Operation Out Distance was a Czech resistance group active during World War II . It was dispatched by Special Group D of the Ministry of Defence of the Czechoslovak government in exile in London. The group operated in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia , a region of occupied Czechoslovakia .
119-582: At 2 AM on 28 March 1942, the group parachuted from a British Halifax aircraft which also carried the unsuccessful group Zink. Their objectives included sabotaging gasworks in Prague , delivering radio-sets to other resistance fighters, and guiding bombers to the Škoda Works in Plzeň . Due to a navigation error they landed in Ořechov , not their intended destination, resulting in the loss of significant material and pursuit by
238-569: A Lancaster's 154. Harris continued to have a poor opinion of the Halifax, despite the fact that later Hercules-engined machines had lower loss rates and higher crew survival rates after abandoning the aircraft than Lancasters, and came very close to the Lancaster's speed and altitude performance. The Halifax was progressively outnumbered in front-line service over occupied Europe as more Lancasters became available from 1943 onwards; many squadrons converted to
357-608: A domination of the world completely different from any known in world history. The domination at which the Nazis aim is not limited to the displacement of the balance of power and the imposition of the supremacy of one nation. It seeks the systematic and total destruction of those conquered by Hitler and it does not treaty with the nations which it has subdued. He destroys them. He takes from them their whole political and economic existence and seeks even to deprive them of their history and culture. He wishes only to consider them as vital space and
476-694: A government-in-exile in London, with each contributing a contingent of escaped troops. Nevertheless, by roughly one year since Germany's violation of the Munich Agreement, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini. Before they were formally allied, the United Kingdom and the United States had cooperated in a number of ways, notably through the destroyers-for-bases deal in September 1940 and
595-549: A greatly weakened economy and humiliated populace. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 , and the ensuing Great Depression , led to political unrest across Europe, especially in Germany, where revanchist nationalists blamed the severity of the economic crisis on the Treaty of Versailles. The far-right Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler , which had formed shortly after the peace treaty, exploited growing popular resentment and desperation to become
714-554: A heavy bomber, wings mounting two pairs of engines required additional testing at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). A stronger wing also required additional strengthening of the overall aircraft structure, increasing design weight. In February 1937, following consideration of the designs, the Air Ministry selected Avro's submission, with Handley Page's bid chosen as "second string". Accordingly, during April 1937,
833-427: A high priority; these targets were attacked right up until the end of the war. According to Moyes, within the final few months, bomber losses had fallen to all-time lows while raids were frequently regarded as having been highly successful. During the final months of the war the improved Halifax Mk.VI and Mk.VII were introduced. In particular, these models had been 'tropicalised' with an eye towards their potential use in
952-473: A larger D type fin (40% bigger) and modified rudder. The Mk.III Halifax had satisfactory stability in all axes, and in fact were more stable in a dive than a Lancaster. A Lancaster tended to go deeper into a dive whereas a Halifax had to be forced to stay in the dive as the speed increased, i.e. it naturally flew out of a dive. Owing to a shortage of Messier-built landing gear and hydraulics , Dowty -built landing gear were used on some aircraft instead. As it
1071-732: A major component of Bomber Command , performing strategic bombing missions against the Axis Powers , primarily at night. Arthur Harris , the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of Bomber Command, described the Halifax as inferior to the rival Lancaster (in part due to its smaller payload) though this opinion was not shared by many of the crews that flew it. Nevertheless, production of the Halifax continued until April 1945. During their service with Bomber Command, Halifaxes flew 82,773 operations and dropped 224,207 long tons (227,805 t) of bombs, while 1,833 aircraft were lost. The Halifax
1190-457: A major victory for peace, the open flaunting of its terms demonstrated the failure of appeasement. Britain and France, which had been the main advocates of appeasement, decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert an imminent German attack on Poland;
1309-436: A million gallons of petrol was delivered to Brussels in support of the advancing Second Army , then engaged in heavy fighting at Arnhem . During the latter half of 1944, the bombing of German-held oil facilities became a major priority of the offensive. On 27 August, a force of 216 Halifax bombers, alongside smaller numbers of de Havilland Mosquitos and Lancasters and a sizable escort of Supermarine Spitfires , conducted
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#17328559770591428-417: A raid on Nuremberg on the night of 30/31 March 1944. Barton continued to fly the Halifax while other crew members bailed out. He was killed in the aircraft's crash-landing, but the remaining crew survived due to his actions. Large numbers of Halifax bombers were also operated by Coastal Command , which used it to conduct anti submarine warfare , reconnaissance and meteorological operations. The Halifax
1547-413: A range of 1,860 miles (2,990 km). The defensive armaments included power-assisted gun turrets in various positions located across the aircraft. Different models of the Halifax used different numbers and combinations of turrets, effectively trading speed for firepower and vice versa. The bomb aimer's position was in the extreme nose with the navigator's table located behind it, both roles fulfilled by
1666-640: A separate colony. British Malaya covers the areas of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore , while British Borneo covers the area of Brunei , including Sabah and Sarawak of Malaysia. British Hong Kong consisted of Hong Kong Island , the Kowloon Peninsula , and the New Territories . Territories controlled by the Colonial Office , namely the Crown Colonies , were controlled politically by
