A series of campaigns were conducted between 1231 and 1270 by the Mongol Empire against the Goryeo dynasty of Korea . There were seven major campaigns at tremendous cost to civilian lives, the last campaign made most of Goryeo a vassal state of the Yuan dynasty for approximately 80 years. However, rebellion movements existed throughout this time and in 1274 , some Goryeo territory existed outside of Mongol control.
162-525: The Pax Mongolica (Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known as Pax Tatarica ("Tatar Peace"), is a historiographical term modeled after the original phrase Pax Romana which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. The term
324-463: A chiliarchy office at Yonghung with local officials. Ordering defectors to build ships, the Mongols began attacking the coastal islands from 1255 onward. In the Liaodong Peninsula, the Mongols eventually massed Korean defectors into a colony of 5,000 households. Mongke Khan once again sent a large army along with Prince Yeongnyeong and Hong Pok-wŏn, who had been taken hostage by Jalaltai as
486-518: A chronological form that abstained from analysis and focused on moralistic teaching. In 281 AD the tomb of King Xiang of Wei ( d. 296 BC ) was opened, inside of which was found a historical text called the Bamboo Annals , after the writing material. It is similar in style to the Spring and Autumn Annals and covers events from the mythical Yellow Emperor to 299 BC. Opinions on
648-668: A history of Egypt in Greek for the Ptolemaic royal court during the 3rd century BC. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. Early Roman works were still written in Greek, such as the annals of Quintus Fabius Pictor . However, the Origines , composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC),
810-524: A universal history , the Bibliotheca historica , that sought to explain various known civilizations from their origins up until his own day in the 1st century BC. The Chaldean priest Berossus ( fl. 3rd century BC) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I , combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form
972-539: A Korean princess called the Empress Gi became an empress through her marriage with Toghon Temür , and her son, Ayushiridara became an emperor of the Northern Yuan dynasty . The Kings of Goryeo held an important status like other important families of Mardin , Uyghurs and Mongols ( Oirat , Hongirat , and Ikeres). It is claimed that one of Goryeo monarchs was the most beloved grandson of Kublai Khan and had grown up at
1134-513: A great corpus of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state —remains a debated question. In Europe, the academic discipline of historiography was established in the 5th century BC with the Histories , by Herodotus , who thus established Greek historiography . In the 2nd century BC, the Roman statesman Cato
1296-548: A history opens with a chronological outline of court affairs, and then continues with detailed biographies of prominent people who lived during the period in question. The scope of his work extended as far back as the 16th century BC with the founding of the Shang dynasty . It included many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people. He also explored the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras. Whereas Sima's had been
1458-550: A list detailing Goryeo's crimes. The Goryeo response was an offensive against Hong Pok-wŏn to oust him from the Western Capital. Hong escaped with his family to Mongol territory in Liaoyang and Shenyang while the Western Capital's people were resettled in island locations. The Mongols appointed Hong as leader of northwestern Goryeo. By late 1233, Güyük and Prince Alchidai had defeated Puxian Wannu and in early 1234, conquered
1620-561: A massive lost-and-found system. Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads. The Yassa also decreed complete religious freedom, ensuring that Buddhists , Muslims , Christians , etc., were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation, as were doctors, lawyers, undertakers , teachers, and scholars. The Yassa did allow for flexibility and it usually adapted, absorbed, or built upon legal systems in remote parts of
1782-452: A model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first "modern historian". The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting." Gibbon's work has been praised for its style, its piquant epigrams and its effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, "I set out upon ... Gibbon's Decline and Fall of
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#17328451015941944-455: A passage or a fact were reduced to depend." In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon broke new ground in the methodical study of history: In accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ... Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as
2106-583: A pivotal role in the Mongol campaigns against Goryeo by acting as guides. At Ch'ŏlchu (in Hamgyong Province ), the men slit their throats and burned the granary and all the women and children rather than submit to the Mongols.Yongju, Sonju, and Kwakchu fell in October. The Mongols bypassed Chaju and the Western Capital ( Pyongyang ) where they encountered stiff resistance. The slave army led by Ji Gwang-su fought to
2268-487: A precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon ( c. 431 – 355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and biographical character studies in his Anabasis . The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384–322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked
2430-419: A singularly personal point of view. Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. He had a decisive impact on scholars. Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet: 19th-century French historians no longer saw history as the chronicling of royal dynasties, armies, treaties, and great men of state, but as
2592-442: A spate of local histories of the individual city-states ( poleis ), written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary. Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides, and these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity , as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures stand out: Hippias of Elis , who produced
2754-622: A specifically Christian historiography can be seen in Clement of Alexandria in the second century. The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I (see State church of the Roman Empire ) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible , encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of
2916-501: A unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon ; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius , who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war . The native Egyptian priest and historian Manetho composed
3078-509: A universal history from the beginning of time down to the time of writing, his successor Ban Gu wrote an annals-biography history limiting its coverage to only the Western Han dynasty , the Book of Han (96 AD). This established the notion of using dynastic boundaries as start- and end-points, and most later Chinese histories would focus on a single dynasty or group of dynasties. The Records of
3240-569: A vast panorama of a great period. The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England . Nineteenth century historiography, especially among American historians, featured conflicting viewpoints that represented
3402-439: Is a country that long ago even Tang Taizong personally campaigned against but was unable to defeat, but now the crown prince comes to me, it is the will of heaven!" Internal struggles within the royal court continued regarding the peace with the Mongols until 1270. Since Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn , Goryeo had been a military dictatorship , ruled by the private army of the powerful Ch'oe family. Some of these military officials formed
