Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure :
145-580: Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Palamism or the Palamite theology comprises the teachings of Gregory Palamas (c. 1296 – 1359), whose writings defended the Eastern Orthodox practice of Hesychasm against the attack of Barlaam . Followers of Palamas are sometimes referred to as Palamites. Seeking to defend
290-399: A skete called Glossia , where he taught the ancient practice of mental prayer known as "prayer of the heart" or hesychasm . In 1326, because of the threat of Turkish invasions, he and the brethren retreated to the defended city of Thessaloniki , where he was then ordained a priest . Dividing his time between his ministry to the people and his pursuit of spiritual perfection, he founded
435-480: A "mystikos" was an initiate of a mystery religion . "Mystical" referred to secret religious rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. In early Christianity the term mystikos referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures . The liturgical dimension refers to
580-586: A council held in 1344 which excommunicated Palamas. However, the last of these councils, held in May 1351, conclusively exonerated Palamas and condemned his opponents. This synod ordered that the Metropolitans of Ephesus and Ganos be defrocked and jailed. All those who were unwilling to submit to the orthodox view were to be excommunicated and kept under surveillance at their residences. A series of anathemas were pronounced against Barlaam, Akindynos and their followers; at
725-406: A feeling of the infinite. The notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential. McGinn's emphasis on the transformation that occurs through mystical activity relates to this idea of "presence" instead of "experience": This
870-423: A further distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation. In early Christianity the term "mystikos" referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. The liturgical dimension refers to
1015-501: A lasting influence on Eastern Christian thought, further develops the idea that the spiritual realities can be found through allegorical readings of the scriptures (along the lines of Jewish aggadah tradition), but he focuses his attention on the cross and on the importance of imitating Christ through the cross, especially through spiritual combat and asceticism. Origen stresses the importance of combining intellect and virtue ( theoria and praxis ) in our spiritual exercises, drawing on
1160-558: A legitimate expression of Orthodox tradition." Palamas's opponents in the hesychast controversy spread slanderous accusations against him, and in 1344 Patriarch John XIV imprisoned him for four years. However, in 1347 when Patriarch Isidore came to the Ecumenical Throne, Gregory was released from prison and consecrated as the Metropolitan of Thessalonica . However, since the conflict with Barlaam had not been settled at that point,
1305-411: A legitimate expression of Orthodox tradition." In Eastern Orthodoxy, theology is not treated as an academic pursuit; instead, it is based on revelation (see gnosiology ), meaning that Orthodox theology and its theologians are validated by ascetic pursuits, rather than academic degrees (i.e. scholasticism ). John Romanides quotes Saint Gregory of Nazianzus as asserting that one cannot be a genuine or
1450-677: A member of the Greek-speaking community there. It is disputed whether he was raised as an Orthodox Christian or converted to the Orthodox faith. He worked for a time on commentaries on Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite under the patronage of John VI Kantakouzenos . Around 1336, Gregory Palamas received copies of treatises written by Barlaam against the Latins, condemning their insertion of the Filioque into
1595-499: A monk and priest at Mount Athos who was opposed to the Palamites. Kydones had written a number of anti-Palamist treatises and continued to argue forcefully against Palamism even when brought before the patriarch and enjoined to adhere to the orthodox doctrine. Finally, in exasperation, Philotheos convened a synod against Kydones in April 1368. However, even this extreme measure failed to effect
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#17328523668451740-431: A personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress. Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is often shaped by cultural issues. For instance, Caroline Bynum has shown how, in the late Middle Ages, miracles attending
1885-459: A process that is embedded in a total religious matrix of liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals and practices. Richard King also points to disjunction between "mystical experience" and social justice: The privatisation of mysticism – that is, the increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of personal experiences – serves to exclude it from political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as
2030-511: A small community of hermits near Thessaloniki in a place called Veria . He served for a short time as Abbot of the Esphigmenou Monastery but was forced to resign in 1335 due to discontentment regarding the austerity of his monastic administration. Hesychasm attracted the attention of Barlaam , a man who either converted to Orthodoxy or was baptized Orthodox who encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices during
2175-405: A stage of illumination on the path to theosis , in which one beholds God. Theosis is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer resulting from the cultivation of watchfulness (Gk: nepsis ). In its purest form, theoria is considered as the 'beholding', 'seeing' or 'vision' of God. Following Christ's instruction to "go into your room or closet and shut the door and pray to your father who
2320-435: A true theologian or teach knowledge of God without having experienced God, as is defined as the vision of God ( theoria ). Theoria is obtained according to Eastern Orthodox theology by way of contemplative prayer called hesychasm and is the vision of God as the uncreated light i.e. the light of Tabor . Palamas himself explicitly stated that he had seen the uncreated light of Tabor and had the vision of God called theoria. Theosis
2465-399: A type of " insight ", theoria was the act of perceiving in the wording and "story" of Scripture a moral and spiritual meaning," and may be regarded as a form of allegory. The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers on Origen ( c. 185 – c. 253 ) and Clement of Alexandria (150–215 AD). Clement was an early Christian humanist who argued that reason
2610-538: A visit to Mount Athos ; he had also read the writings of Palamas, himself an Athonite monk. Trained in Western Scholastic theology, Barlaam was scandalized by hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings. As a private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the hesychasts taught. On
2755-550: Is Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church , who was not affected by any of these reforms initially. But her main printing center in Kyiv was affected by Peter the First censorship laws banning the use of any church books not conforming to Nikonian editions . At the Synod of Zamość it was agreed to obey this policy , but out of the new celebrations included in those books, only the office of Gregory Palamas
2900-525: Is a central element of Eastern Orthodox theology , being made into dogma in the Eastern Orthodox Church by the Hesychast councils . Palamism has been described as representing "the deepest assimilation of the monastic and dogmatic traditions, combined with a repudiation of the philosophical notion of the exterior wisdom". Historically, Western Christianity has tended to reject Palamism, especially