1785-445: A shortage of Merlins with two stage superchargers production of the B Mk.IV was not proceeded with. The definitive version of the Halifax was the B Mk.VI, powered by the 1,800 hp (1,300 kW) Hercules 100. The final bomber version, the Mk.VII, reverted to the less powerful Hercules XVI. However, these variants were produced in relatively small quantities. The remaining variants were
1904-511: A twin-engine heavy-medium bomber suitable for "world-wide use". Further requirements of the specification included the use of a mid-mounted cantilever monoplane wing and all-metal construction, and encouraged use of the Rolls-Royce Vulture engine then in development. In response, Handley Page produced the twin-engine H.P.56 design to meet Specification P.13/36. Handley Page aircraft designer George Volkert had responsibility for
2023-599: A vacant territory over which he has every right. The human beings who constitute these nations are for him only cattle. He orders their massacre or migration. He compels them to make room for their conquerors. He does not even take the trouble to impose any war tribute on them. He just takes all their wealth and, to prevent any revolt, he scientifically seeks the physical and moral degradation of those whose independence he has taken away. France experienced several major phases of action during World War II: In Africa these included: French West Africa , French Equatorial Africa ,
2142-543: A wider wing span with rounded wing tips. With the coming of the MkIII the Halifax's performance finally matched that of the Lancaster though the latter had a larger bomb load and could take larger bombs. The B.VI Halifax's performance improved still further with a cruising speed of 265 mph (426 km/h) and a maximum speed (in 'Full Speed' supercharger mode) of 309 mph (497 km/h) at 19,500 ft (5,900 m). Halifax crews, though admittedly not unbiased, considered
2261-609: The Anglo-French Supreme War Council to coordinate military decisions. A Polish government-in-exile was set up in London, joined by hundreds of thousands of Polish soldiers, which would remain an Allied nation until the end. After a quiet winter, Germany began its invasion of Western Europe in April 1940, quickly defeating Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. All the occupied nations subsequently established
2380-631: The Atlantic Wall defences along the French coast with a reportedly high degree of accuracy. Other common targets were enemy communications and the launch sites for V-1 flying bombs . Bombing activity became increasingly brazen throughout late 1944 as the Luftwaffe became incapable of putting up effective opposition against allied air forces. The Halifax also found itself being increasingly tasked with transport duties around this time; in one instance, around half
2499-631: The Axis powers . Its principal members by the end of 1941 were the " Big Four " – the United Kingdom , United States , Soviet Union , and China . Membership in the Allies varied during the course of the war. When the conflict broke out on 1 September 1939, the Allied coalition consisted of the United Kingdom, France , and Poland , as well as their respective dependencies , such as British India . They were joined by
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#17328559770592618-535: The British West Indies , British Honduras , British Guiana and the Falkland Islands . The Dominion of Newfoundland was directly ruled as a royal colony from 1933 to 1949, run by a governor appointed by London who made the decisions regarding Newfoundland. British India included the areas and peoples covered by later India , Bangladesh , Pakistan and (until 1937) Burma/Myanmar , which later became
2737-655: The French Air Force and the Royal Pakistan Air Force . The type also entered commercial service for a number of years, used mainly as a freighter . A dedicated civil transport variant, the Handley Page Halton, was also developed and entered airline service; 41 civil Halifax freighters were used during the Berlin Airlift . In 1961, the last remaining Halifax bombers were retired from operational use. In
2856-509: The Frisian Islands of the North Sea . While the type continued to fly operations after this, these were primarily diversions to other operations and sporadic, uncoordinated attacks against targets of opportunity . Upon the end of the conflict, Bomber Command quickly disbanded the majority of its Halifax-equipped squadrons; the aircraft themselves were transferred to Transport Command. During
2975-566: The German battleship Scharnhorst . At the end of 1941, the Halifax was withdrawn from daylight bombing operations after intensifying fighter opposition had increased the casualty rates to unsustainable levels. In the second half of 1942, No. 35 Squadron and four other squadrons were selected to form the Pathfinder Force , later expanded to become No. 8 Group . Pathfinder crews flying the Halifax would mark routes and identify and mark targets for
3094-617: The Gestapo . Consequently, the group members decided to split and operate independently. Ivan Kolařík , a member of the group, committed suicide on 1 April 1942, after losing his fake ID, in a desperate attempt to shield his family from reprisals following the compromise of his cover. First Lieutenant Adolf Opálka and Karel Čurda travelled to Prague to join Operation Anthropoid , aimed at assassinating high ranking German SS official Reinhard Heydrich . Upon joining group Silver A, Opálka
3213-618: The Lend-Lease loan were amended towards the Soviets, to be put in line with British terms. The United States would now expect interest with the repayment from the Soviets, following the initiation of the Operation Barbarossa , at the end of the war—the United States were not looking to support any "postwar Soviet reconstruction efforts", which eventually manifested into the Molotov Plan . At
3332-556: The Pacific War against the Empire of Japan . While some of these Mk.VI and Mk.VII machines were deployed to the theatre, they played little meaningful role as the war ended before larger numbers could be brought to bear against Japanese forces. On 25 April 1945, the Halifax performed its last major operation against the enemy in WWII during an attack upon coastal gun batteries on Wangerooge in
3451-708: The RAF Bomber Command Memorial in London , which was unveiled in 2012. A number of former RAF Halifax C.8s were sold from 1945 and used as freighters by a number of mostly British airlines. In 1948, 41 civilian Halifax freighters were used during the Berlin Air Lift , operating 4,653 sorties carrying freight and 3,509 carrying bulk diesel fuel. Nine aircraft were lost during the airlift. The low-cost airline business pioneer Freddie Laker bought and serviced war-surplus Halifaxes for Bond Air Services operations in
