Coastal defence (or defense ) and coastal fortification are measures taken to provide protection against military attack at or near a coastline (or other shoreline ), for example, fortifications and coastal artillery . Because an invading enemy normally requires a port or harbour to sustain operations, such defences are usually concentrated around such facilities, or places where such facilities could be constructed. Coastal artillery fortifications generally followed the development of land fortifications, usually incorporating land defences; sometimes separate land defence forts were built to protect coastal forts. Through the middle 19th century, coastal forts could be bastion forts , star forts , polygonal forts , or sea forts, the first three types often with detached gun batteries called "water batteries". Coastal defence weapons throughout history were heavy naval guns or weapons based on them, often supplemented by lighter weapons. In the late 19th century separate batteries of coastal artillery replaced forts in some countries; in some areas these became widely separated geographically through the mid-20th century as weapon ranges increased. The amount of landward defence provided began to vary by country from the late 19th century; by 1900 new US forts almost totally neglected these defences. Booms were also usually part of a protected harbor's defences. In the middle 19th century underwater minefields and later controlled mines were often used, or stored in peacetime to be available in wartime. With the rise of the submarine threat at the beginning of the 20th century, anti-submarine nets were used extensively, usually added to boom defences, with major warships often being equipped with them (to allow rapid deployment once the ship was anchored or moored) through early World War I. In World War I railway artillery emerged and soon became part of coastal artillery in some countries; with railway artillery in coast defence some type of revolving mount had to be provided to allow tracking of fast-moving targets.
71-538: The Atlantic Wall (German: Atlantikwall ) was an extensive system of coastal defences and fortifications built by Nazi Germany between 1942 and 1944 along the coast of continental Europe and Scandinavia as a defence against an anticipated Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe from the United Kingdom , during World War II . The manning and operation of the Atlantic Wall was administratively overseen by
142-849: A compulsory labour system, drafting some 600,000 French workers to construct these permanent fortifications along the Dutch, Belgian, and French coasts facing the English Channel . Efficiency of the OT decreased in late 1943 and 1944 as a result of manpower pressures, fuel shortages and the bombing of worksites, such as V-weapons sites, where some volunteer workers refused to work in such dangerous areas. OT Cherbourg in January 1944 dealt with 34 companies with 15,000 workers and 79 sub contractors. Daily, weekly and monthly reports showing progress, work variations, material used, stocks of material, labour hours used per skill type,
213-414: A concrete pontoon barge on which stood two cylindrical towers on top of which was the gun platform mounting. They were laid down in dry dock and assembled as complete units. They were then fitted out before being towed out and sunk onto their sand bank positions in 1942. The other type consisted of seven interconnected steel platforms built on stilts. Five platforms carried guns arranged in a semicircle around
284-578: A critical component of the defence, and smaller guns were also employed to protect the mine fields from minesweeping vessels . Defences of a given harbor were initially designated artillery districts, redesignated as coast defense commands in 1913 and as harbor defense commands in 1924. In 1901 the Artillery Corps was divided into field artillery and coast artillery units, and in 1907 the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
355-414: A difference. Under his direction, hundreds of reinforced concrete pillboxes were built on the beaches, or sometimes slightly inland, to house machine guns, antitank guns , and light and heavy artillery. Land mines and antitank obstacles were planted on the beaches, and underwater obstacles and naval mines were placed in waters just offshore. Little known was that touch sensitive mines were placed atop
426-449: A letter L to all their designs, copying 1938 designs before creating their own series. The standardisation greatly simplified the manufacture of equipment, the supply of materials and the budgetary and financial control of the construction as well as the speed of planning for construction projects. Following the occupation of German territories west of the Rhine , fortress engineers began
497-695: A series of standardised bunker designs built in large numbers by the Germans in the Siegfried Line ( German : Westwall ) and the Atlantic Wall as part of their defensive fortifications prior to and during the Second World War . There were several advantages to standardising the design and construction: As early as 1933 the Army command began work on the standardisation of defensive works with their publication of