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#17328451015943564-758: Is classified as part of the Indosphere and the Sinosphere . The archipelago had direct contact with China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), and was a part of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires. The pre-colonial Philippines widely used the abugida system in writing and seals on documents, though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history. Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves, which did not survive, unlike inscriptions on clay, metal, and ivory did, such as
3726-598: Is important", "keen sense of drama", and "grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study". At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar effect on the study of history in Great Britain . In 1754 he published The History of England , a 6-volume work which extended "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688". Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as
3888-571: Is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization—in a word—of the human mind." Voltaire's histories used the values of the Enlightenment to evaluate the past. He helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism , religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare. Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history", citing his "scrupulous concern for truths", "careful sifting of evidence", "intelligent selection of what
4050-416: Is still in existence. Historiography was more recently defined as "the study of the way history has been and is written—the history of historical writing", which means that, "When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians." Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and
4212-609: Is used to describe the eased communication and commerce the unified administration helped to create and the period of relative peace that followed the Mongols' vast and violent conquests . The conquests of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) and his successors , spanning from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe , effectively took over the Eastern world with the Western world . The Silk Road , connecting trade centres across Asia and Europe , came under
4374-667: The Rikkokushi (Six National Histories), a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the Nihon Shoki , compiled by Prince Toneri in 720. The tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi , a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo (r. 1122–1146). It
4536-577: The Yassa ("Great Law"), decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire's society, especially those areas concerning trade and commerce. The Yassa helped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war, thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment. Theft and animal rustling were outlawed, and the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan even established
4698-715: The Arabian Sea , Persian Gulf , Red Sea , and the sea off East Africa. Along with tangible goods, people, techniques, information, and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time. For example, John of Montecorvino , archbishop of Beijing founded Roman Catholic missions in India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language. Long-distance trade brought new methods of doing business from
4860-464: The Confucian Classics . More annals-biography histories were written in subsequent dynasties, eventually bringing the number to between twenty-four and twenty-six, but none ever reached the popularity and impact of the first four. Traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles . In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time,
5022-811: The Egyptian Mamluks for political reasons. At one point in the war, the Golden Horde even fought the Persian Mongols . The eastern part of the Golden Horde, White Horde , had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan. The decentralisation occurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes. Eventually, the Persian Mongol leader Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295. This contributed to
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5184-624: The Ethiopian Empire in the Horn of Africa , Islamic histories by Muslim historians , and the Korean and Japanese historical writings based on the existing Chinese model. During the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment , historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as Voltaire , David Hume , and Edward Gibbon , who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline. In
5346-671: The Ethiopian Orthodox Church , the reigns of Iyasu II (r. 1730–1755) and Iyoas I (r. 1755–1769) were the first to be included in larger general dynastic histories. During the Renaissance , history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism . Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It
5508-608: The Jugurthine War . Livy (59 BC – 17 AD) records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire . His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history . Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch ( c. 45 – 125 AD) and Suetonius ( c. 69 – after 130 AD) who described
5670-702: The Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal . The discovery of the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines. After the Spanish conquest, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained. The interplay of pre-colonial events and
5832-643: The Middle Ages . They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , which
5994-452: The Old World , particularly Eurasia. Thomas T. Allsen noted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period. There were many significant developments in economy (especially trade and public finance), military , medicine , agriculture , cuisine , astronomy , printing , geography , and historiography , which were not limited to Eurasia but also included North Africa . Before
6156-515: The Pax Mongolica almost entirely stopped. Historiography Historiography is the study of the methods used by historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension, the term historiography is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources, techniques of research, and theoretical approaches to
6318-514: The Pax Mongolica was marked by the disintegration of the khanates and the outbreak of the Black Death in Asia which spread along trade routes to much of the world in the mid-14th century. During this time, Mongol elements including the ʼPhags-pa script made numerous appearances in Western art . Pax Mongolica followed the wake of conquests by the Mongol Empire beginning with Genghis Khan in
6480-756: The Pax Mongolica , European merchants like Marco Polo made their way from Europe to China on the well-maintained and well travelled roads that linked Anatolia to China. On the Silk Road caravans with Chinese silk ; pepper , ginger , cinnamon , and nutmeg came to the West from the Spice Islands via the transcontinental trade routes. Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well. Indian muslins, cottons, pearls, and precious stones were sold in Europe, as well as weapons, carpets, and leather goods from Iran . Gunpowder
6642-593: The Sambyeolcho Rebellion (1270–1273) and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean peninsula . Beginning with Wonjong , for approximately 80 years, Goryeo was a vassal state and compulsory ally of the Yuan dynasty . The Mongol and Korean rulers were also tied by marriages as some Mongol prince and aristocrats married Korean princesses and vice versa. During the reign of Kublai Khan , King Chungnyeol of Goryeo married one of Kublai's daughters. Later,