3570-565: The Tehran conference , Stalin judged Roosevelt to be a "lightweight compared to the more formidable Churchill". During the meetings from 1943 to 1945, there were disputes over the growing list of demands from the USSR. Tensions increased further when Roosevelt died and his successor Harry Truman rejected demands put forth by Stalin. Roosevelt wanted to play down these ideological tensions. Roosevelt felt he "understood Stalin's psychology", stating "Stalin
3689-579: The homeland . The United States felt that the Japanese and German expansion should be contained, but ruled out force until Japan's attack. The Soviet Union, having been betrayed by the Axis attack in 1941, greatly despised German belligerence and the unchallenged Japanese expansion in the East, particularly considering their defeat in previous wars with Japan; the Soviets also recognized, as the U.S. and Britain had suggested,
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3808-562: The 1930s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers . These designs put significant demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were already stretched with the introduction of many new types of aircraft into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of huge engines in the 2,000 hp (1,500 kW) class to improve performance. However, during
3927-449: The Air Ministry ordered two prototypes of each design. The introduction of the successful P.13/36 candidates was delayed by orders for Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley and Vickers Wellington bombers. In mid-1937, it was decided to order both the Avro 679 and H.P.56 designs "off the drawing board" in order to speed up delivery timetables. During July 1937, Handley Page was instructed to redesign
4046-556: The Allies after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. The United States, while providing some materiel support to European Allies since September 1940, remained formally neutral until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, after which it declared war and officially joined the Allies. China had already been at war with Japan since 1937 , and formally joined
4165-470: The Allies in December 1941. The Allies were led by the so-called "Big Three"—the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—which were the principal contributors of manpower, resources, and strategy, each playing a key role in achieving victory. A series of conferences between Allied leaders, diplomats, and military officials gradually shaped the makeup of the alliance, the direction of
4284-562: The American Lend-Lease program, which provided Britain and the Soviet Union with war materiel beginning in October 1941. The British Commonwealth and, to a lesser extent, the Soviet Union reciprocated with a smaller Reverse Lend-Lease program. The First Inter-Allied Meeting took place in London in early June 1941 between the United Kingdom, the four co-belligerent British Dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa),
4403-555: The Axis occupation to small nations far removed from the war. The Declaration officially recognized the Big Three and China as the "Four Powers", acknowledging their central role in prosecuting the war; they were also referred to as the " trusteeship of the powerful", and later as the " Four Policemen " of the United Nations. Many more countries joined through to the final days of the war, including colonies and former Axis nations. After
4522-496: The Axis powers shortly thereafter. By the end of 1941, the main lines of World War II had formed. Churchill referred to the "Grand Alliance" of the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, which together played the largest role in prosecuting the war. The alliance was largely one of convenience for each member: the U.K. realized that the Axis powers threatened not only its colonies in North Africa and Asia but also
4641-518: The Berlin airlift. With the airfreight market in decline, most of the civilian Halifaxes were scrapped on their return to England. The last civilian-operated Halifaxes were withdrawn from service in late 1952. Allies of World War II The Allies , formally referred to as the United Nations from 1942, were an international military coalition formed during World War II (1939–1945) to oppose
4760-662: The British Government during the Second World War and made part of the British Army structure. It was mostly Greek Cypriot volunteers and Turkish Cypriot inhabitants of Cyprus but also included other Commonwealth nationalities. On a brief visit to Cyprus in 1943, Winston Churchill praised the "soldiers of the Cyprus Regiment who have served honourably on many fields from Libya to Dunkirk". About 30,000 Cypriots served in
4879-529: The British isles. The Halifax was produced in large numbers during the war and over 40%, or 4,046 of the 10,018 heavy bombers produced in Britain between 1940 and 1944 were Halifaxes. In all, 6,178 Halifaxes were built, the last delivered in April 1945. At the peak, 41 separate factories and dispersed units were involved in production, along with 600 subcontractors and 51,000 employees, with one Halifax completed every hour. The first English Electric-built aircraft
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4998-637: The Cyprus Regiment. The regiment was involved in action from the very start and served at Dunkirk , in the Greek Campaign (about 600 soldiers were captured in Kalamata in 1941), North Africa ( Operation Compass ), France, the Middle East and Italy. Many soldiers were taken prisoner especially at the beginning of the war and were interned in various PoW camps ( Stalag ) including Lamsdorf ( Stalag VIII-B ), Stalag IVC at Wistritz bei Teplitz and Stalag 4b near Most in
5117-529: The Czech Republic. The soldiers captured in Kalamata were transported by train to prisoner of war camps. After Germany invaded Poland, France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. In January 1940, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier made a major speech denouncing the actions of Germany: At the end of five months of war, one thing has become more and more clear. It is that Germany seeks to establish
5236-460: The Declaration was signed by Iraq, Iran, Brazil, Bolivia and Colombia. A Tripartite Treaty of Alliance with Britain and the USSR formalised Iran's assistance to the Allies. In Rio de Janeiro , Brazilian dictator Getúlio Vargas was considered near to fascist ideas, but realistically joined the United Nations after their evident successes. In 1944, Liberia and France signed. The French situation