568-460: A specific purpose, having been updated as enemy constructions were overrun and examined, even testing some to destruction for effectiveness. They incorporated standard features, such as an entrance door at right angles, armoured air intake, 30-millimetre (1.2 in) steel doors, ventilation and telephones, internal walls lined with wood, and an emergency exit system. There were over 200 standardised armour parts. The standardisation greatly simplified
639-509: Is on a built-up island, 400 meters (1,312 ft) from the shore, and connected to it by a causeway that high tide completely submerses. The most elaborate sea fort is Murud-Janjira , which is so extensive that one might truly call it a sea fortress. The most recent sea forts were the Maunsell Forts , which the British built during World War II as anti-aircraft platforms. One type consisted of
710-528: The Endicott Board , whose recommendations would lead to a large-scale modernization programme of harbour and coastal defences in the United States, especially the construction of well dispersed, open topped reinforced concrete emplacements protected by sloped earthworks. Many of these featured disappearing guns , which sat protected behind the walls, but could be raised to fire. Underwater mine fields were
781-617: The First World War the British Admiralty designed eight towers code named M-N that were to be built and positioned in the Straits of Dover to protect allied merchant shipping from German U-boats . Nab Tower is still in situ. The Maunsell Forts were small fortified towers, primarily for anti-aircraft guns, built in the Thames and Mersey estuaries during the Second World War . With
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#1732844605348852-757: The German Army , with some support from Luftwaffe ground forces. The Kriegsmarine (German Navy) maintained a separate coastal defence network, organised into a number of sea defence zones . Hitler ordered the construction of the fortifications in 1942 through his Führer Directive No. 40. More than half a million French workers were drafted to build it. The wall was frequently mentioned in Nazi propaganda , where its size and strength were usually exaggerated. The fortifications included colossal coastal guns, batteries , mortars , and artillery , and thousands of artillery pieces were stationed in its defences. Today, ruins of
923-672: The Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence . This tells the story of coastal defence along the South China coast from the Ming dynasty onwards. Taiwan has several coastal fortifications, with some, such as Fort Zeelandia or Anping Castle dating to the time of the Dutch East India Company . Others, such as Cihou Fort , Eternal Golden Castle , Hobe Fort , date more to the end of the 19th century. The Uhrshawan Battery dates primarily to
994-530: The Organisation Todt (OT) was instructed to undertake the building of 200–250 strong points in each of the larger islands. The plan was finalised by the OT and submitted to Hitler. The original defence order was reinforced with a second dated 20 October 1941, following a Fuhrer conference on 18 October to discuss the engineers' assessment of requirements. The permanent fortification of the Channel Islands
1065-643: The Siegfried Line during the prewar years along the Franco-German border . OT was the chief engineering group responsible for the design and construction of the wall's major gun emplacements and fortifications. The OT supplied supervisors and labour as well as organising supplies, machinery and transport to supplement the staff and equipment of construction companies. Many of them were German, however construction companies in occupied counties bid for contracts. Companies could apply for OT work or could be conscripted. Companies failing to complete their work on time, which
1136-513: The U.S. Coast Guard would patrol the shores of the United States during the war. Some patrolled on horseback with mounted beach patrols. On 13 June 1942 Seaman 2nd Class John Cullen, patrolling the beach in Amagansett, New York , discovered the first landing of German saboteurs in Operation Pastorius . Cullen was the first American who actually came in contact with the enemy on the shores of
1207-652: The gun turrets and searchlights . The defence of its coasts was a major concern for the United States from its independence. Prior to the American Revolution many coastal fortifications already dotted the Atlantic coast, as protection from pirate raids and foreign incursions. The Revolutionary War led to the construction of many additional fortifications, mostly comprising simple earthworks erected to meet specific threats. The prospect of war with European powers in
1278-562: The 1790s led to a national programme of fortification building spanning seventy years in three phases, known as the First, Second and Third Systems. By the time of the American Civil War , advances in armour and weapons had made masonry forts obsolete, and the combatants discovered that their steamships and ironclad warships could penetrate Third System defences with acceptable losses. In 1885 US President Grover Cleveland appointed