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6804-584: The Warring States period (403 BC) to the end of the Five Dynasties period (959) in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the "Official Histories" for the Six dynasties , Tang dynasty , and Five Dynasties , and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader. The great Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi found
6966-527: The Yam . The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean. The routes were well organised, funded, maintained, and administered by the Mongols. This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time. As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement,
7128-615: The medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history. Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who published his historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah (translated as Prolegomena ) and Kitab al-I'bar ( Book of Advice ). His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century. The earliest works of history produced in Japan were
7290-741: The wider Greek world , a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. The tradition of logography in Archaic Greece preceded the full narrative form of historiography, in which logographers such as Hecataeus of Miletus provided prose compilations about places in geography and peoples in an early form of cultural anthropology , as well as speeches used in courts of law . The earliest known fully narrative critical historical works were The Histories , composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484–425 BC) who became known as
7452-493: The " science of biography ", " science of hadith " and " Isnad " (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization . Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar (1372–1449). Historians of
7614-440: The "father of history". Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events. The generation following Herodotus witnessed
7776-495: The "telling of history" has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history ). The earliest chronologies date back to ancient Egypt and Sumerian / Akkadian Mesopotamia , in the form of chronicles and annals . However, most historical writers in these early civilizations were not known by name, and their works usually did not contain narrative structures or detailed analysis. By contrast,
7938-538: The 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size. Along with land trade routes, a Maritime Silk Road contributed to the flow of goods and establishment of a Pax Mongolica . This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China. As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high-seas route into the Indian Ocean. Eventually these routes further developed encompassing
8100-480: The 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events—the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration. In the early modern period , the term historiography meant "the writing of history", and historiographer meant " historian ". In that sense certain official historians were given the title " Historiographer Royal " in Sweden (from 1618), England (from 1660), and Scotland (from 1681). The Scottish post
8262-519: The 19th century, historical studies became professionalized at universities and research centers along with a belief that history was like a science. In the 20th century, historians incorporated social science dimensions like politics, economy, and culture in their historiography. The research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural studies . From 1975 to 1995
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#17328451015948424-478: The Asian continent was an important reason why it was able to play such a large role in the trade system. The Mongol army was easily able to assert strong rule throughout most of the empire . The military ensured that supply lines and trade routes flowed smoothly; permanent garrisons were established along trade routes to protect the travelers on these routes. Complex local systems of taxation and extortion that were prevalent before Mongol rule were abolished to ensure
8586-456: The Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in
8748-434: The Ch'oe family which spanned six decades. Afterwards, the king sued for peace with the Mongols. When the Goryeo court sent the future king Wonjong as hostage to the Mongol court and promised to return to Kaegyong , the Mongols withdrew from Central Korea. There were two parties within Goryeo: the literati party, which opposed the war with the Mongols, and the military junta—led by the Ch'oe clan—which pressed for continuing
8910-407: The Elder produced the Origines , which is the first Roman historiography . In Asia, the father and son intellectuals Sima Tan and Sima Qian established Chinese historiography with the book Shiji ( Records of the Grand Historian ), in the time of the Han Empire in Ancient China . During the Middle Ages , medieval historiography included the works of chronicles in medieval Europe ,
9072-502: The English People . Outside of Europe and West Asia, Christian historiography also existed in Africa. For instance, Augustine of Hippo , the Berber theologian and bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia ( Roman North Africa ), wrote a multiple volume autobiography called Confessions between 397 and 400 AD. While earlier pagan rulers of the Kingdom of Aksum produced autobiographical style epigraphic texts in locations spanning Ethiopia , Eritrea , and Sudan and in either Greek or
9234-468: The Goryeo border a few days later. They were received coldly by the Goryeo court. In 1224, Puxian Wannu declared independence from the Mongols and sent envoys to Goryeo to establish an alliance. Goryeo rejected the offer and over the next four years, Eastern Jurchens raided Goryeo. An attempt at peace negotiations was made in 1229 due to deteriorating relations between the Mongols and Goryeo. A Mongol delegation led by Zhuguyu had arrived in 1224 to supervise
9396-403: The Goryeo court was more apprehensive. Ultimately they agreed to provide for the Mongol forces at the urging of Cho. One thousand bushels of rice and one thousand picked troops were sent to the Mongols. They arrived in time to witness the Mongols assault the Khitans in the walled-city of Taeju. The reinforcements were received well by the Mongols. In early 1219, preparations were underway to take
9558-415: The Goryeo court. Pak Sŏ and Ch'oe Ch'unmyŏmg, defender of Chaju, were almost executed but the Mongols spared them owing to their courage, which they admired. Saritai demanded 10,000 small horses, 10,000 large horses, 10,000 bolts of purple gauze, 20,000 otter skins, and clothing for a million men army. Hostages from the king's family, provincial leaders, and high officials were also demanded. A large tribute
9720-411: The Grand Historian and Book of Han were eventually joined by the Book of the Later Han (AD 488) (replacing the earlier, and now only partially extant, Han Records from the Eastern Pavilion) and the Records of the Three Kingdoms (AD 297) to form the "Four Histories". These became mandatory reading for the Imperial Examinations and have therefore exerted an influence on Chinese culture comparable to
9882-407: The Jin as a military commander rebelled and seized a portion of Liaodong . Two years later he proclaimed himself the ruler of the Liao . Yelü Liuge was ousted by his younger brother, Yelü Sibu , and requested help from Genghis Khan against the usurper. Sibu was also usurped by one of his ministers, Yelü Qinu . In 1214, the Jin assigned Puxian Wannu to suppress the rebellion. However Puxian Wannu
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#173284510159410044-437: The Jin dynasty . In the kurultai of 1235, Ögedei Khan gave orders to attack Goryeo, Southern Song , the people west of the Volga , and to push to the edge of Kashmir . In the summer of 1235, Mongol troops raided Goryeo. Defenses were put up around Ganghwa Island and the people of the Southern Capital (modern Seoul ) and Gwangju were ordered to evacuate to the island. By late 1235, Mongol and Eastern Jurchen troops under
