects. They are regulated by the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana and mainly spoken in Asturias (except in

9153-566: The linguistic features of Asturian, numerous examples (such as writings by notaries , contracts and wills ) begin in the 13th century. Early examples are the 1085 Fuero de Avilés (the oldest parchment preserved in Asturias) and the 13th-century Fuero de Oviedo and the Leonese version of the Fueru Xulgu . The 13th-century documents were the laws for towns, cities and the general population. By

9266-628: The list. However, due to the close relationship between Castilian and Asturian, it is often unclear if a word is borrowed from Castilian, common to both languages from Latin, or a loanword from Asturian to Castilian. Some Castilian forms in Asturian are: Pá nuesu que tas nel cielu, santificáu seya'l to nome. Amiye'l to reinu, fágase la to voluntá, lo mesmo na tierra que'n cielu. El nuesu pan cotidianu dánoslu güei ya perdónanos les nueses ofenses, lo mesmo que nós facemos colos que nos faltaron. Nun nos dexes cayer na tentación, ya llíbranos del mal. Amén. Noso Pai que estás no ceo: santificado sexa o teu nome, veña

9379-467: The maritime region of southern Spain and the Canary Islands because of attacks by pirates and foreign navies. In the 1560s, the Spanish government created a system of convoys in response to the sacking of Havana by French privateers . The main procedures were established based on the recommendations of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés , an experienced admiral and personal adviser of King Philip II . The treasure fleets sailed along two sea lanes. The main one

9492-488: The most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible key components of today's global economy . Spanish ships had carried goods from the New World since Christopher Columbus 's first expedition of 1492. The organized system of convoys dates from 1564, but Spain sought to protect shipping prior to that by organizing protection around the largest Caribbean island, Cuba , and

9605-557: The mouth of the St. Johns River in Florida, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May). The French sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina. On 19 August 1563, Pedro Menéndez and his brother Bartolomé were imprisoned by the Casa de Contratación, accused of accepting bribes and smuggling silver into Spain. In September, he received news that La Concepción , flagship of

9718-495: The neuter gender in some areas, with the ending -u instead of -o ( agua friu , xenti güenu , ropa tendíu , carne guisáu ), and a distinction between direct and indirect objects in first- and second-person singular pronouns (direct me and te v. indirect mi and ti ) in some municipalities bordering the Sella: busquéte (a ti) y alcontréte/busquéti les llaves y alcontrétiles , llévame (a mi) la fesoria en carru . Asturian forms

9831-495: The overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland . Spanish goods such as oil , wine , textiles , books and tools were transported in the opposite direction. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets are considered among

9944-647: The past the Casa de Contratación had controlled this position. King Phillip II and Menéndez maintained a close relationship. The Crown invited him to be a part of the Royal Party when Phillip married Mary I, Queen of England . In 1559, Philip II again appointed Menéndez as Captain General, and his brother Bartolomé Menéndez as Admiral, of the Fleet of the Indies. He sailed for the Indies that October as captain general and commanded

10057-484: The payment of some major debts, which had negative consequences for its creditors, mostly foreign bankers. By 1690 some of these creditors could no longer offer financial support to the Crown. The Spanish monopoly over its West and East Indies colonies lasted for over two centuries. The economic importance of exports later declined with the drop in production of the American precious metal mines, such as Potosí . However,

10170-484: The period would come to $ 530 billion or €470 billion (based on silver bullion prices of May 2015). Of the 4 billion pesos produced, 2.5 billion was shipped to Europe, of which 500 million was shipped around Africa to Asia. Of the remaining 1.5 billion 650 million went directly to Asia from Acapulco and 850 million remained in the Western Hemisphere. Little of the wealth stayed in Spain. Of

10283-463: The principal town of Chiaha in southeastern Tennessee. Pardo left the expedition for other business. In 1568 all the Spanish men but one in the garrisons were killed by Native Americans resisting their treatment, and the forts were destroyed. The Spanish did not attempt other colonization in this region. Confident that he had fulfilled his primary contract with the King, including construction of forts along