1349-618: The 1860 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom , following concerns about the strength of the French Navy. In 1865 Lieutenant Arthur Campbell Walker , of the School of Musketry advocated the use of armoured trains on "an iron high-road running parallel with that other 'silent highway', the source of all our greatness, the ocean, our time-honoured 'moat and circumvallation'" During
1420-611: The Allies, it alarmed Hitler, who was sure an Allied invasion in the West would shortly follow. Following Dieppe, Hitler gave Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , the overall German Commander-in-Chief in the West, 15 further divisions to shore up the German positions. Early in 1944, with an Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe becoming ever more likely, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was assigned to improve
1491-509: The Atlantic Wall; these companies were not penalised during the post war period. Immediately after the war, there was little interest in preserving the wall due to the negative memories associated with the Nazi occupation . Some of the beach fortifications have toppled or are underwater, while those further inland still exist mainly due to their location. One of the best preserved parts is the Todt Battery . In 2011, renewed efforts to preserve
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#17328446053481562-586: The Castrum Maris as Fort Saint Angelo . In the 1550s, Fort Saint Elmo and Fort Saint Michael were built, and walls surrounded the coastal cities of Birgu and Senglea . In 1565, the Great Siege of Malta reduced many of these coastal fortifications to rubble, but after the siege they were rebuilt. The fortified city of Valletta was built on the Sciberras Peninsula, and further modifications were made to
1633-631: The Channel Islands lacked strategic significance and the Allies bypassed them when they invaded Normandy. As a result, the German garrisons stationed on the islands did not surrender until 9 May 1945—one day after Victory in Europe Day . The garrison on Alderney did not surrender until 16 May. As most of the German garrisons surrendered peacefully, the Channel Islands are host to some of the best-preserved Atlantic Wall sites. The commander in Guernsey produced books giving detailed pictures, plans and descriptions of
1704-569: The Low Countries in little more than six weeks. Prior to the Atlantic Wall decision, following a number of commando raids, on 2 June 1941 Adolf Hitler asked for maps of the Channel Islands . These were provided the next day and by 13 June 1941 Hitler had made a decision. Ordering additional men to the Islands and having decided the defences were inadequate, lacking tanks and coastal artillery ,
1775-657: The Normandy dry dock and installations. The second attack was the Dieppe Raid , launched near the French port of Dieppe in August 1942 to test the German defences and provide combat experience for Canadian troops. The Germans were defeated at St. Nazaire, but had little difficulty in repulsing the attack at Dieppe, where they inflicted heavy casualties. Although the Dieppe raid was a disaster for
1846-638: The OT for the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy) and Luftwaffe (airforce) would also man some of the fortifications, and they had their own designs and designations of fortifications, the Navy used M ( Mittlere or Medium) for normal sea defence batteries with S ( Schwere or Heavy) for the larger calibre guns, with FL ( Flak or anti-aircraft) and V ( Versorgung or support) for other emplacements, using thicknesses varying from 1.2m to 2.2m. The Luftwaffe simply added
1917-546: The Order for the Construction of Permanent Fortifications ( Vorschrift zum Bau ständiger Befestigungsanlagen ) or B. st. B. In addition to general directions, it also contained very specific regulations on the armoured components ( Panzerungsteilen or P-Teile ) and ventilation components ( Lüftungsteilen or ML-Teile ) to be used. The most important aspect of standardization was construction thickness ( Ausbaustärke ). This referred to
1988-580: The Pacific coast. In 1939–40 the threat of war in Europe prompted larger appropriations and the resumption of work along the Atlantic coast. Under a major program developed in the wake of the Fall of France in 1940, a near-total replacement of previous coast defenses was implemented, centered on 16-inch guns in new casemated batteries. These were supplemented by 6-inch and 90 mm guns , also in new installations. In WW2
2059-539: The Siegfried Line changed. The renewed shortage of raw materials led to the development of a new series of Regelbau designs, the so-called wartime standard designs or Kriegsregelbauten . After the "lavish" Regelbauten of the Aachen-Saar Programme, the final construction phase was dominated by massive financial constraints. For example, observation cupolas and flank firing positions were no longer provided and