3045-508: Is a form of constant purposeful prayer or experiential prayer, explicitly referred to as contemplation . It is to focus one's mind on God and pray to God unceasingly. Under church tradition the practice of Hesychasm has it beginnings in the Bible, Matthew 6:6 and the Philokalia . The tradition of contemplation with inner silence or tranquility is shared by all Eastern asceticism having its roots in
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#17328523668453190-722: Is briefly revealed in his heavenly glory, also become important images for meditation. Moreover, many of the Christian texts build on Jewish spiritual foundations, such as chokmah , shekhinah . But different writers present different images and ideas. The Synoptic Gospels (in spite of their many differences) introduce several important ideas, two of which are related to Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/ gnosis by virtue of being mental acts: purity of heart, in which we will to see in God's light; and repentance , which involves allowing God to judge and then transform us. Another key idea presented by
3335-677: Is celebrated twice a year, on 14 November, the anniversary of his death, and on the Second Sunday of Great Lent , because Gregory's victory over Barlaam is seen as a continuation of the Triumph of Orthodoxy , i.e., the victory of the Church over heresy , celebrated the previous Sunday. Gregory's relics rest in the Church of Saint Gregory Palamas in Thessaloniki. The first printed Church Slavonic editions of
3480-440: Is considered achievable only through a synergy (or cooperation) between humans' activities and God's uncreated energies (or operations). Theosis results from leading a pure life, practicing restraint and adhering to the commandments, putting the love of God before all else. This metamorphosis (transfiguration) or transformation results from a deep love of God . Theoria is achieved by the pure of heart who are no longer subject to
3625-524: Is considered the most important of ancient philosophers, and his philosophical system provides the basis of most later mystical forms. Plotinus (c. 205 – 270 AD) provided the non-Christian, neo-Platonic basis for much Christian, Jewish and Islamic mysticism . For Plato , what the contemplative ( theoros ) contemplates ( theorei ) are the Forms , the realities underlying the individual appearances, and one who contemplates these atemporal and aspatial realities
3770-517: Is contemplation. ... Contemplation is therefore the end of action" and "Such is the life of the divinity and of divine and blessed men: detachments from all things here below, scorn of all earthly pleasures, the flight of the lone to the Alone." The Christian scriptures, insofar as they are the founding narrative of the Christian church, provide many key stories and concepts that become important for Christian mystics in all later generations: practices such as
3915-493: Is deification obtained through the practice of Hesychasm and theoria is one of its last stages as theosis is catharsis, theoria, and then completion of deification or theosis. The most recent set of anathemas that were added to the Synodikon of Orthodoxy is titled "Chapters against Barlaam and Akindynos"; these contain anathemas and acclamations that are the expression of the official Palamist doctrine. The Synodikon thus canonizes
4060-527: Is derived from contemplation. The first hypostasis, the One, is contemplation (by the nous, or second hypostasis) in that "it turns to itself in the simplest regard, implying no complexity or need"; this reflecting back on itself emanated (not created) the second hypostasis, Intellect (in Greek Νοῦς, Nous ), Plotinus describes as "living contemplation", being "self-reflective and contemplative activity par excellence", and
4205-581: Is described as a "loving contemplation", and, according to Thomas Keating , the Greek Fathers of the Church, in taking over from the Neoplatonists the word theoria , attached to it the idea expressed by the Hebrew word da'ath , which, though usually translated as "knowledge", is a much stronger term, since it indicates the experiential knowledge that comes with love and that involves the whole person, not merely
4350-505: Is enriched with a perspective on ordinary things superior to that of ordinary people. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as contemplation of the stars, with practical effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms. In the Enneads of Plotinus (c.204/5–270 CE), a founder of Neoplatonism , everything is contemplation ( theoria ) and everything
4495-472: Is in relation to the creation and to man), as God reveals himself to humanity. In doing so, he made reference to the Cappadocian Fathers and other earlier Christian writers and Church fathers . While critics of his teachings argue that this introduces an unacceptable division in the nature of God, Palamas' supporters argue that this distinction was not an innovation but had in fact been introduced in
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4640-685: Is in secret" (Matthew 6:6), the hesychast withdraws into solitude in order that he or she may enter into a deeper state of contemplative stillness. By means of this stillness, the mind is calmed, and the ability to see reality is enhanced. The practitioner seeks to attain what the apostle Paul called 'unceasing prayer'. Gregory Palamas Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Gregory Palamas ( Greek : Γρηγόριος Παλαμᾶς ; c. 1296 – 1359 )
4785-460: Is less interested in knowledge, preferring to emphasize the hiddenness, the "mystery" of God's plan as revealed through Christ. But Paul's discussion of the Cross differs from John's in being less about how it reveals God's glory and more about how it becomes the stumbling block that turns our minds back to God. Paul also describes the Christian life as that of an athlete, demanding practice and training for
4930-549: Is looking at, gazing at, aware of divine realities." Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between the Greek idea of theoria and the Indian idea of darśana (darshan), including Ian Rutherford and Gregory Grieve. "Mysticism" is derived from the Greek μύω, meaning "to conceal," and its derivative μυστικός , mystikos , meaning "an initiate." In the Hellenistic world,
5075-517: Is more accurate than "union," since not all mystics spoke of union with God, and since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to union. McGinn also argues that we should speak of "consciousness" of God's presence, rather than of "experience", since mystical activity is not simply about the sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly about ...new ways of knowing and loving based on states of awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts. William James popularized
5220-428: Is the most important aspect of human existence and that gnosis (not something we can attain by ourselves, but the gift of Christ) helps us find the spiritual realities that are hidden behind the natural world and within the scriptures. Given the importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within God's love, which is seen as a form of truth. Origen, who had
5365-555: Is the tradition of mystical practices and mystical theology within Christianity which "concerns the preparation [of the person] for, the consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a direct and transformative presence of God " or divine love . Until the sixth century the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred to by the term contemplatio , c.q. theoria , from contemplatio ( Latin ; Greek θεωρία , theoria ), "looking at", "gazing at", "being aware of" God or
5510-564: Is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light. Historically, Western Christianity has tended to reject the essence–energies distinction, characterizing it as a heretical introduction of an unacceptable division in the Trinity and suggestive of polytheism. Further, the associated practice of hesychasm used to achieve theosis