10206-452: The Korean ideas and technology to other areas under Mongol control. The Goryeo dynasty survived under influence of the Yuan dynasty until it began to force Yuan garrisons back starting in the 1350s, when the Yuan dynasty was already beginning to crumble, suffering from massive rebellions in China. Taking advantage of the opportunity, the Goryeo army under Goryeo king Gongmin also managed to regain some northern territories. Empress Gi sent
10368-434: The Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu (Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), posthumously published in 1219. It reduced the original's 249 chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read. Historiography of
10530-399: The Mongol and Jurchen commanders to the Yalu where the Mongols seized a large number of Goryeo horses and left. However they left behind 41 subordinates in Poju to learn the language of Goryeo and to wait for the Mongols' return. The Mongols also started collecting annual tribute from Goryeo and within two years, Gojong was advocating for the cessation of tribute payments and resistance against
10692-425: The Mongolian Khans. The Mongols invaded Korea a ninth time in 1257. Much of Goryeo was devastated after the decades of fighting. It was said that no wooden structures remained afterward in Goryeo. There was cultural destruction, and the nine-floor-tower of Hwangnyongsa and the first Tripitaka Koreana were destroyed. After seeing the Goryeo crown prince come to concede, Kublai Khan was jubilant and said "Goryeo
10854-513: The Mongols successfully invaded Korea . Two years later in 1237 Batu Khan and Subodei began their conquest of Rus' ; they invaded Poland and Hungary in 1241. In 1252 the Mongols began their invasion of Song China ; they would seize the capital of Hangzhou in 1276. In 1258 Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad . Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new people, especially foreign engineers and labourers , into their society. Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and
11016-408: The Mongols threatened Kaesong in the previous invasion, Ch'oe U sent his family to Ganghwa Island . In the spring of 1232, Ch'oe U gathered all the high officials at his residence and suggested transferring the capital to Ganghwa. A dissenter, Kim Sech'ung, was executed for speaking out against the plan. The royal family relocated to Ganghwa and commissioners were sent out to the provinces to instruct
11178-440: The Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively, thereby ensuring political and economic stability. The decline of Pax Mongolica was a result of a number of factors: incompetent and rivaling leaders, corruption, revolts, decadence , factional struggles, assassinations, external attacks, and disease. The decline of the Pax Mongolica resulted in a decline of eased trade between East and West. The Mongol Empire, near
11340-447: The Mongols' rise, the Old World system consisted of isolated imperial systems. The new Mongol empire amalgamated the once isolated civilizations into a new continental system, and re-established the Silk Road as a dominant method of transportation. The unification of Eurasia under the Mongols greatly diminished the number of competing tribute gatherers throughout the trade network and assured greater safety and security in travel. During
11502-426: The Mongols. Conditions in the northwest were poor following the Khitan raids. In the autumn of 1219, military commanders Han Sun and Ta Chi rebelled in Poju and defected to Puxian Wannu, who augmented their forces with 10,000 Eastern Jurchens. They tried to make an alliance with the Jin commander Yugexia. Yugexia invited them to a feast and killed them. Their heads were sent to Kaesong in early 1220 for which Yugexia
11664-429: The Mongols. However Ch'oe Hang did not leave Ganghwa Island. The Mongol forces withdrew when Yekü was dismissed from service due to his resentment for being attached to the forces of Prince Talaer. The Mongols later learned that top Goryeo officials remained on Ganghwa Island, and had punished those who negotiated with the Mongols. Between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under Jalairtai launched four devastating invasions in
11826-493: The Mongols. The Mongol forces split with one group heading north to attack Sakju while the other group headed down the Yalu. When the second group heading south reached Chongju , Kim Kyŏngson at first tried to fight the Mongols but the entire city had already fled, so he retreated to Kuju Castle . From Chongju, the Mongols proceeded to Inju where Hong Pok-wŏn defected and submitted the area and 1,500 households. His family later played
11988-645: The Philippines refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the Philippines . It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century. Southeast Asia
12150-406: The Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and the style. ... I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all." Gibbon was pivotal in the secularizing and 'desanctifying' of history, remarking, for example, on the "want of truth and common sense" of biographies composed by Saint Jerome . Unusually for an 18th-century historian, Gibbon
12312-459: The Western Capital fled to Chŏ Island. In the summer of 1232, the Mongol invasion led by Saritai advanced south into the Han valley without much resistance. However in an attack on Ch'ŏin-song , Saritai was killed by an arrow shot by the monk Kim Yun-hu . The Mongol army retreated, leaving Hong Pok-wŏn to supervise the territory that they had conquered. In the spring of 1233, a Mongol envoy delivered
12474-794: The Western Xia. Between 1213 and 1214 the Mongols conquered the Jin Empire , and by 1214 the Mongols had captured most of the land north of the Yellow River . In 1221 Mongol generals Jebe and Subodei began their expedition around the Caspian Sea and into Kievan Rus '; Genghis Khan defeated Turkic Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu at the Battle of Indus ; the Khwarezmian Empire were defeated that same year. In 1235
12636-551: The Yuan court. The Mongol darughachis at the court of the Goryeo were offered provisions and sometimes were also willing to actively be involved in the affairs of the Goryeo court. Even today, there are several Mongolian words used in the Jeju Island . Furthermore, the Mongol domination of Eurasia encouraged cultural exchange, and this would include for example the transmission of some of
12798-517: The Yuan emperors this was prohibited. As the Chinese culture was changing, intolerance became more common. Some Chinese thought that the Mongols were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual rituals on them. As a result many Chinese became xenophobic towards the Mongols. This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and form the Ming dynasty . The segregation and fragmentation of
12960-440: The arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting
13122-404: The attackers while using mud and water to put out fires by inflammatory projectiles. The Mongols withdrew for a time after 40 days of besieging the city only to return with reinforcements. They set up 30 catapults and breached the city wall in 50 places but they were repaired while Pak Sŏ made a successful sortie and drove off the attackers. Kuju and Chaju finally submitted after multiple orders from
13284-524: The authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries, and it was rediscovered too late to gain the same status as the Spring and Autumn Annals . Sima's Shiji ( Records of the Grand Historian ), initiated by his father the court astronomer Sima Tan (165–110 BC), pioneered the "Annals-biography" format, which would become the standard for prestige history writing in China. In this genre