2130-636: The Spanish founded the "city-fort" of Ancud in 1768 and separated Chiloé from the Captaincy General of Chile into a direct dependency of the Viceroyalty of Peru. China first established formal coastal defences during the early Ming dynasty (14th century) to protect against attacks by pirates ( wokou ). Coastal defences were maintained through both the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty that followed, protecting
2201-474: The United States during the war and his report led to the capture of the German sabotage team. For this, Cullen received the Legion of Merit . The walls around coastal cities, such as Southampton , had evolved from simpler Norman fortifications by the start of the 13th century. Later, King Edward I was a prolific castle builder and sites such as Conwy Castle , built 1283 to 1289, defend river approaches as well as
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2272-444: The advent of missile technology coastal forts became obsolete. Britain's coastal forts were therefore decommissioned in 1956 and the units manning them disbanded. Russia Federation developed A-222E Bereg-E 130mm coastal mobile artillery system , K-300P Bastion-P coastal defence system and Bal-E coastal missile complex with Kh-35 /Kh-35E missiles. Regelbau The Regelbau (German for "standard(ised) construction") were
2343-470: The army engineers and the OT to organise quickly. Massive supplies of cement, steel reinforcing and armour plate would be required and everything would need to be transported. Nazi propaganda claimed that the wall stretched from the cape of Norway down to the Spanish border . The Regelbau (standard build) system used books of plans for each of over 600 approved types of bunker and casemate , each having
2414-605: The attack, the Germans had successfully occupied Poland. Less than a month after this victory, Adolf Hitler issued a directive stating that Germany must be ready for an offensive through France and the Low Countries . However, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (German high command; OKW) was convinced that preparations would take at least until the following year. After furious arguments, Hitler reluctantly agreed to wait. In May 1940, three massive German army groups overran France and
2485-400: The beach assault of modern amphibious operations , seaborne assaults of the classical and medieval age more often took the form of coastal raiders sailing up river and landing well inland of the coast. Prior to the invention of naval artillery that could sink hostile ships, the most that coastal defence could do was act as an early warning system, that could alert local naval or ground forces of
2556-593: The beach obstacles. The intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload on the beaches. By the time of the Allied invasion , the Germans had laid almost six million mines in Northern France. More gun emplacements and minefields extended inland along roads leading away from the beaches. In likely landing spots for gliders and parachutists , the Germans emplanted slanted poles with sharpened tops, which
2627-686: The coast against pirates, and against the Portuguese and other European powers that sought to impose their will on China. Subsequently, the European powers built their own coastal defences to protect the various colonial enclaves that they established along the Chinese coast. One such, a fort built by the British commanding the Lei Yue Mun channel between Hong Kong Island and the mainland, has been converted into
2698-471: The coast, sea forts are not. Instead, they are off the coast on islands, artificial islands , or are specially built structures. Some sea forts, such as Fort Denison or Fort Sumter , are within harbours in proximity to the coast, but most are at some distance off the coast. Some, such as for example Bréhon Tower or Fort Drum completely occupy small islands; others, such as Flakfortet and Pampus , are on artificial islands built up on shoals. Fort Louvois
2769-568: The coastline. The first of these was Sliema Point Battery , built to protect the northern approach to the Grand Harbour. A chain of fortifications, including Fort Delimara and Fort Benghisa , was also built to protect Marsaxlokk Harbour. From 1935 to the 1940s, the British built many pillboxes in Malta for defence in case of an Italian invasion. The coastline of New Zealand was fortified in two main waves. The first wave occurred around 1885 and
2840-494: The coasts of Malta and Gozo. Many of these have been destroyed, but a few examples still survive. After the British took Malta in 1800, they modified the Order's defences in the harbour area to keep up with new technology. Malta itself, Gibraltar , Bermuda , and Halifax, Nova Scotia were designated Imperial fortresses . The Corradino Lines were built in the 1870s to protect the Grand Harbour from landward attacks. Between 1872 and 1912, many forts and batteries were built around
2911-617: The construction of the Valdivian Fort System that begun in 1645. As consequence of the Seven Years' War the Valdivian Fort System was updated and reinforced from 1764 onwards. Other vulnerable localities of colonial Chile such as Chiloé Archipelago , Concepción , Juan Fernández Islands and Valparaíso were also made ready for an eventual English attack. Inspired in the recommendations of former governor Santa María