5355-512: The French likewise had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921 . The Soviet Union , which had been diplomatically and economically isolated by much of the world, had sought an alliance with the western powers, but Hitler preempted a potential war with Stalin by signing the Nazi–Soviet non-aggression pact in August 1939. In addition to preventing a two-front war that had battered its forces in
5474-550: The H.P.56 to use four engines. The Vulture had already been suffering reliability and performance problems. The rival Avro 679 proceeded into service as the Avro Manchester powered by a pair of Vulture engines, but was only built in limited quantities after suffering substantially from engine-related difficulties. The four-engine redesign increased its wingspan from 88 ft (27 m) to 99 ft (30 m) and added 13,000 pounds (5,900 kg) of weight. In September 1937,
5593-472: The Halifax C Mk.VIII, an unarmed transport that was fitted with an 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) cargo pannier instead of a bomb bay, which could accommodate a maximum of 11 passengers and the Mk A IX paratroop transport, which had space for up to 16 paratroopers and their equipment. A transport/cargo version of the Halifax was also produced, known as the Handley Page Halton . The Handley Page Halifax
5712-457: The Halifax Mk.II Series IA and from the Mk.III onwards, the nose turret was deleted; instead the bomb-aimer occupied a streamlined perspex nose containing a single hand-held machine gun. On later-built aircraft, the two-gun dorsal turret was replaced by a four-gun Boulton Paul turret. The maximum bomb load was 14,500 lb (6,600 kg), which was primarily carried in a bomb bay housed within
5831-424: The Halifax around the same time, and would go on to operate it in each of its 14 squadrons, although it was never solely equipped with the type. At its peak strength, Bomber Command operated a total of 76 Halifax-equipped squadrons. While the early-built models of the Halifax were heavily used by Bomber Command and made valuable contributions to operations, the aircraft's performance was considered unsatisfactory for
5950-511: The Handley Page Halifax entered service with No. 35 Squadron at RAF Linton-on-Ouse . Its operational debut occurred on the night of 10–11 March 1941, when six Halifax bombers flew a bombing raid against Le Havre , targeting the area around the docks and any shipping that might be present. The existence of the Halifax was not officially acknowledged until July 1941, after it was used in a daylight attack on La Pallice , France , against
6069-513: The Hercules-powered Halifax was available in quantity and quickly proved to have superior performance in the face of German fighter defences. Early on, Air Chief Marshal Arthur Harris, head of Bomber Command, was scathing in his criticism of the Halifax's performance in comparison to the new Avro Lancaster , primarily of its bomb-carrying capability: an average Halifax was calculated to drop 100 tons of bombs in its lifetime, compared to
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#17328559770596188-408: The Lancaster. Production of the Halifax continued, supposedly because it was more efficient to keep building it than to stop its production and convert to building another aircraft. But any new facilities were devoted to the Lancaster. Harris's view of the Halifax changed sometime after spring 1942. On 2 June 1942, in a response to a telegram sent by Frederick Handley Page, congratulating Harris on
6307-401: The Lancaster. On average 25% of Halifax and Stirling crews successfully bailed out from a damaged aeroplane, but only 15% did so from Lancasters. The pilot sat on the left side in the cockpit above the wireless operator. The flight engineer filled in as a co-pilot, seated on a folding seat to the right of the pilot, during crucial manoeuvres such as take-off. Aft of the pilot and set lower than
6426-572: The Main Force. Effective marking greatly increased the accuracy and destructive power of Bomber Command. As a Pathfinder and Main Force aircraft, the Halifax was a core part of the bombing offensive against Germany and its Axis allies. By the end of 1943, No. 4 Group had been entirely equipped with the Halifax, and would continue to operate the aircraft until the end of the war. No. 6 Group , formed of Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squadrons, also adopted
6545-659: The Merlin engine did not suit the Halifax as much as the Hercules (fitted from the Mk.III on) which suited the Halifax better both aerodynamically and power wise. The Halifax Mk.I was quickly followed by 25 of the Mk.I Series II; these featured an increased gross weight from 58,000 lb (26 t) to 60,000 lb (27 t) but with maximum landing weight unchanged at 50,000 lb (23 t). The Halifax Mk.I Series III featured increased fuel capacity (1,882 imp gal (8,560 L; 2,260 US gal), and larger oil coolers,
6664-616: The Ministry specified the use of four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines; according to aviation author Phillip J. R. Moyes, this redesign to four Merlin engines was done "much against the company's wishes". Towards the end of the year, a full size mock-up was assessed and production of a pair of H.P.57 prototypes commenced in March 1938. Further design modifications resulted in the definitive aircraft, now considerably enlarged and powered by four 1,280 hp (950 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin X engines. Such
6783-419: The Mk.I aircraft. Aircraft of the first batch of fifty Mk.I Halifaxes were designated Mk.I Series I. Handley Page were initially disappointed with the performance of the Halifax which was below their predictions, much of this was because they had under estimated the aircraft's drag. The Mk.III Halifax had a wider span of 103 ft 8 in (31.60 m) and had significantly improved performance. Arguably
6902-431: The MkIII Halifax to be the equal of any other bomber, including the Lancaster, and further improved versions (with more powerful Hercules engines) to be superior to all. The improvement in the Halifax MKIII's performance could be measured objectively. In 1943 4 Group's Halifax squadrons flew 11,607 sorties for a loss of 485 aircraft, a loss rate of 4.2%. Halifax MKIII production started in early Autumn 1943 and for 1944, when
7021-464: The MkIII constituted an increasing percentage of the Halifax force, 4 Group flew 25,454 sorties for a loss of 402 aircraft, a loss rate of 1.6%. The Halifax B Mk.IV was a converted B Mk.II non-production design using the Rolls-Royce Merlin 65 engine with a two-stage supercharger and a four bladed propeller fitted. This resulted in an increase in top speed by 60 mph (97 km/h) to 324 mph (521 km/h) at 19,000 ft (5,800 m). Due to