13446-494: The captain, and gathered at Gapgot Daedan (甲串岸) and showed momentum to attack Ganghwa Island. However, Kim Sugang (金守剛), who had just gone to Mongolia, succeeded in persuading Mongke Khan, and the Mongols withdrew from Goryeo. In 1258, Goryeo's King Gojong and one of the retainers of the Ch'oe clan, Kim Injoon, staged a counter-coup and assassinated the head of the Ch'oe family, ending the rule of
13608-636: The command of Tanqut-Batur had taken Yonggang, Hamjong, Samdŭng, and Haep'yong (modern Sangju ). In the spring of 1236, Mongol troops moved south and took Hwangju, Sinju, and Anju. By wintertime, the Mongols had reached as far south as the Southern Capital and penetrated Cheongju . Goryeo did not attempt to field an army against the Mongols and offensive actions were limited to raids against small patrols. The people were told to evacuate to defensible locations such as mountain fortresses or island strongholds and left to fend for themselves. Ganghwa Island itself
13770-559: The commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol- ortoq partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Chinese and Marco Polo 's family. The code of Mongol law, known as
13932-467: The continent was united under one political authority. As a result, the trade routes used by merchants became safe for travel, resulting in an overall growth and expansion of trade from China in the east to Britain in the west. Thus, the Pax Mongolica greatly influenced many civilizations in Eurasia during the 13th and 14th centuries. Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across
14094-454: The death. They took Hwangju before reaching Chabi Pass, the gateway to Kaesong. Ch'oe U called up the Three Armies and levied troops from the provinces. Yugexia contributed 5,000 soldiers and even bandits entered the Goryeo army. The Three Armies under the leadership of Yi Chasŏng departed Kaesong in early October and fended off a surprise attack by 8,000 Mongol soldiers. The Goryeo army
14256-659: The deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus ( c. 56 – c. 117 AD) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage . Tacitus' focus on personal character can also be viewed as pioneering work in psychohistory . Although rooted in Greek historiography, in some ways Roman historiography shared traits with Chinese historiography , lacking speculative theories and instead relying on annalistic forms, revering ancestors , and imparting moral lessons for their audiences, laying
14418-596: The defenses. Goryeo's continued resistance resulted in another Mongol invasion in 1247. In the fall of 1247, a Mongol force commanded by Amukan and a supporting force led by Hong Pok-wŏn arrived in Yŏmju (modern Yonan County ). After Güyük Khan died in 1248, the royal hostage Wang Chŏn returned to Goryeo. The Mongols controlled the area north of the Chongchon River and raided Goryeo. The Eastern Jurchens also raided Goryeo from late 1249 to late 1250. Ch'oe U died in 1249 and
14580-411: The demands of critical method, and even, after a time, the goal of writing "scientific" history. Thomas Carlyle published his three-volume The French Revolution: A History , in 1837. The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill 's maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch. Carlyle's style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action, often using the present tense. He emphasised
14742-506: The development of historiography during the Age of Enlightenment through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues: Voltaire recast historiography in both factual and analytical terms. Not only did he reject traditional biographies and accounts that claim the work of supernatural forces, but he went so far as to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and required new investigations at
14904-455: The dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty. Christian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly Luke-Acts , which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age , though its historical reliability is disputed . The first tentative beginnings of
15066-441: The early 13th century. In the process of conquering the various tribes in the region, Genghis Khan revolutionised the way Mongolian tribal society was structured. After each new victory, more and more people were incorporated under Genghis Khan's rule, thus diversifying the societal balance of the tribe. In 1203, Genghis Khan, in an effort to strengthen his army, ordered a reform that reorganised his army's structure while breaking down
15228-554: The empire, thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability. In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced, a hierarchy of legal administration was developed. This was headed by the Secretarial Council "chung-shu-sheng" (中書省) of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as "hsing-sheng" (行省). The Xingsheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases. A police commissioner known as "hsien wei" (縣委)
15390-514: The end, the Mongols massacred the city's inhabitants. In the winter of 1253, Yekü fell ill at Chungju and returned north to recover, leaving Amukan and Hong Pok-wŏn in command of field operations. A Mongol delegation led by Mangudai met Gojong of Goryeo on the mainland at his new palace in Sŭnch'ŏn-pu. Gojong agreed to move back to the mainland and sent his stepson, Ch'ang the Duke of An'gyŏng, as hostage to
15552-438: The excuse that the king was unable to travel so far owing to his age. By the autumn of 1252, Goryeo sent orders to prepare for another invasion. In early 1253, 300 Eastern Jurchen cavalry surrounded Tŭngju in the northwest and a small raiding party was reported in the summer. Some inhabitants of Wonju who had been taken captive by the Mongols returned to Goryeo to inform the authorities that Möngke had ordered an invasion led by
15714-426: The fall of 1217. The Khitan invasion was halted after they took the city of Kangdong , where Goryeo forces managed to contain them. In the winter of 1218, 10,000 Mongol troops commanded by Hazhen and Zhala accompanied by 20,000 Eastern Jurchen troops commanded by Wanyan Ziyuan entered Goryeo from the northeast. They defeated Khitan forces in the cities of Hwaju, Maengju, Sunju, and Tŏkchu. The Mongol-Jurchen advance
15876-685: The far East to Europe; bills of exchange , deposit banking, and insurance were introduced to Europe during the Pax Mongolica . Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveller would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins. Islamic methods of mathematics , astronomy , and science made their way to Africa , East Asia and Europe during the Pax Mongolica . Methods of paper-making and printing made their way from China to Europe. Rudimentary banking systems were established, and money changing and credit extension were common, resulting in large amounts of merchant wealth. Mongolia's central geographical position on
16038-571: The fighting. The Mongols sacked cities which they had previously taken. Chŏn Kan attempted to kill the Mongols in Hamsin-chin but a certain Xiaoweisheng escaped. Chaju held out while heavy fighting occurred at Chongju. At the Siege of Kuju , Pak Sŏ led forces who had gathered from surrounding cities in a defense against the Mongols. Kim Chungon defended the eastern and western walls while Kim Kyŏngson defended
16200-483: The final successful campaign against Korea. Möngke realized that the hostage was not the blood prince of the Goryeo Dynasty. So Möngke blamed the Goryeo court for deceiving him and killing the family of Lee Hyeong, who was a pro-Mongol Korean general. Möngke's commander Jalairtai devastated much of Goryeo and took 206,800 captives in 1254. Famine and despair forced peasants to surrender to the Mongols. They established