5655-510: Is understood as "a gift of the Holy Spirit that enables us to know Christ" through meditating on the scriptures and on the cross of Christ. (This understanding of gnosis is not the same as that developed by the Gnostics , who focused on esoteric knowledge that is available only to a few people but that allows them to free themselves from the evil world. ) These authors also discuss the notion of
5800-473: Is why the only test that Christianity has known for determining the authenticity of a mystic and her or his message has been that of personal transformation, both on the mystic's part and—especially—on the part of those whom the mystic has affected. Parsons points out that the stress on "experience" is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, instead of the shared life on the community. It also fails to distinguish between episodic experience, and mysticism as
5945-631: The Catholic Church , he has also been called a saint; Pope John Paul II repeatedly called Gregory a great theological writer. Since 1971, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church has venerated Gregory as a saint. Some of his writings are collected in the Philokalia , and since the Ottoman period, the second Sunday of Great Lent is dedicated to the memory of Gregory Palamas in most branches of
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6090-599: The Eucharist , baptism and the Lord's Prayer all become activities that take on importance for both their ritual and symbolic values. Other scriptural narratives present scenes that become the focus of meditation: the crucifixion of Jesus and his appearances after his resurrection are two of the most central to Christian theology; but Jesus' conception, in which the Holy Spirit overshadows Mary, and his transfiguration , in which he
6235-647: The Fifth Council of Constantinople and the Ninth Ecumenical Council. The dispute over Hesychasm came before a synod held at Constantinople in May 1341 and presided over by the emperor Andronicus III . The assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, condemned Barlaam, who recanted . Although Barlaam initially hoped for a second chance to present his case against Palamas, he soon realised
6380-523: The Nicene Creed . Although this condemnation was solid Eastern Orthodox theology, Palamas took issue with Barlaam's argument in support of it, since Barlaam declared efforts at demonstrating the nature of God (specifically, the nature of the Holy Spirit) should be abandoned, because God is ultimately unknowable and undemonstrable to humans. Thus, Barlaam asserted that it was impossible to determine from whom
6525-670: The Orthodox church , while in others and in Eastern Catholic Churches it's a disputed issue (see below). Gregory was born in Constantinople around the year 1296. His father, Constantine, was a courtier of the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos (1282–1328), but died when Gregory was still young. The Emperor himself took part in the raising and education of the fatherless boy and hoped that
6670-789: The Stoics and Essenes with the active lives of virtue and community worship found in Platonism and the Therapeutae . Using terms reminiscent of the Platonists, Philo described the intellectual component of faith as a sort of spiritual ecstasy in which our nous (mind) is suspended and God's spirit takes its place. Philo's ideas influenced the Alexandrian Christians, Clement , and Origen , and through them, Gregory of Nyssa . Inspired by Christ's teaching and example, men and women withdrew to
6815-726: The Triodion did not include the Sunday of Gregory Palamas until liturgical reforms of Petro Mohyla who, inter alia, aimed to update Kievan use of the Byzantine rite to then-contemporary version of its Greek counterpart. Mohyla's reforms inspired subsequent Nikon's reforms that brought liturgical veneration of Gregory Palamas to Moscow. But the liturgical uses of communities that did not accept these reforms or were not affected by them, namely Old Believers and Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church , did not traditionally have this celebration. A special case
6960-493: The civil war between the supporters of John VI Kantakouzenos and the regents for John V Palaeologus was not primarily a religious conflict, the theological dispute between the supporters and opponents of Palamas did play a role in the conflict. Although several significant exceptions leave the issue open to question, in the popular mind (and traditional historiography), the supporters of "Palamism" and of "Kantakouzenism" are usually equated. Steven Runciman points out that "while
7105-710: The "two ways", that is, the way of life and the way of death; this idea has biblical roots, being found in both the Sermon on the Mount and the Torah . The two ways are then related to the notion of purity of heart, which is developed by contrasting it against the divided or duplicitous heart and by linking it to the need for asceticism, which keeps the heart whole/pure. Purity of heart was especially important given perceptions of martyrdom, which many writers discussed in theological terms, seeing it not as an evil but as an opportunity to truly die for
7250-452: The 4th century writings of the Cappadocian Fathers . Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated . He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creature even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God. In Palamite theology, it
7395-446: The Areopagite as their authority, their interpretations were radically different. Barlaam cited Dionysius' Mystical Theology to support the argument that God is unspeakable and therefore unknowable. Palamas cited Dionysius as a patristic authority that professed distinctions in God that Barlaam did not acknowledge. Steven Runciman reports that, infuriated by Palamas' attacks against him, Barlaam vowed to humiliate Palamas by attacking
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#17328523668457540-756: The Byzantine mystics. However, Barlaam's triumph was short-lived. Ultimately, the Byzantines had a deep respect for mysticism even if they didn't understand it. And, in Palamas, Barlaam found an opponent who, in Runciman's opinion, was more than his equal in knowledge, intellect and expository skills. In response to Barlaam's attacks, Palamas wrote nine treatises entitled "Triads For The Defense of Those Who Practice Sacred Quietude". The treatises are called "Triads" because they were organized as three sets of three treatises. The Triads were written in three stages. The first triad
7685-518: The Calabrian on the issue of the Hellenic wisdom which he considers to be the main source of Barlaam's errors." Although the civil war between the supporters of John VI Kantakouzenos and the regents for John V Palaeologus was not primarily a religious conflict, the theological dispute between the supporters and opponents of Palamas did play a role in the conflict. Steven Runciman points out that "while
7830-425: The Eastern Church, condemned Barlaam, who recanted . The ecumenical patriarch insisted that all of Barlaam's writings be destroyed and thus no complete copies of Barlaam's treatise "Against Messalianism" have survived. Barlaam's primary supporter Emperor Andronicus III died just five days after the synod ended. Although Barlaam initially hoped for a second chance to present his case against Palamas, he soon realised
7975-716: The Eastern Orthodox Church. During this period, it became the norm for ecumenical patriarchs to profess the Palamite doctrine upon taking possession of their see. For theologians who remained in opposition, there was ultimately no choice but to emigrate and convert to the Latin church, a path taken by Kalekas as well as Demetrios Kydones and Ioannes Kypariossiotes . According to Aristeides Papadakis, "all (modern) Orthodox scholars who have written on Palamas — Lossky, Krivosheine, Papamichael, Meyendorff, Christou — assume his voice to be