7140-414: The RPAF Commanders decided not to enlarge the Halifax fleet too much. These airplanes were later transferred to the newly raised No. 12 Squadron PAF, where they were only used in emergency situations. Gradually, they were transferred to long term storage and were later scrapped. In September 1997 Halifax 57 Rescue of Canada excavated Halifax LW682 from a bog near the River Dender in Belgium . The plane
7259-460: The Soviet Union in July, with both nations committing to assisting one another by any means, and to never negotiate a separate peace. The following August saw the Atlantic Conference between American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , which defined a common Anglo-American vision of the postwar world, as formalized by the Atlantic Charter . At the Second Inter-Allied Meeting in London in September 1941,
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#17328559770597378-399: The Soviet Union, were accepted as members of the United Nations as a way to provide greater influence to Stalin, who had only Yugoslavia as a communist partner in the alliance. British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain delivered his Ultimatum Speech on 3 September 1939 which declared war on Germany , a few hours before France. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 was not yet ratified by
7497-468: The UK and therefore also entered hostilities with Britain's declaration of war. At the outbreak of World War II, the British Indian Army numbered 205,000 men. Later during World War II, the British Indian Army became the largest all-volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in size. Indian soldiers earned 30 Victoria Crosses during the Second World War. It suffered 87,000 military casualties (more than any Crown colony but fewer than
7616-404: The United Kingdom). The UK suffered 382,000 military casualties. Kuwait was a protectorate of the United Kingdom formally established in 1899. The Trucial States were British protectorates in the Persian Gulf. Palestine was a mandate dependency created in the peace agreements after World War I from the former territory of the Ottoman Empire , Iraq . The Cyprus Regiment was formed by
7735-405: The United States, which had attempted to peacefully negotiate for peace in Asia, was especially angered by the invasion and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia , just six months after signing the Munich Agreement , which sought to appease Hitler by ceding the mainly ethnic German Czechoslovak borderlands; while most of Europe had celebrated the agreement as
7854-418: The advantages of a two-front war . Franklin D. Roosevelt , Winston Churchill , and Joseph Stalin were The Big Three leaders. They were in frequent contact through ambassadors, top generals, foreign ministers and special emissaries such as the American Harry Hopkins . It is also often called the "Strange Alliance", because it united the leaders of the world's greatest capitalist state (the United States),
7973-416: The cockpit was flush with the upper fuselage. The Halifax was powered by four engines, two on each wing. Early production Halifax bombers were powered by models of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine; later aircraft were commonly powered by the larger Bristol Hercules radial engine . To contain and attach the engines to the airframe, Handley Page developed their own design for the power egg instead of using
8092-453: The declaration; the Big Four were listed first: The United Nations began growing immediately after its formation. In 1942, Mexico, the Philippines and Ethiopia adhered to the declaration. Ethiopia had been restored to independence by British forces after the Italian defeat in 1941. The Philippines, still owned by Washington but granted international diplomatic recognition, was allowed to join on 10 June despite its occupation by Japan. In 1943,
8211-410: The design. Other candidates were submitted for the same specification, including the Avro 679 , and designs from Fairey , Boulton Paul and Shorts . All submissions used two engines, using the Rolls-Royce Vulture, Napier Sabre , Fairey P.24 or Bristol Hercules engines. All of these engines were under development and while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B.12/36 for
8330-488: The discovery of the assassins’ hideout at Prague's Ss. Cyril and Methodius Cathedral . A fierce battle ensued, resulting in the death or suicide of Opálka and other resistors. Čurda subsequently assisted the Gestapo in identifying the bodies of fellow parachutists, receiving a portion of the 10 million Reichsmark reward offered by the occupiers. After the war, Karel Čurda was apprehended and brought before an extraordinary people's court, which found him guilty of treason . He
8449-539: The dominant political movement in Germany. By 1933, they gained power and rapidly established a totalitarian regime known as Nazi Germany . The Nazi regime demanded the immediate cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims over German-populated Austria and the German-populated territories of Czechoslovakia. The likelihood of war was high, but none of the major powers had the appetite for another conflict; many governments sought to ease tensions through nonmilitary strategies such as appeasement . Japan, which
8568-540: The eight governments in exile ( Belgium , Czechoslovakia , Greece , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Yugoslavia ) and Free France . The meeting culminated with the Declaration of St James's Palace , which set out a first vision for the postwar world. In June 1941, Hitler broke the non-aggression agreement with Stalin and Axis forces invaded the Soviet Union , which consequently declared war on Germany and its allies. Britain agreed to an alliance with
8687-655: The eight European governments in exile, together with the Soviet Union and representatives of the Free French Forces, unanimously adopted adherence to the common principles of policy set forth in the Atlantic Charter. In December, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific, resulting in the U.S. formally entering the war as an Allied power. Still reeling from Japanese aggression, China declared war on all
8806-562: The fight against the Germans, whereas the United States had the luxury of flexing industrial power, but with the "minimum possible expenditure of American lives". Roosevelt and Churchill opened ground fronts in North Africa in 1942 and in Italy in 1943, and launched a massive air attack on Germany, but Stalin kept wanting more. Although the U.S. had a strained relationship with the USSR in the 1920s, relations were normalized in 1933. The original terms of