16362-523: The first comprehensive work on historical criticism , arguing that historians should be skeptical of primary sources, rely on systematically gathered evidence, and should not treat previous scholars with undue deference. In 1084 the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of
16524-551: The flow of trade through the empire. The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less-important or more inaccessible routes. The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen. This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances. The Mongols developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate
16686-566: The groundwork for medieval Christian historiography . The Han dynasty eunuch Sima Qian (145–86 BC) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing . His work superseded the older style of the Spring and Autumn Annals , compiled in the 5th century BC, the Bamboo Annals , the Classic of History , and other court and dynastic annals that recorded history in
16848-400: The growing power of Nawruz ; a Muslim Oirat general. In China, descendants of Kublai Khan claimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming "too Chinese". This led to Yuan emperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture. Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under
17010-463: The height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367–283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius ( c. 203 – 120 BC) wrote on the rise of the Roman Republic to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view. Diodorus Siculus composed
17172-472: The history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. His short biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other—he paid special attention to Francis Bacon , Robert Boyle , Isaac Newton and William Harvey . He also argued that
17334-480: The history of ordinary French people and the landscape of France. Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), although unable to secure an academic position, was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism , a major proponent of sociological positivism , and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. He pioneered the idea of "the milieu" as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological, and social factors. Historical writing for him
17496-465: The interpretation of documentary sources. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the historiography of the United Kingdom , of WWII , of the pre-Columbian Americas , of early Islam , and of China —and different approaches to the work and the genres of history, such as political history and social history . Beginning in the nineteenth century, the development of academic history produced
17658-513: The last Khitan stronghold in Kangdong. Troops from Goryeo joined the Mongol-Jurchen force. An estimated 50,000 Khitans surrendered and opened the gates. After the fall of Kangdong, Goryeo sent a delegation to Zhala's camp as well as gifts to the Mongol commanders. Mongol envoys met with Gojong of Goryeo (reigned 1213–1259) and handed him a document without the usual formalities. Cho accompanied
17820-459: The lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos , who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost. Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set
17982-512: The lower course of the Yalu River . The Khitans requested help from Goryeo but when the request was denied, the Khitans crossed the Yalu with an estimated 90,000 men and overran the Goryeo frontier. The Khitan rebels spent 1217 pillaging southwards down the Korean peninsula before several defeats at the hand of Korean General Kim Ch'wiryŏ forced them to retreat. They turned their attention back toward
18144-405: The manes of horses , on the hair of camels , or on black rats that nestled in cargoes or in saddlebags . The Black Death is estimated to have killed one-third of China's population and 25-50% of Europe's population. Demographically weakened, the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire, which began to revolt once the plague broke out. These revolts disrupted
18306-472: The many tribes of the central Asian steppe, but it would also strengthen Mongol society as a whole. By 1206 Genghis Khan's military expansion had unified the tribes of Mongolia, and in the same year he was elected and acclaimed as the leader of Mongolia . The new Mongol empire quickly moved to annex more territory. The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against the Western Xia . In 1209 the Mongols conquered
18468-619: The native Ge'ez script , the 4th century AD Ezana Stone commemorating Ezana of Axum 's conquest of the Kingdom of Kush in Nubia also emphasized his conversion to Christianity (the first indigenous African head of state to do so). Aksumite manuscripts from the 5th to 7th centuries AD chronicling the dioceses and episcopal sees of the Coptic Orthodox Church demonstrate not only an adherence to Christian chronology but also influences from
18630-453: The neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon. Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century. In his main work Histoire de France (1855), French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) coined
18792-597: The non-Christian Kingdom of Kush, the Ptolemaic dynasty of Hellenistic Egypt , and the Yemenite Jews of the Himyarite Kingdom . The tradition of Ethiopian historiography evolved into a matured form during the Solomonic dynasty . Though works such as the 13th century Kebra Nagast blended Christian mythology with historical events in its narrative, the first proper biographical chronicle on an Emperor of Ethiopia
18954-825: The normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress. Voltaire's History of Charles XII (1731) about the Swedish warrior king ( Swedish : Karl XII) is also one of his most famous works. It is not least known as one of Napoleon's absolute favorite books. Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopédie : "One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population." Already in 1739 he had written: "My chief object
19116-458: The opportunity to control taxation and tribute . Thus, through territorial expansion, the Mongol Nation not only became an empire, but also became more technologically and economically advanced. At its height, the Mongolian empire stretched from Busan in the east to Budapest in the west, from Lithuania in the north to Vietnam in the south. This meant that an extremely large part of
19278-511: The people to take refuge in mountain citadels or coastal islands. With the transfer complete, in the summer of 1232, the Mongol darughachi on the mainland were killed. The Western Capital ( Pyongyang ) was still under the control of Hong Pok-wŏn , a Goryeo warlord who had defected to the Mongols. When the people of the Western Capital learned that the court was planning on killing the Mongol officials, they rebelled out of fear that Mongol reprisal would result in their deaths. Government officials in
19440-434: The plague was transferred from ground rodents living in southern Chinese and Burmese Himalayan foothills to Mongol soldiers when they invaded the area in 1252. In 1331 the plague was noted in China, and from East Asia it was carried west along the trade routes by merchants and Mongol soldiers who were able to so freely and quickly travel across the continent during the Pax Mongolica . Plague-infected fleas hitched rides in
19602-621: The prince Yekü, Sung-chu, Amukan, and Hong Pok-wŏn. On 3 August 1253, the Mongol forces crossed the Yalu River. By 10 August, they had crossed the Taedong River . They met no concerted opposition in the field other than defensive holdouts and raiding ambushes on their patrols. Chungju managed to hold out through a 70 day siege by the Mongols. However they were unable to break out of the city and obtain supplies. The inhabitants started starving to death and some burnt themselves and their families. In