10396-782: The reign of the Bourbons in the 18th century. The Spanish trade of goods was sometimes threatened by its colonial rivals, who tried to seize islands as bases along the Spanish Main and in the Spanish West Indies . However, the Atlantic trade was largely unharmed. The English acquired small islands like St Kitts in 1624; expelled in 1629, they returned in 1639 and seized Jamaica in 1655. French pirates established themselves in Saint-Domingue in 1625, were expelled, only to return later, and

10509-505: The return sailing of the treasure fleet. In 1741 Vernon's campaign against Cartagena de Indias ended in defeat, with high losses of men and ships. Spain dealt with the temporary British seizures of Havana and Manila (1762–4), during the Seven Years' War , by using a larger number of smaller fleets visiting a greater variety of ports. The end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713 marked

10622-502: The royal courts. Meanwhile, the Seville merchants and the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) were chagrined by Menéndez's success and his growing influence with the Crown. Menéndez is credited as the Spanish leader who first surveyed and authorized the building of the royal fortresses at major Caribbean ports. He was appointed by the Crown in 1554 as Captain-General of the Fleet of the Indies,

10735-568: The royal treasury with this Florida enterprise, as it was to include the development of agriculture, fisheries, and naval stores . This ambitious venture was supported materially and politically by his kinship alliance of seventeen families from northern Spain, all tied by blood relations and marriage. They pledged their persons and fortunes to the adelentado, hoping to enrich themselves later with large grants of lands and royal honors of civil and military offices in La Florida . This support gave Menéndez

10848-481: The second half of the 16th century, documents were written in Castilian, backed by the Trastámara dynasty and making the civil and ecclesiastical arms of the principality Castilian. Although the Asturian language disappeared from written texts during the sieglos escuros (dark centuries), it survived orally. The only written mention during this time is from a 1555 work by Hernán Núñez about proverbs and adages : "...in

10961-571: The settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Secure as governor, Menéndez explored the area and built additional fortifications . He also commissioned the Juan Pardo expedition, to travel from Santa Elena , at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina, into the interior of the Southeast. Captain Pardo was to find and supply an alternate overland route to

11074-490: The silver from falling into English hands. The West Indies fleet was destroyed in the Battle of Vigo Bay in 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession , when it was surprised in port unloading its goods, but the Spanish sailors had already unloaded most of its cargo, including all of its silver. None of these attacks took place in open seas. In the case of the Manila galleons, only four were ever captured by British warships:

11187-580: The voyage across the Atlantic. Once the two fleets reached the Caribbean, the fleets separated. The New Spain fleet sailed to Veracruz in Mexico to load not only silver and the valuable red dye cochineal , but also porcelain and silk shipped from China on the Manila galleons . The Asian goods were carried overland from Acapulco to Veracruz by mule train. The Tierra Firme fleet, or galeones, sailed to Cartagena to load South American products, especially silver from Potosí . Some ships went to Portobello on

11300-596: The wares and precious metals of private merchants at a rate of 20%, a tax known as the quinto real or royal fifth. By the end of the 16th century, Spain became the richest country in Europe. Much of the wealth from this trade was used by the Spanish Habsburgs to finance armies to protect its European territories in the 16th and 17th centuries against the Ottoman Empire and most of the major European powers. The flow of precious metals in and out of Spain also stimulated

11413-489: The west, where Galician-Asturian is spoken). The dialect spoken in the adjoining area of Castile and León is known as Leonese . Asturian is traditionally divided into three dialectal areas, sharing traits with the dialect spoken in León: western, central and eastern. The dialects are mutually intelligible. Central Asturian, with the most speakers (more than 80 percent), is the basis for standard Asturian. The first Asturian grammar

11526-784: The worst), are a prime target for modern treasure hunters . Many, such as the Nuestra Señora de Atocha and the Santa Margarita , have been salvaged . In August 1750, at least three Spanish merchantmen ran aground in North Carolina during a hurricane. The El Salvador sank near Cape Lookout , the Nuestra Señora De Soledad went ashore near present-day Core Banks and the Nuestra Señora De Guadalupe went ashore near present-day Ocracoke . The wreck of