8925-639: The first major daylight operation by Bomber Command against a target inside Germany that year, attacking the oil refinery at Homberg on the Ruhr . In spite of heavy fire from anti-aircraft defenses , no bombers were downed and the refinery was severely damaged in places. Attacks upon oil production facilities throughout Germany would become commonplace within the remaining months of the war. The only Victoria Cross to be awarded to any Halifax pilot went to Cyril J. Barton of No. 578 Squadron for displaying great gallantry in bringing his heavily damaged aircraft back after
9044-423: The first prototype Halifax, serial number L7244 , was performed by chief test pilot Jim Cordes with E A 'Ginger' Wright as flight test observer on 25 October 1939. During this flight, the undercarriage was locked down as a safety precaution. On 17 August 1940, the first flight of the second prototype, L7245 , now complete with full armament and operational equipment, was made from Radlett Aerodrome . The H.P.57
9163-428: The fuselage, divided into six separate bomb compartments, with three bomb compartments in the inboard sections of each wing; this division of the payload between multiple compartments limited the maximum size of the individual bombs which could be completely enclosed to 2,000 lb (910 kg); when carrying the 4,000lb and 8,000lb high capacity (HC) bombs the bomb bay doors could not close fully. In November 1940,
9282-610: The greatest socialist state (the Soviet Union) and the greatest colonial power (the United Kingdom). Relations between them resulted in the major decisions that shaped the war effort and planned for the postwar world. Cooperation between the United Kingdom and the United States was especially close and included forming a Combined Chiefs of Staff . There were numerous high-level conferences ; in total Churchill attended 14 meetings, Roosevelt 12, and Stalin 5. Most visible were
9401-692: The independent dominions of the British Commonwealth : Canada , Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . Consequently, the initial alliance resembled that of the First World War . As Axis forces began invading northern Europe and the Balkans , the Allies added the Netherlands , Belgium , Norway , Greece , and Yugoslavia . The Soviet Union, which initially had a nonaggression pact with Germany and participated in its invasion of Poland , joined
9520-482: The involvement of several other companies in addition to Handley Page. The resulting Halifax Group was established to oversee the manufacturing programme, comprising English Electric (who had previously built Handley Page Hampdens ), various firms within the London Aircraft Production Group , Fairey Aviation , and Rootes Motors . Because of this scheme, Halifaxes were manufactured at sites across
9639-580: The last military user of the type. In 1947, the RPAF inherited two Halifax bombers from the RAF which were later heavily used during the 1st Kashmir War in 1948. RPAF Halifaxes flew several sorties in support of Pakistani and Kashmiri forces (notably in the Battle of Skardu ) during which they conducted night-time Airdrop missions. After the war, six ex-RAF Halifax-BVIs were purchased in 1949. Due to their high operational costs,
9758-521: The last world war, the agreement secretly divided the independent states of Central and Eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland ; two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Roughly two weeks after Germany's attack, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. Britain and France established
9877-506: The late 1930s, none of these engines were ready for production. Meanwhile, the United States, France, Germany and the Soviet Union were developing bombers powered with four engines with favourable results, including excellent range and lifting capacity. Accordingly, in 1936, the RAF decided to investigate the feasibility of a four-engined bomber. During the mid-1930s, the British Air Ministry released Specification P.13/36 , seeking
9996-432: The latter capacity, each Halifax was built from various sub-assemblies. Surface panels were flush- riveted , although the matt black night bomber camouflage negated its benefit. Handley Page built the assemblies and components at Cricklewood and the aircraft were assembled and flown from Radlett Aerodrome . The first production aircraft flew from Radlett on 11 October 1940. The sizeable production run envisioned required
10115-506: The latter of which having been adopted in order to accommodate the Merlin XX engine. A dorsally-mounted two-gun Boulton Paul Type C turret replaced the beam guns. Introduction of 1,390 hp (1,040 kW) Merlin XX engines and a twin .303 in (7.7 mm) dorsal turret instead of waist guns resulted in the Halifax B Mk.II Series I. The Mk.II Series I (Special) achieved improved performance via
10234-572: The most part, mainly due to the underpowered Merlin engine, which meant that it could not fly at the higher altitudes needed to avoid enemy fighters, which were becoming increasingly effective throughout 1943. This was answered by the Halifax Mk.III, which was powered by Bristol Hercules radial engines in place of the Merlins. Introduced into service in November 1943, the Mk.III was first delivered to No. 433 Squadron and No. 466 Squadron . By January 1944,
10353-559: The opposing Central Powers in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 . Germany resented signing the Treaty of Versailles , which required that it take full responsibility for the war, lose a significant portion of territory, and pay costly reparations, among other penalties. The Weimar Republic , which formed at the end of the war and subsequently negotiated the treaty, saw its legitimacy shaken, particularly as it struggled to govern
10472-432: The parliaments of Australia and New Zealand, the British declaration of war on Germany also applied to those dominions . The other dominions and members of the British Commonwealth declared war from 3 September 1939, all within one week of each other; they were Canada , British India and South Africa . During the war, Churchill attended seventeen Allied conferences at which key decisions and agreements were made. He
10591-400: The pilot was the flight engineer 's compartment with controls on the bulkhead. Another compartment aft of the flight engineer contained two bunks originally intended for resting crew members, but almost always used for treating and berthing injured crew. This area led to the two-gun dorsal turret. The tail gunner occupied a four-gun turret at the extreme aft end of the aircraft. Starting with
10710-473: The removal of the nose and dorsal turrets. The Halifax Mk.II Series IA was fitted with a moulded Perspex nose (this nose became standard upon future Halifax variants), a four-gun Boulton Paul Type A dorsal turret similar to that used in the Boulton Paul Defiant , and Merlin 22 engines. The rudder overbalance / directional instability with engine(s) out problem was solved on the Mk.III with the fitting of