19764-413: The production of goods and flow of trade, which ended the Pax Mongolica . Over the next 300 years, China became increasingly isolationist and inward-looking. China prohibited foreigners, foreign trade, and languages other than Chinese. Confucianism and Taoism were reinstated as the national religions, and the Chinese experienced cultural stagnation. During the early years of the Ming dynasty , despite
19926-485: The proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent. In 2007, of 5,723 faculty members in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29 percent) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25 percent) identified themselves with political history. Since
20088-578: The quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty, that was ever known amongst mankind". The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon 's monumental six-volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources , its methodology became
20250-460: The respective khanates in the Mongol Empire were not the only factors in contributing to the decline of the Pax Mongolica . The outbreak of bubonic plague , or Black Death , also played a devastating role in the decline of the Pax Mongolica . Because the Mongol Empire bridged once isolated regions, it made it easy for the Black Death to spread rapidly. Historian William H. McNeill has noted that
20412-456: The resumption of tribute missions secured a moment of respite for Goryeo until 1247. Goryeo's capital was not relocated back to the mainland despite Mongol demands. Gojong did meet Mongol envoys on the mainland a few years later, but Ch'oe U and his successors, the ones responsible for defending Goryeo, remained on the island for the rest of their lives. The momentary peace was used to send messages to southern Goryeo with instructions to prepare
20574-427: The role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's The French Revolution was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from
20736-430: The smooth flow of merchants and trade through the empire. A system of weights-and-measures was also standardised. To make the voyage on the trade routes less harrowing, the Mongols went as far as to plant trees along the roads to shade the merchants and travelers in the summer months; stone pillars were used to mark the roads where trees could not grow. The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure
20898-415: The sole rule of the Mongol Empire. It was commonly said that "a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm". Despite the political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into four khanates ( Yuan dynasty , Golden Horde , Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate ), nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century. The end of
21060-621: The source. Such an outlook was not unique in that the scientific spirit that 18th-century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested with. A rationalistic approach was key to rewriting history. Voltaire's best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in
21222-404: The south. The Mongols attacked the west, south, and north gates repeatedly. They used carts of grass and wood as well as towers to try to scale the walls but the defenders countered with molten iron, setting fire to the siege machines. They also tried to mine the city walls but the tunnel collapsed. The south wall was attacked by 15 large catapults. The defenders used their own catapults to drive off
21384-400: The subjects it covers. Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in
21546-606: The term Renaissance (meaning "rebirth" in French ), as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The 19-volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the French Revolution . His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from
21708-494: The term "historiography" is taken to refer to written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. In this limited sense, " ancient history " begins with the written history of early historiography in Classical Antiquity , established in 5th century BC Classical Greece . The earliest known systematic historical thought and methodologies emerged in ancient Greece and
21870-564: The territory of Puxian Wannu. Puxian Wannu had already been defeated by the Mongols and submitted, but when the Mongol forces withdrew, he moved further east toward the Yalu and in early 1217, declared the state of Dongxia ("Eastern Xia"). Pressured by the Jin, he fled eastward again to the lower reaches of the Tumen River . It was also there that the Khitans fled from Goryeo. The Khitans were able to gather reinforcements and then invaded Goryeo again in
22032-578: The time of its decline, consisted of many different territories. Each territory was defined as a " khanate ". Due to the isolation of the Mongolian world, many rulers in the 14th century started to focus on their own khanates. Religious intolerance was one particular factor in the decline of the Pax Mongolica . In Rus ', the Mongols (known as the Golden Horde ), gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions. The Rus' Mongols converted to Islam and joined
22194-447: The times. According to 20th-century historian Richard Hofstadter: The historians of the nineteenth century worked under the pressure of two internal tensions: on one side there was the constant demand of society—whether through the nationstate, the church, or some special group or class interest—for memory mixed with myth, for the historical tale that would strengthen group loyalties or confirm national pride; and against this there were
22356-558: The traditional clan- and kindred-based divisions that had previously fragmented the society and military. He arranged his army into arbans (inter-ethnic groups of ten), and the members of an arban were commanded to be loyal to one another regardless of ethnic origin. Ten arbans made a zuun , or a company; ten zuuns made a myangan , or a battalion; and ten myangans formed a tumen , or an army of 10,000. This decimal system organisation of Genghis Khan's strong military would prove very effective in conquering, by persuasion or force,
22518-528: The transfer of tribute. They took only the otter pelts but discarded the other items in the fields while crossing the Yalu. During their journey they were killed by bandits. Since the Mongols suspected Goryeo, relations had been terminated in early 1225. When the Mongols ordered Goryeo to attack Puxian Wannu, Goryeo did not comply. On 26 August 1231, a Mongol force led by Saritai crossed the Yalu and surrounded Hamsin-chin (Uiju). Defense General Cho Sukch'ang and Deputy Commissioner Chŏn Kan surrendered Hamsin-chin to
22680-593: The use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study. During the Age of Enlightenment , the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began. Among the many Italians who contributed to this were Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), and Cesare Baronio (1538–1607). French philosophe Voltaire (1694–1778) had an enormous influence on
22842-409: The voyages of Zheng He , trade with the rest of the world overall declined. This is attributed to wars, epidemics and widespread disruptions rather than "symbolic policy change". Economic difficulties also contributed to the decline as an important world trade player. The Black Death quickly spread to the rest of the world trade system, and the long-distance trading that was common and applauded during
23004-401: The war. When the dictator Ch'oe was murdered by the literati party, the peace treaty was concluded. The treaty permitted the maintenance of the sovereign power and traditional culture of Goryeo, implying that the Mongols gave up incorporating Goryeo under direct Mongolian control and were content to give Goryeo autonomy, but the king of Goryeo must marry a Mongolian princess and be subordinate to