8120-482: The Egyptian traditions of monasticism exemplified by such Orthodox monastics as St Anthony of Egypt . In the early 14th century, Gregory Sinaita learned hesychasm from Arsenius of Crete and spread the doctrine, bringing it to the monks on Mount Athos . The terms Hesychasm and Hesychast were used by the monks on Mount Athos to refer to the practice and to the practitioner of a method of mental ascesis that involves
8265-450: The Fathers of the Church. This exercise, which for the early Fathers represented just a training for repose, the later Byzantines developed into a spiritual work of its own, attaching to it technical requirements and various stipulations that became a matter of serious theological controversy (see below ), and remain of great interest to Byzantine, Russian and other eastern churches. Hesychasm
8410-430: The Hesychast teaching for which Palamas had become the chief proponent. Barlaam visited Thessalonica, where he made the acquaintance of monks who followed the Hesychast teachings. Runciman describes these monks as ignorant and lacking a real understanding of the Hesychast teaching. Barlaam issued a number of treatises mocking the absurdity of the practices which he reported included, "miraculous separations and reunions of
8555-573: The Holy Spirit proceeds. According to Sara J. Denning-Bolle, Palamas viewed Barlaam's argument as "dangerously agnostic". In his response titled "Apodictic Treatises", Palamas insisted that it was indeed demonstrable that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father but not from the Son. A series of letters ensued between the two but they were unable to resolve their differences amicably. According to J. Konstantinovsky, although both Barlaam and Palamas claimed Dionysius
8700-478: The Synoptics in stressing knowledge or John in stressing love. In his letters, Paul also focuses on mental activities, but not in the same way as the Synoptics, which equate renewing the mind with repentance. Instead, Paul sees the renewal of our minds as happening as we contemplate what Jesus did on the cross, which then opens us to grace and to the movement of the Holy Spirit into peoples' hearts. Like John, Paul
8845-433: The Synoptics is the desert, which is used as a metaphor for the place where we meet God in the poverty of our spirit. The Gospel of John focuses on God's glory in his use of light imagery and in his presentation of the cross as a moment of exaltation; he also sees the cross as the example of agape love, a love which is not so much an emotion as a willingness to serve and care for others. But in stressing love, John shifts
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#17328523668458990-547: The Tome does not mention Barlaam by name, the work clearly takes aim at Barlaam's views. The Tome provides a systematic presentation of Palamas' teaching and became the fundamental textbook for Byzantine mysticism. Barlaam also took exception to the doctrine held by the Hesychasts as to the uncreated nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice, regarding it as heretical and blasphemous . It
9135-547: The West and by those in the East who favoured union with the West (the "Latinophrones"), actually contributed to its acceptance in the East, according to Martin Jugie , who adds: "Very soon Latinism and Antipalamism, in the minds of many, would come to be seen as one and the same thing". An exercise long used among Christians for acquiring contemplation, one "available to everyone, whether he be of
9280-462: The afflictions of the passions. It is a gift from the Holy Spirit to those who, through observance of the commandments of God and ascetic practices (see praxis , kenosis , Poustinia and schema ), have achieved dispassion. According to the standard ascetic formulation of this process, there are three stages: katharsis or purification , theoria or illumination , and theosis or deification (also referred to as union with God ). Palamism uses
9425-461: The anti-Palamists. When Kantakouzenos was deposed in 1354, the anti-Palamists were not able to again prevail over the Palamists as they had in the past. Martin Jugie attributes this to the fact that, by this time, the patriarchs of Constantinople and the overwhelming majority of the clergy and laity had come to view the cause of Hesychasm as one and the same with that of Orthodoxy. It became clear that
9570-429: The assertion that humans can become like God through deification without compromising God's transcendence , Palamas distinguished between God's inaccessible essence and the energies through which he becomes known and enables others to share his divine life. The central idea of the Palamite theology is a distinction between the divine essence and the divine energies that is not a merely conceptual distinction. Palamism
9715-523: The clergy or of any secular occupation", involves focusing the mind by constant repetition of a phrase or word. Saint John Cassian recommended use of the phrase "O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to help me". Another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus, or the Jesus Prayer , which has been called "the mantra of the Orthodox Church", although the term "Jesus Prayer" is not found in
9860-478: The course of three major controversies, (1) with the Italo-Greek Barlaam between 1336 and 1341, (2) with the monk Gregory Akindynos between 1341 and 1347, and (3) with the philosopher Gregoras , from 1348 to 1355. His theological contributions are sometimes referred to as Palamism , and his followers as Palamites. Gregory has been venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church since 1368. Within
10005-411: The demise of the Elder Nicodemus, Gregory spent eight years of spiritual struggle under the guidance of a new Elder, Nicephorus. After this last Elder's repose, Gregory transferred to the Great Lavra of St. Athanasius the Athonite on Mount Athos, where he served the brethren in the trapeza (refectory) and in church as a cantor . Wishing to devote himself more fully to prayer and asceticism he entered
10150-482: The deserts of Sketes where, either as solitary individuals or communities, they lived lives of austere simplicity oriented towards contemplative prayer . These communities formed the basis for what later would become known as Christian monasticism . The Eastern church then saw the development of monasticism and the mystical contributions of Gregory of Nyssa , Evagrius Ponticus , and Pseudo-Dionysius . Monasticism, also known as anchoritism (meaning "to withdraw")
10295-446: The dispute between Barlaam and Palamas was irreconcilable and would require the judgment of an episcopal council. A series of six patriarchal councils, also known as the Hesychast synods, was held in Constantinople on 10 June and August 1341, 4 November 1344, 1 and 8 February 1347 and 28 May 1351 to consider the issues. Collectively, these councils are accepted as having ecumenical status by some Eastern Orthodox Christians , who call them
10440-527: The divine life) and also God's relation with creatures, to whom they communicate the divine life. According to Palamas, God's essence and his energies are differentiated from all eternity, and the distinction between them is not merely a distinction drawn by the human mind. He maintained the Orthodox doctrine that it remains impossible to know God in His essence (to know who God is in and of Himself), but possible to know God in His energies (to know what God does, and who He
10585-427: The divine. Christianity took up the use of both the Greek ( theoria ) and Latin ( contemplatio , contemplation) terminology to describe various forms of prayer and the process of coming to know God. Contemplative practices range from simple prayerful meditation of holy scripture (i.e. Lectio Divina ) to contemplation on the presence of God, resulting in theosis (spiritual union with God) and ecstatic visions of