10829-518: The same crew member. Above the navigator's position was the forward gun turret. The wireless (radio) operator was behind the navigator's position, separated by a half-width partition. On the floor just behind the front turret (or later the nose) was the escape hatch. This was 24 in × 26.5 in (61 cm × 67 cm), the same size as the Stirling, and slightly larger than the 22 in × 26.5 in (56 cm × 67 cm) for
10948-498: The start of 1944, compared to 1,966 Halifax Mk.IIs. The most numerous Halifax variant was the much improved B Mk.III of which 2,091 were built. First appearing in 1943, the Mk.III featured the Perspex nose and modified tail of the Mk.II Series IA but replaced the Merlin with the more powerful 1,650 hp (1,230 kW) Bristol Hercules XVI radial engine . Other changes included the adoption of de Havilland Hydromatic propellers and
11067-503: The success of the first 1000 bomber Cologne raid , he stated: "My Dear Handley Page. We much appreciate your telegram of congratulation on Saturday night's work, the success of which was very largely due to your support in giving us such a powerful weapon to wield. Between us we will make a job of it." Following the invasion of Europe in 1944, the Halifax resumed daylight bombing operations, performing semi-tactical strikes upon enemy troop concentrations, gun emplacements, and strongpoints of
11186-484: The three summit conferences that brought together the three top leaders. The Allied policy toward Germany and Japan evolved and developed at these three conferences. There were many tensions among the Big Three leaders, although they were not enough to break the alliance during wartime. In 1942 Roosevelt proposed becoming, with China, the Four Policemen of world peace. Although the 'Four Powers' were reflected in
11305-405: The twin-engine H.P.56 proposal of the late 1930s, produced in response to the British Air Ministry 's Specification P.13/36 for a capable medium bomber for "world-wide use." The H.P.56 was ordered as a backup to the Avro 679, both aircraft being designed to use the Rolls-Royce Vulture engine. The Handley Page design was altered to use four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines while the rival Avro 679
11424-533: The type's service with Bomber Command, Halifaxes flew 82,773 operations and dropped 224,207 tons of bombs. 1,833 aircraft were lost. By 1947, the majority of Halifax bombers were deemed to be surplus and scrapped. The Halifax remained in widespread service with Coastal Command and RAF Transport Command , Royal Egyptian Air Force and the Armée de l'Air until early 1952. The Royal Pakistan Air Force however continued operating them up till 1961, thus Pakistan became
11543-525: The typical, slimmer Rolls-Royce counterpart; despite generating increased drag, this in-house design was readily adaptable to the alternative Hercules engine on later aircraft. Each engine drove a Rotol -built compressed wood constant-speed propeller , enabling the Halifax B.I to attain a maximum speed of 265 mph (426 km/h) at 17,500 ft (5,300 m). With a typical payload of 5,800 lb (2,600 kg) of bombs and 2,242 imp gal (10,190 L; 2,693 US gal) of fuel, it had
11662-499: The war ended, the Allies, and the Declaration that bound them, would become the basis of the modern United Nations ; one enduring legacy of the alliance is the permanent membership of the U.N. Security Council , which is made up exclusively of the principal Allied powers that won the war. The victorious Allies of World War I —which included what would become the Allied powers of the Second World War—had imposed harsh terms on
11781-606: The war, Britain could remain the sole great power in Europe facing the Communist threat, as it was in 1940 and 1941 against Nazism. During the early part of 1945, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Uruguay, Turkey, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Syria (these latter two French colonies had been declared independent states by British occupation troops, despite protests by Pétain and later De Gaulle) and Ecuador became signatories. Ukraine and Belarus , which were not independent states but parts of
11900-416: The war, and ultimately the postwar international order. Relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were especially close , with their bilateral Atlantic Charter forming the groundwork of their alliance. The Allies became a formalized group upon the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942, which was signed by 26 nations around the world; these ranged from governments in exile from
12019-544: The war, performing a variety of duties in addition to bombing. Specialised versions of the Halifax were developed for troop transport and paradrop operations. After the Second World War, the RAF quickly retired the Halifax, the type being succeeded as a strategic bomber by the Avro Lincoln , an advanced derivative of the Lancaster. During the post-war years, the Halifax was operated by the Royal Egyptian Air Force ,
12138-558: The wording of the Declaration by United Nations , Roosevelt's proposal was not initially supported by Churchill or Stalin. Division emerged over the length of time taken by the Western Allies to establish a second front in Europe. Stalin and the Soviets used the potential employment of the second front as an 'acid test' for their relations with the Anglo-American powers. The Soviets were forced to use as much manpower as possible in
12257-543: Was "the most important of the Allied leaders during the first half of World War II". British West Africa and the British colonies in East and Southern Africa participated, mainly in the North African, East African and Middle-Eastern theatres. Two West African and one East African division served in the Burma Campaign . Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing colony, having received responsible government in 1923. It
12376-424: Was a mostly orthodox design, a mid-wing monoplane with a tail unit featuring twin fins and rudders . The Halifax featured all-metal construction with a smooth, stressed skin covering the majority of the exterior surfaces; the flight control surfaces were an exception, being fabric-covered instead. The slab-sided fuselage contained a 22-foot bomb bay , which contained the majority of the Halifax's payload, while
12495-593: Was a principal allied power in the First World War, had since become increasingly militaristic and imperialistic; parallel to Germany, nationalist sentiment increased throughout the 1920s, culminating in the invasion of Manchuria in 1931. The League of Nations strongly condemned the attack as an act of aggression against China; Japan responded by leaving the League in 1933. The second Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japan's full-scale invasion of China. The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions and initiated sanctions;