23166-464: Was a search for general laws. His brilliant style kept his writing in circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passé. Mongol invasions of Korea The Yuan dynasty would exact wealth and tributes from the Goryeo kings. Despite submission to the Yuan dynasty, internal struggles among Goryeo royalty and rebellions against Yuan rule would continue, the most famous being the Sambyeolcho Rebellion . A greater amount of "stubborn resistance"
23328-461: Was also introduced to Europe from China. In the opposite direction, Europeans sent silver, fine cloth, horses, linen, and other goods to the near and far East. Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets, thus increasing the GDP of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system. Μany of the cities participating in
23490-573: Was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. The Roman historian Sallust (86–35 BC) sought to analyze and document what he viewed as the decline of the Republican Roman state and its virtues, highlighted in his respective narrative accounts of the Catilinarian conspiracy and
23652-581: Was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the Hwarang Segi written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century. The latter work is now lost. The Shitong , published around 710 by the Tang Chinese historian Liu Zhiji (661–721), was the first work to provide an outline of the entire tradition of Chinese historiography up to that point, and
23814-544: Was defeated and he himself rebelled in 1215. Based in Dongjing ("Eastern Capital"), Puxian Wannu declared the state of Dazhen ("Great Jurchen"). In the spring of 1216, Khitans fleeing from the Jin overran Puxian Wannu's territory and held the area from Dengzhou to Poju ( Uiju ). In 1216, the Mongols accompanied by Yelü Liuge chased the Khitan rebels to the Goryeo borders and launched an attack on Dafuying , located on an island in
23976-405: Was defeated at Anju , after which Goryeo started negotiations with the Mongols. However, when news that the Mongols demanded Goryeo's submission reached the court in late November, the Goryeo response was to continue resistance. Kaesong was surrounded by Mongol forces in late December. Goryeo officially submitted and the Three Armies surrendered. Goryeo's surrender did not mean an immediate end to
24138-773: Was entrusted with law enforcement and had the authority to arrest suspects. This method of federalising the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent. The Mongols established the Yam ( Mongolian : Өртөө , Örtöö , checkpoint ), the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West. Relay stations were set up every 25–30 miles or an average day's journey on horse. These stations were introduced by Ögedei Khan in 1234 and supplied fresh horses and fodder . His brothers Chagatai Khan and Tolui and his nephew Batu Khan further extended this network. The Mongol army administered
24300-458: Was heavily defended and the Mongols never attempted to take it. During the invasion, King Gojong ordered a set of printing blocks for the Buddhist canon to be created and work began in 1237. The Goryeo Daejanggyeong was completed in 1248. Some people in Goryeo defected to the Mongols. In the summer of 1238, 2,000 men under the leadership of Cho Hyŏnsŭp and Yi Wŏnu submitted to the Mongols. Cho
24462-643: Was made for Amda Seyon I (r. 1314–1344), depicted as a Christian savior of his nation in conflicts with the Islamic Ifat Sultanate . The 16th century monk Bahrey was the first in Ethiopia to produce a historical ethnography , focusing on the migrating Oromo people who came into military conflict with the Ethiopian Empire. While royal biographies existed for individual Ethiopian emperors authored by court historians who were also clerical scholars within
24624-424: Was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of these were drawn from well-known printed editions). He said, "I have always endeavoured to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith
24786-550: Was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history ( historia ). Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad 's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as
24948-410: Was presented by Goryeo but no hostages. General Saritai began withdrawing his main force to the north in the spring of 1232, leaving 72 Mongol administrative officials ( Darughachi ) stationed in various cities in northwestern Goryeo to ensure that Goryeo kept to the peace terms. They controlled almost all of modern North Pyongan Province and a great portion of South Pyongan Province as well. When
25110-510: Was put under the command of Hong Pok-wŏn. A Yi Kunsik also defected with 12 people. Negotiations were opened in the winter of 1238 with Goryeo promising eternal submission, after which the Mongols withdrew. The Mongol envoys brought a list of demands that included that the king of Goryeo present himself at the Mongol court. Goryeo's Queen Dowager had just passed away and the king used the mourning period as an excuse to avoid compliance. Many more excuses were given later including illness and that he
25272-514: Was put up by Korea and Song Dynasty towards the Mongol invasions than many others in Eurasia who were swiftly crushed by the Mongols at a lightning pace. Goryeo first encountered the Mongols in 1211 when a Goryeo envoy to the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) was killed by Mongol soldiers. Later the Mongols entered Goryeo while pursuing enemy Khitans . In 1211, the Khitan prince Yelü Liuge who had been serving
25434-456: Was rewarded greatly by the Goryeo court. However Yugexia repeatedly sacked Goryeo's border cities for several years afterward. Troops sent to Poju to restore order slew so many that another rebellion occurred four months later that required 5,000 troops to put down. Khitans who had fled into the mountains continued to raid Goryeo garrisons. In 1221, a Mongol delegation led by Zhuguyu made a list of demands while 6,000-7,000 Mongol troops arrived at
25596-403: Was stopped by a heavy snowfall that made the roads impassable. Hazhen sent a letter carried by the translator Zhao Zhongxiang to Cho Ch'ung, the Goryeo commander in charge of the northwest, requesting provisions and demanding the two nations enter an Elder-Younger Brother relationship after the subjugation of the Khitans. Cho Ch'ung and Kim Ch'wiryŏ were in favor of meeting the Mongol demands but
25758-496: Was succeeded by his son, Ch'oe Hang , who continued defending Ganghwa Island and fortifying it. People in the northwest were evacuated to Kaesong and Sŏhae Province in April 1250. When Möngke Khan ascended the throne in 1251, he repeated demands for the king of Goryeo to visit the Mongol court and for the Goryeo authorities to leave Ganghwa island and return to the old capital on the mainland. The Goryeo court refused these demands with
25920-491: Was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history. These included Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede , who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and who is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of
26082-426: Was too advanced in his age. Goryeo sent as a hostage Chŏn, the Duke of Sinan, and passed him off as the king's brother. He went to the Mongol court with a retinue of 148 men to present a petition and tribute. A royal relative, Wang Sun, the Duke of Yŏngnyŏng, was also sent as a hostage to the Mongol court while pretending to be the crown prince. The arrival of the 17-year old pretend prince at the Mongol court in 1241 and
26244-480: Was written in Latin , in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings . Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar 's (103–44 BC) de Bello Gallico exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BC) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings. Strabo (63 BC – c. 24 AD)
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