10730-402: The ecumenical patriarchs who succeeded him mounted a vigorous campaign to have the new doctrine accepted by the other Eastern patriarchates as well as all the metropolitan sees under their jurisdiction. However, it took some time to overcome initial resistance to the doctrine. Manuel Kalekas reports on this repression as late as 1397. Examples of resistance included the metropolitan of Kiev and
10875-479: The end of the fourteenth century, Palamism had become accepted there. Similar acts of resistance were seen in the metropolitan sees that were governed by the Latins as well as in some autonomous ecclesiastical regions, such as the Church of Cyprus . One notable example of the campaign to enforce the orthodoxy of the Palamist doctrine was the action taken by Patriarch Philotheos I to crack down on Prochoros Kydones ,
11020-477: The essence–energies distinction to explain how theosis is possible despite God's transcendence. According to Palamism, the divine essence remains transcendent and inaccessible, even after the Incarnation and the sending of the Holy Spirit . Theosis is possible because of God's energies, "through which God becomes known to us and makes us share in the divine life". In Eastern Orthodox theology, theoria refers to
11165-620: The essence–energies distinction, sometimes characterizing it as a heretical introduction of an unacceptable division in the Trinity. Further, the practices used by the later hesychasts to achieve theosis were characterized as "magic" by the Western Christians. More recently, some Roman Catholic thinkers have taken a positive view of Palamas's teachings, including the essence–energies distinction, arguing that it does not represent an insurmountable theological division between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. The rejection of Palamism by
11310-501: The eventual triumph of Kantakouzenos in 1347 also brought with it the conclusive triumph of the Palamists over the anti-Palamists. It became clear that the dispute between Barlaam and Palamas was irreconcilable and would require the judgment of an episcopal council. A series of six patriarchal councils were held in Constantinople on 10 June 1341, August 1341, 4 November 1344, 1 February 1347, 8 February 1347, and 28 May 1351 to consider
11455-444: The following concepts: In Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery , Da'at (knowledge) became gnosis , and poverty became an important component of monasticism . The term theoria was used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the act of experiencing or observing, and then comprehending through nous . The influences of Greek thought are apparent in the earliest Christian mystics and their writings. Plato (428–348 BC)
11600-521: The futility of pursuing his cause, and left for Calabria where he converted to the Roman Catholic Church and was appointed Bishop of Gerace . After Barlaam's departure, Gregory Akindynos became the chief critic of Palamas. A second council held in Constantinople in August 1341 condemned Akindynos and affirmed to findings of the earlier council. Akindynos and his supporters gained a brief victory at
11745-455: The futility of pursuing his cause, and left for Calabria where he converted to the Roman Church and was appointed Bishop of Gerace . After Barlaam's departure, Gregory Akindynos became the chief critic of Palamas. A second council held in Constantinople in August 1341 condemned Akindynos and affirmed the findings of the earlier council. Akindynos and his supporters gained a brief victory at
11890-557: The gifted Gregory would devote himself to government service, but Palamas chose monastic life on Mt. Athos. Gregory's mother (Kalloni) and siblings (Theodosios, Makarios, Epicharis, and Theodoti) would also embrace monasticism, and the entire family was canonized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 2009. Before leaving for Mt. Athos, Gregory received a broad education at the University of Constantinople , including
12035-531: The goal of spiritual growth away from knowledge/ gnosis , which he presents more in terms of Stoic ideas about the role of reason as being the underlying principle of the universe and as the spiritual principle within all people. Although John does not follow up on the Stoic notion that this principle makes union with the divine possible for humanity, it is an idea that later Christian writers develop. Later generations will also shift back and forth between whether to follow
12180-428: The hands of monks who were inadequately instructed and ignorant of the true Hesychast teaching, the psycho-physical precepts of Hesychasm could produce "dangerous and ridiculous results". To many of the Byzantine intellectuals, Hesychasm appeared "shockingly anti-intellectual". Barlaam nicknamed the Hesychasts " Omphaloscopoi " (the navel-gazers); the nickname has coloured the tone of most subsequent Western writing about
12325-414: The heresy of Messalianism , also known as Bogomilism in the East. According to Meyendorff, Barlaam viewed "any claim of real and conscious experience of God as Messalianism". Barlaam also took exception to the doctrine held by the hesychasts as to the uncreated nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of hesychast practice, regarding it as heretical and blasphemous . It
12470-436: The hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by Palamas who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. Palamas was well-educated in Greek philosophy. Gregory wrote a number of works in its defense and defended hesychasm at six different synods in Constantinople ultimately triumphing over its attackers in the synod of 1351. Although Barlaam came from southern Italy, his ancestry
12615-592: The image of Moses and Aaron leading the Israelites through the wilderness, and he describes our union with God as the marriage of our souls with Christ the Logos , using the wedding imagery from the Song of Songs . Alexandrian mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and Neoplatonism and therefore share some of the same ideas, images, etc. in spite of their differences. Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE – c. 50 CE)
12760-401: The influence of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (late 5th to early 6th century) the mystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible, and "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond the theology of divine names." Pseudo-Dionysius' apophatic theology , or "negative theology", exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity. It
12905-505: The issues. Collectively, these councils are accepted as having ecumenical status by Orthodox Christians , some of whom call them the Fifth Council of Constantinople and the Ninth Ecumenical Council. The dispute over hesychasm came before a synod held at Constantinople in May 1341 and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus III . The assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius were held in
13050-441: The larger vision that had become obscured by the minutiae of the debates." Sinkewicz asserts that "among the polemical works of Palamas, the "Capita 150" is comparable only in importance to "The Triads". When Isidore I died in 1349, the Hesychasts replaced him by one of their monks, Callistus . In May 1351, a patriarchal council conclusively exonerated Palamas and condemned his opponents. All those who were unwilling to submit to
13195-483: The liturgical mystery of the Eucharist , the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God. Bernard McGinn defines Christian mysticism as: [T]hat part, or element, of Christian belief and practice that concerns the preparation for, the consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a direct and transformative presence of God. McGinn argues that "presence"
13340-429: The liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God. The 9th century saw the development of mystical theology through the introduction of the works of sixth-century theologian Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite , such as On Mystical Theology . His discussion of the via negativa was especially influential. Under