11639-427: The young Menéndez won his first victory of command in an engagement with French corsairs who had attacked three slow Spanish freighters off the coast of Galicia . By effective captainship, he separated the two swift zabras (Biscayan frigates) that pursued him and captured them both, and drove away the third. The exploits of Pedro Menéndez soon became a topic of conversation on the waterfronts of Spain and France, and in

11752-404: Was being fitted at Dieppe for a voyage to Florida: it was to have more than 500 arquebusiers , and many dismounted bronze cannons were loaded aboard the vessels. After his release from prison, Menéndez was available again to serve the king's purposes. He was appointed as adelantado of La Florida , with the promise of a large land grant and the title of marquis if he was successful. He advised

11865-423: Was increasingly important after 1600. The crown legally took one fifth ( quinto real ) at the source and obtained more through other taxes. Despite the general perception that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates , relatively few ships were lost to Spain's enemies in the course of the flota's two and a half centuries of operation; more flota galleons were lost to hurricanes. Only

11978-422: Was powerless to initiate it from prison, and his petitions to King Philip II went unanswered. Spain learned of the French expedition to Florida through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. Philip II was alarmed when Dr. Gabriel de Enveja reported that Jean Ribault had been appointed as "Captain-General and Viceroy of New France". He also said that a large expedition of ships, soldiers and supplies

12091-459: Was published in 1998 and the first dictionary in 2000. Western Asturian is spoken between the rivers Navia and Nalón , in the west of the province of León (where it is known as Leonese) and in the provinces of Zamora and Salamanca . Feminine plurals end in -as and the falling diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ are maintained. Central Asturian is spoken between the Sella River and the mouth of

12204-516: Was required to explore this vast territory, which extended from the Gulf coast of present-day western Florida around the Florida keys to Newfoundland. He also was commanded by the king to establish two or three fortified presidios and settle them with settlers and slaves, and to begin the conversion of the Indians to Catholicism. In 1562, a group of Huguenots led by Jean Ribault arrived in territory claimed by Spain and called La Florida . They explored

12317-562: Was responsible for implementing royal policies to build fortifications for the defense of conquered territories in La Florida and to establish Castilian governmental institutions in desirable areas. Pedro Menéndez de Avilés was born to an old noble family in the kingdom of Asturias. He was one of the younger sons of Juan Alonso Sánchez de Avilés, who had served the Catholic Monarchs in the war of War of Granada , and María Alonso y Menéndez Arango. His parents had twenty children, and Pedro

12430-549: Was solidified by Menéndez's marriage to Carlos's sister, who took the baptismal name Doña Antonia. The peace was uneasy, and Menéndez's use of his new wife as a hostage in negotiations with her people, as well as his negotiating with the Calusas' enemies, the Tocobagas , helped cause the decline of relations to all out war, which continued intermittently into the next century. Menéndez was unsuccessful in locating his son Juan. Establishing

12543-464: Was still a child when his father died. After Doña Maria remarried, Pedro was sent to live with a relative who promised to oversee his education. Pedro and his guardian did not get along, and he ran away from home. He was found six months later in Valladolid and taken back to his foster home. Eventually Menéndez entered the military and went off to fight in one of the wars with France. He served at sea in

12656-671: Was the Caribbean Spanish West Indies fleet or Flota de Indias , which departed in two convoys from Seville , where the Casa de Contratación was based, bound for ports such as Veracruz , Portobelo and Cartagena before making a rendezvous at Havana in order to return together to Spain. A secondary route was that of the Manila Galleons or Galeón de Manila , which linked the Philippines to Acapulco in Mexico across

12769-415: Was the first successful European settlement in La Florida and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited, European-established settlement in the continental United States . Menéndez de Avilés was the first governor of La Florida (1565–74). By his contract, or asiento , with Philip II, Menéndez was appointed adelantado and

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