12614-472: Was also flown in large numbers by other Allied and Commonwealth nations, such as the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), and Free French Air Force . Various improved versions of the Halifax were introduced, incorporating more powerful engines, a revised defensive turret layout and increased payload. It remained in service with Bomber Command until the end of
12733-578: Was flown from Samlesbury on 15 August 1941. The first production standard Halifax, the Mk.I, had a 22 ft (6.7 m) long bomb bay and six wing bomb cells, and could carry a 13,000 lb (5,900 kg) load. Defensive armament consisted of two .303 in (7.70 mm) Browning machine guns in a Boulton Paul Type C nose turret , with an additional four in a Boulton Paul Type E tail turret . Some aircraft included two additional .303 in (7.70 mm) Vickers K machine guns in beam (side, or "waist") positions. Subtle modifications distinguished
12852-752: Was given the service name Halifax upon acceptance. This name followed the practice of naming heavy bombers after major towns, which in this case was Halifax in Yorkshire . In September 1941, a production Halifax Mk.I participated in an official naming ceremony of the type, officiated by Lord Halifax and Lady Halifax. Series production of the Halifax began at Handley Page's factory at Cricklewood and at English Electric 's site in Samlesbury , Lancashire . In order to speed up production, Handley Page implemented several new manufacturing techniques, including two pioneering approaches: photo- lofting and split construction. In
12971-471: Was heavily used to deploy mines in the vicinity of enemy-held ports. It served increasingly in other support capacities as the war progressed, being used as a glider tug, an electronic warfare aircraft for No. 100 Group and to conduct special operations, such as parachuting agents and arms into occupied Europe , for the Special Operations Executive (SOE). As a glider tug the Halifax
13090-740: Was incompatible with the Messier equipment, this led to these Halifax bombers being given new designations: a Mark II built with Dowty gear was the Mark V. The use of castings rather than forgings in the Dowty undercarriage had resulted in an increased production rate but had also led to a reduced landing weight of 40,000 lb (18,000 kg). The Halifax Mark V were manufactured by Rootes Group at Speke and Fairey at Stockport ; operationally, these were generally used by Coastal Command and for training purposes. Some 904 had been built when Mark V production ended at
13209-457: Was not a sovereign dominion. It governed itself internally and controlled its own armed forces, but had no diplomatic autonomy, and, therefore, was officially at war as soon as Britain was at war. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government issued a symbolic declaration of war nevertheless on 3 September 1939, which made no difference diplomatically but preceded the declarations of war made by all other British dominions and colonies. These included:
13328-405: Was part of RCAF 426 Squadron, and had been shot down near Geraardsbergen during a raid on Leuven, Belgium on 12 May 1944. During the excavation, the bodies of three crew members were recovered and later given proper burial. Several items from the plane were used in restoration of NA337, while other items were transferred to museums. The airframe was melted down and used to construct the ceiling of
13447-588: Was produced as the twin-engine Avro Manchester which, while regarded as unsuccessful mainly due to the Vulture engine, was a direct predecessor of the Avro Lancaster . Both the Lancaster and the Halifax emerged as capable four-engine strategic bombers , thousands of which were used during the War. The Halifax performed its first flight on 25 October 1939, and entered service with the RAF on 13 November 1940. It quickly became
13566-457: Was sentenced to death and subsequently executed by hanging at Pankrác Prison on 29 April 1947. Handley Page Halifax The Handley Page Halifax is a British Royal Air Force (RAF) four-engined heavy bomber of the Second World War . It was developed by Handley Page to the same specification as the contemporary twin-engine Avro Manchester . The Halifax has its origins in
13685-464: Was superior to the Lancaster, the Halifax Mk.III's 59,400 lb (26,900 kg) "tug weight at take off" was higher than a Lancaster Mk.II's 52,800 lb (23,900 kg). Throughout early 1945, the Halifax was frequently dispatched against cities within the German homeland, including Hannover , Magdeburg , Stuttgart , Cologne , Münster , Osnabrück and others. During these months, infrastructure such as oil facilities and railways were given
13804-524: Was tasked with commanding the parachute groups. The operation successfully eliminated Heydrich , but in the aftermath, as mass executions started during the second martial law, Čurda sought refuge with his mother in Nová Hlína. Unable to withstand the physical and emotional strain and seeking to protect his family, Čurda betrayed his military oath by providing the Gestapo with information after an announcement promising leniency for such intelligence. This led to
13923-636: Was the promise of the new model that, in January 1938, the RAF chose to place their first production order for the type, ordering 100 Mk.I Halifaxes "off the drawing board", at which point the serials which had already been assigned to the H.P.56 were switched to the H.P.57. The first prototype was built at Handley Page's facility in Cricklewood , London , It was then dismantled and transported by road to RAF Bicester (the nearest non-operational RAF airfield with suitable facilities) for reassembly. The first flight of
14042-416: Was too anxious to prove a point ... he suffered from an inferiority complex." During December 1941, Roosevelt devised the name "United Nations" for the Allies and Churchill agreed. He referred to the Big Three and China as the " Four Policemen " repeatedly from 1942. The alliance was formalised in the Declaration by United Nations signed on 1 January 1942. There were the 26 original signatories of
14161-462: Was very confused. Free French forces were recognized only by Britain, while the United States considered Vichy France to be the legal government of the country until Operation Overlord , while also preparing U.S. occupation francs . Winston Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to its status of a major power after the liberation of Paris in August 1944; the Prime Minister feared that after
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