13485-508: The mind. Among the Greek Fathers, Christian theoria was not contemplation of Platonic Ideas nor of the astronomical heavens of Pontic Heraclitus, but "studying the Scriptures", with an emphasis on the spiritual sense. Later, contemplation came to be distinguished from intellectual life, leading to the identification of θεωρία or contemplatio with a form of prayer distinguished from discursive meditation in both East and West. Some make
13630-541: The minds of many Orthodox Christians. However, although the Barlaamites could no longer win over the hierarchy of the Eastern Orthodox Church in a synod, neither did they submit immediately to the new doctrine. Throughout the second half of the fourteenth century, there are numerous reports of Christians returning from the "Barlaamite heresy" to Palamite orthodoxy, suggesting that the process of imposing universal acceptance of Palamism spanned several decades. Callistus I and
13775-569: The monks had claimed to see the divine essence with bodily eyes, which he viewed as sheer Messalianism . When asked about the light which they saw, the monks told him that it was neither of the superessential Essence nor an angelic essence nor the Spirit itself, but that the spirit contemplated it as another hypostasis. Barlaam commented snidely, "I must confess that I do not know what this light is. I only know that it does not exist." According to Runciman, Barlaam's attack struck home. He had shown that, in
13920-590: The norm for ecumenical patriarchs to profess the Palamite doctrine upon taking possession of their see. Martin Jugie states that the opposition of the Latins and the Latinophrones, who were necessarily hostile to the doctrine, actually contributed to its adoption, and soon Latinism and Antipalamism became equivalent in the minds of many Orthodox Christians. According to Aristeides Papadakis, "all Orthodox scholars who have written on Palamas — Lossky, Krivosheine, Papamichael, Meyendorff, Christou — assume his voice to be
14065-533: The orthodox view were to be excommunicated and kept under surveillance at their residences. A series of anathemas were pronounced against Barlaam, Akindynos and their followers; at the same time, a series of acclamations were also declared in favor of Gregory Palamas and the adherents of his doctrine. After the triumph of the Palæologi, the Barlaamite faction convened an anti-Hesychast synod at Ephesus but, by this time,
14210-445: The orthodoxy of the Palamist doctrine was the action taken by patriarch Philotheos I to crack down on Demetrios and Prochorus Cydones. The two brothers had continued to argue forcefully against Palamism even when brought before the patriarch and enjoined to adhere to the orthodox doctrine. Finally, in exasperation, Philotheos convened a synod against the two Cydones in April 1368. However, even this extreme measure failed to effect
14355-571: The other Eastern patriarchates as well as all the metropolitan sees under their jurisdiction. However, it took some time to overcome initial resistance to his teachings. For example, the Metropolitan of Kiev, upon receiving tomes from Kallistos that expounded the Palamist doctrine, rejected it vehemently and composed a reply in refutation. Similarly, the Patriarchate of Antioch remained steadfastly opposed to what they viewed as an innovation; however, by
14500-475: The particular cultural and theological issues of the time. The idea of mystical realities has been widely held in Christianity since the second century AD, referring not simply to spiritual practices, but also to the belief that their rituals and even their scriptures have hidden ("mystical") meanings. The link between mysticism and the vision of the divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers , who used
14645-402: The patriarch of Antioch; similar acts of resistance were seen in the metropolitan sees that were governed by the Latins as well as in some autonomous ecclesiastical regions, such as the Church of Cyprus . However, by the end of the fourteenth century, Palamism had become accepted in those locations as well as in all the other Eastern patriarchates. One notable example of the campaign to enforce
14790-438: The patriarchs of Constantinople and the overwhelming majority of the clergy and laity had come to view the cause of Hesychasm as one and the same with that of Orthodoxy. Those who opposed it were accused of Latinizing. Martin Jugie states that the opposition of the Latins and the Latinophrones, who were necessarily hostile to the doctrine, actually contributed to its adoption, and soon Latinism and Antipalamism became equivalent in
14935-416: The people of Thessalonica did not accept him, and he was forced to live in a number of places. It was not until 1350 that he was able to occupy the episcopal chair. In 1354, during a voyage to Constantinople, the ship he was in fell into the hands of Turkish pirates; he was imprisoned and beaten. He was obliged to spend a year in detention at the Ottoman court where he was well treated. Eventually his ransom
15080-453: The principal theses formulated by Gregory Palamas : Addressing the question of how it is possible for man to have knowledge of a transcendent and unknowable God , Palamas drew a distinction between knowing God in his essence (Greek ousia ) and knowing God in his energies (Greek energeiai ). The divine energies concern the mutual relations between the Persons of the Trinity (within
15225-509: The sake of God—the ultimate example of ascetic practice. Martyrdom could also be seen as symbolic in its connections with the Eucharist and with baptism. Theoria enabled the Fathers to perceive depths of meaning in the biblical writings that escape a purely scientific or empirical approach to interpretation. The Antiochene Fathers, in particular, saw in every passage of Scripture a double meaning, both literal and spiritual. As Frances Margaret Young notes, "Best translated in this context as
15370-461: The sake of the prize; later writers will see in this image a call to ascetical practices . The texts attributed to the Apostolic Fathers , the earliest post-Biblical texts we have, share several key themes, particularly the call to unity in the face of internal divisions and perceptions of persecution, the reality of the charisms , especially prophecy, visions, and Christian gnosis , which
15515-426: The same time, a series of acclamations were also declared in favor of Gregory Palamas and the adherents of his doctrine. One notable opponent of Palamism was Nicephorus Gregoras who refused to submit to the dictates of the synod and was effectively imprisoned in a monastery for two years. Kallistos I and the ecumenical patriarchs who succeeded him mounted a vigorous campaign to have the Palamist doctrines accepted by
15660-718: The soul's mystical union with God . Three stages are discerned in contemplative practice, namely catharsis (purification), contemplation proper, and the vision of God. Contemplative practices have a prominent place in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy , and have gained a renewed interest in Western Christianity. The Greek theoria (θεωρία) meant "contemplation, speculation, a looking at, things looked at", from theorein (θεωρεῖν) "to consider, speculate, look at", from theoros (θεωρός) "spectator", from thea (θέα) "a view" + horan (ὁρᾶν) "to see". It expressed
15805-421: The spirit and the soul, of the traffic which demons have with the soul, of the difference between red lights and white lights, of the entry and departure of the intelligence through the nostrils with the breath, of the shields that gather together round the navel, and finally of the union of Our Lord with the soul, which takes place in the full and sensible certitude of the heart within the navel." Barlaam said that
15950-409: The state of being a spectator . Both Greek θεωρία and Latin contemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind. According to William Johnston, until the sixth century the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred to by the term contemplatio , c.q. theoria . According to Johnston, "[b]oth contemplation and mysticism speak of the eye of love which
16095-409: The story of Jacob's ladder —and sought to fend off the demon of acedia ("un-caring"), a boredom or apathy that prevents us from continuing on in our spiritual training. Anchorites could live in total solitude (" hermits ", from the word erēmitēs , "of the desert") or in loose communities (" cenobites ", meaning "common life"). Monasticism eventually made its way to the West and was established by
16240-525: The study of Aristotle, which he would display before Theodore Metochites and the Emperor. Despite the Emperor's ambitions for him, Gregory, then barely 21 years old, withdrew to Mount Athos in the year 1316 and became a novice there in the Vatopedi monastery under the guidance of the monastic Elder St Nicodemos of Vatopedi. Eventually, he was tonsured a monk , and continued his life of asceticism . After
16385-414: The submission of Cydones and in the end, Prochorus was excommunicated and suspended from the clergy in perpetuity. The long tome that was prepared for the synod concludes with a decree canonizing Palamas who had died in 1359. Despite the initial opposition of the anti-Palamites and some patriarchates and sees, the resistance dwindled away over time and ultimately Palamist doctrine became accepted throughout
16530-446: The submission of Kydones and in the end, he was excommunicated and suspended from the clergy in perpetuity. The long tome that was prepared for the synod concludes with a decree canonizing Palamas who had died in 1357/59. Despite the initial opposition of some patriarchates and sees, over time the resistance dwindled away and ultimately Palamist doctrine became accepted throughout the Eastern Orthodox Church. During this period, it became
16675-513: The taking of the Eucharist were not simply symbolic of the Passion story, but served as vindication of the mystic's theological orthodoxy by proving that the mystic had not fallen prey to heretical ideas, such as the Cathar rejection of the material world as evil, contrary to orthodox teaching that God took on human flesh and remained sinless. Thus, the nature of mystical experience could be tailored to
16820-453: The teachings of Eastern Orthodox Christianity , the quintessential purpose and goal of the Christian life is to attain theosis or 'deification', understood as 'likeness to' or 'union with' God. Theosis refers to the attainment of likeness to or union with God, as deification has three stages in its process of transformation. Theosis as such is the goal, it is the purpose of life, and it
16965-433: The term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation. In subsequent centuries, especially as Christian apologetics began to use Greek philosophy to explain Christian ideas, Neoplatonism became an influence on Christian mystical thought and practice via such authors as Augustine of Hippo and Origen . Jewish spirituality in the period before Jesus was highly corporate and public, based mostly on
17110-475: The theological dispute embittered the conflict, the religious and political parties did not coincide." The aristocrats supported Palamas largely due to their conservative and anti-Western tendencies as well as their links to the staunchly Orthodox monasteries. Although several significant exceptions leave the issue open to question, in the popular mind (and traditional historiography), the supporters of "Palamism" and of "Kantakouzenism" are usually equated. Thus,
17255-418: The theological dispute embittered the conflict, the religious and political parties did not coincide." The aristocrats supported Palamas largely due to their conservative and anti-Western tendencies as well as their links to the staunchly Orthodox monasteries. Nonetheless, it was not until the triumph of Kantakouzenos in taking Constantinople in 1347 that the Palamists were able to achieve a lasting victory over
17400-483: The third Triad, Palamas refuted Barlaam's charge of Messalianism by demonstrating that the Hesychasts did not share the antisacramentalism of the Messalians nor did they claim to physically see the essence of God with their eyes. Meyendorff writes that "Palamas orients his entire polemic against Barlaam the Calabrian on the issue of the Hellenic wisdom which he considers to be the main source of Barlaam's errors." Although
17545-439: The third hypostatic level has theoria . Knowledge of the one is achieved through experience of its power, an experience that is contemplation ( theoria ) of the source of all things. Plotinus agreed with Aristotle's systematic distinction between contemplation ( theoria ) and practice ( praxis ): dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstention from practical, active life. Plotinus explained: "The point of action
17690-430: The third synod held in 1344, which excommunicated Palamas and one of his disciples, Isidore Buchiras . Palamas and Buchiras recanted. In 1347, however, their protector, John VI Kantakouzenos, entered Constantinople and forced his opponents to crown him co-emperor. In February 1347, a fourth synod was held which deposed the patriarch, John XIV , and excommunicated Akindynos. Isidore Buchiras, who had been excommunicated by
17835-480: The third synod, was now made patriarch. In the same month, the Barlaamite party held a competing synod which refused to acknowledge Isidore and excommunicated Palamas. Akindynos having died in 1348, Nicephorus Gregoras became the chief opponent of Hesychasm. Sometime between 1344 and 1350, Palamas wrote the Capita 150 ("One hundred and fifty chapters"). Robert E. Sinkewicz describes this work as an attempt to "recapture
17980-442: The tome does not mention Barlaam by name, the work clearly takes aim at Barlaam's views. The tome provides a systematic presentation of Palamas' teaching and became the fundamental textbook for Byzantine mysticism. In response, Barlaam drafted "Against the Messalians", which attacked Gregory by name for the first time. Barlaam derisively called the hesychasts omphalopsychoi (men with their souls in their navels) and accused them of
18125-499: The treatise "Against the Messalians" linking the hesychasts to the Messalians and thereby accusing them of heresy. In the third Triad, Palamas refuted Barlaam's charge of Messalianism by demonstrating that the hesychasts did not share the antisacramentalism of the Messalians nor did they claim to physically see the essence of God with their eyes. According to Fr. John Meyendorff "Gregory Palamas orients his entire polemic against Barlaam
18270-502: The treatise "Against the Messalians" linking the hesychasts to the Messalians and thereby accusing them of heresy. In "Against the Messalians", Barlaam attacked Gregory by name for the first time. Barlaam derisively called the Hesychasts omphalopsychoi (men with their souls in their navels) and accused them of the heresy of Messalianism , also known as Bogomilism in the East. According to Meyendorff, Barlaam viewed "any claim of real and conscious experience of God as Messalianism". In
18415-649: The use of the Jesus Prayer assisted by certain psychophysical techniques. The hesychasts stated that at higher stages of their prayer practice they reached the actual contemplation-union with the Tabor Light , i.e., Uncreated Divine Light or photomos seen by the apostles in the event of the Transfiguration of Christ and Saint Paul while on the road to Damascus . As an Athonite monk, Palamas had learned to practice Hesychasm. Although he had written about Hesychasm, it
18560-453: The use of the term " religious experience " in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience . It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on
18705-537: The work of John Cassian and Benedict of Nursia . Meanwhile, Western spiritual writing was deeply influenced by the works of such men as Jerome and Augustine of Hippo . Neo-Platonism has had a profound influence on Christian contemplative traditions. Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity, among them the idea of theoria or contemplation, taken over by Gregory of Nyssa for example. The Brill Dictionary of Gregory of Nyssa remarks that contemplation in Gregory
18850-552: The worship services of the synagogues, which included the reading and interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures and the recitation of prayers, and on the major festivals. Thus, private spirituality was strongly influenced by the liturgies and by the scriptures (e.g., the use of the Psalms for prayer), and individual prayers often recalled historical events just as much as they recalled their own immediate needs. Of special importance are
18995-413: Was Greek and he claimed Eastern Orthodoxy as his Christian faith. Arriving in Constantinople around 1330, Barlaam was working on commentaries on Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite under the patronage of John VI Kantakouzenos . Around 1336, Gregory received copies of treatises written by Barlaam against the Latins, condemning their insertion of the Filioque into the Nicene Creed . Although this condemnation
19140-436: Was a Byzantine Greek theologian and Eastern Orthodox cleric of the late Byzantine period. A monk of Mount Athos (modern Greece ) and later archbishop of Thessalonica , he is famous for his defense of hesychast spirituality, the uncreated character of the light of the Transfiguration , and the distinction between God's essence and energies (i.e., the divine will, divine grace, etc.). His teaching unfolded over
19285-419: Was a Jewish Hellenistic philosopher who was important for connecting the Hebrew Scriptures to Greek thought, and thereby to Greek Christians, who struggled to understand their connection to Jewish history. In particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew scriptures provides access to the real meanings of the texts. Philo also taught the need to bring together the contemplative focus of
19430-513: Was characterized as "magic". Eastern Orthodox theologians have criticized Western theology, and its traditional theory that God is pure actuality in particular, for its alleged incompatibility with the essence–energies distinction. More recently, some Roman Catholic thinkers have taken a positive view of Palamas's teachings, including the essence–energies distinction, arguing that it does not represent an insurmountable theological division between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. According to
19575-489: Was indeed demonstrable that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father but not from the Son. A series of letters ensued between the two but they were unable to resolve their differences amicably. In response to Barlaam's attacks, Palamas wrote nine treatises entitled "Triads For The Defense of Those Who Practice Sacred Quietude". The treatises are called "triads" because they were organized as three sets of three treatises. The Triads were written in three stages. The first triad
19720-475: Was influenced by Neo-Platonism , and very influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology . In western Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic theology or "positive theology". Within theistic mysticism two broad tendencies can be identified. One is a tendency to understand God by asserting what he is and the other by asserting what he is not. The former leads to what
19865-587: Was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to the light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on Mount Tabor at the Transfiguration . Barlaam viewed this doctrine of "uncreated light" to be polytheistic because as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. Barlaam accuses the use of the Jesus Prayer as being a practice of Bogomilism . The second triad quotes some of Barlaam's writings directly. In response to this second triad, Barlaam composed
20010-530: Was maintained by the hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to the light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on Mount Tabor at the Transfiguration . Barlaam viewed this doctrine of "uncreated light" to be polytheistic because as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. Barlaam accuses the use of the Jesus Prayer as being a practice of Bogomilism . The second triad quotes some of Barlaam's writings directly. In response to this second triad, Barlaam composed
20155-522: Was not until Barlaam attacked it and Palamas as its chief proponent, that Palamas was driven to defend it in a full exposition which became a central component of Eastern Orthodox theology. The debate between the Palamites and Barlaamites continued for over a decade and resulted in a series of synods which culminated finally in 1351 when the Palamite doctrine was canonized as Eastern Orthodox dogma. Around 1330, Barlaam of Seminara came to Constantinople from Calabria in southern Italy, where he had grown up as
20300-411: Was paid and he returned to Thessaloniki, where he served as archbishop for the last three years of his life. Palamas died in 1357 or 1359. His dying words were, "To the heights! To the heights!" He was canonized a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1368 by Patriarch Philotheos of Constantinople , who also wrote his Vita and composed the service which is chanted in his honour. His feast day
20445-495: Was seen as an alternative to martyrdom, and was less about escaping the world than about fighting demons (who were thought to live in the desert) and about gaining liberation from our bodily passions in order to be open to the word of God. Anchorites practiced continuous meditation on the scriptures as a means of climbing the ladder of perfection—a common religious image in the Mediterranean world and one found in Christianity through
20590-541: Was solid Orthodox theology, Palamas took issue with Barlaam's argument in support of it, namely that efforts at demonstrating the nature of God (specifically, the nature of the Holy Spirit) should be abandoned, because God is ultimately unknowable and undemonstrable to humans. Thus, Barlaam asserted that it was impossible to determine from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds. According to Sara J. Denning-Bolle, Palamas viewed Barlaam's argument as "dangerously agnostic". In his response titled "Apodictic Treatises", Palamas insisted that it
20735-452: Was to be left out . Since then, the question of rehabilitation of Gregory Palamas in the UGCC is sometimes raised , and some English-speaking dioceses include him in their calendars despite the ban of his veneration having never been lifted and official UGCC calendar not including his name . Troparion (Tone 8) Kontakion (Tone 8) Under Constantinople : Theoria Christian mysticism
20880-470: Was written in the second half of the 1330s and are based on personal discussions between Palamas and Barlaam although Barlaam is never mentioned by name. Gregory's teaching was affirmed by the superiors and principal monks of Mt. Athos, who met in synod during 1340–1. In early 1341, the monastic communities of Mount Athos wrote the Hagioritic Tome under the supervision and inspiration of Palamas. Although
21025-413: Was written in the second half of the 1330s and are based on personal discussions between Palamas and Barlaam although Barlaam is never mentioned by name. Gregory's teaching was affirmed by the superiors and principal monks of Mt. Athos, who met in synod during 1340–1. In early 1341, the monastic communities of Mount Athos wrote the Hagioritic Tome under the supervision and inspiration of Palamas. Although
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