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2982-521: The construction of the Siegfried Line in 1936. In doing so they were able to benefit from their earlier experience of bunker construction. In compliance with the Versailles Treaty , they had already built the Wetterau-Main-Tauber position and Neckar-Enz position before 1936. When, in 1936, construction started on the Siegfried Line itself, they were able at the outset to utilize designs from
3053-817: The contract, such as bonus payments for efficiency, including the wage rates and bonus payments for OT workers (which depended on their nationality and skill). There could be several construction companies working on each site. Labour comprised skilled volunteers, engineers, designers and supervisors, who were paid and treated well. Second came volunteer workers, often skilled technicians, such as carpenters, plumbers, electricians and metal workers. Again, these workers were paid, took holidays and were well treated. Next came unskilled forced labour, paid very little and treated quite harshly. Lastly came effective slave labour, paid little, badly fed and treated very harshly. The OT ran training courses to improve labour skills. Massive numbers of workers were needed. The Vichy regime imposed
3124-905: The defences, casemates designed for non-German artillery, anti tank and machine guns and the use of turrets from obsolete tanks in tobrukstand pill boxes ( tobruk pits ). The labour came from an expansion of the Organisation Todt , who contracted with building construction companies from Germany and occupied countries to undertake the work. The OT provided them with equipment, supervisors and labour. Labour comprised skilled volunteers, engineers, designers and supervisors, who were paid and treated well, second came volunteer workers, often skilled technicians, such as carpenters, plumbers, electricians and metal workers, again these workers were paid, took holidays and were well treated. Next came unskilled forced labour, paid very little and treated quite harshly, lastly came effective slave labour, paid so little, badly fed and treated very harshly. New designs were added to
3195-583: The early 17th century, the Order began to strengthen the coastal fortifications outside the harbour area, by building watchtowers . The first of these was Garzes Tower , which was built in 1605. The Wignacourt , Lascaris and De Redin towers were built over the course of the 17th century. The last coastal watchtower to be built was Isopu Tower in 1667. Between 1605 and 1667, a total of 31 towers were built, of which 22 survive today (with another 3 in ruins). From 1714 onwards, about 52 batteries and redoubts , along with several entrenchments, were built around
3266-695: The first half of the 19th century. It actually underwent bombardment during the Sino-French War . The islands of Malta , Gozo and Comino all have some form of coastal fortification. The area around the Grand Harbour was possibly first fortified during Arab rule, and by the 13th century, a castle known as the Castrum Maris was built in Birgu to protect the harbour. The Maltese islands were given to Order of Saint John in 1530, who settled in Birgu and rebuilt
3337-566: The fortifications in the island, Festung Guernsey . Many major ports and positions were incorporated into the Atlantic Wall, receiving heavy fortifications. Hitler ordered all positions to fight to the end, and some of them remained in German hands until Germany's unconditional surrender . Several of the port fortresses were resupplied by submarines after being surrounded by Allied Forces. The defenders of these positions included foreign volunteers and Waffen-SS troops. Many French construction companies benefited financially from helping construct
3408-567: The fortifications over the years. The harbour area was strengthened even more by the building of the Floriana Lines , Santa Margherita Lines , Cottonera Lines and Fort Ricasoli in the 17th century and Fort Manoel and Fort Tigné in the nearby Marsamxett Harbour in the 18th century. The Order also built Fort Chambray near Mġarr Harbour in Gozo. In the early 15th century, a number of watch posts had been established around Malta's coastline. In
3479-604: The impending attack. For example, in the late Roman period the Saxon Shore was a system of forts at the mouths of navigable rivers, and watch towers along the coast of Britannia and Gaul . Later in Anglo-Saxon Wessex , protection against Viking raiders took the form of coast watchers whose duty was to alert the local militia, the navy, which would attempt to intercept the raider's ships, or failing that, to destroy them after they had beached. Against smaller raiding forces,
3550-412: The island of Alderney , which is closest to Britain. Hitler had decreed that one-twelfth of the steel and concrete used in the Atlantic Wall should go to the Channel Islands, because of the propaganda value of controlling British territory. The islands were some of the most densely fortified areas in Europe, with a host of Hohlgangsanlage tunnels , casemates , and coastal artillery positions . However,
3621-519: The manufacture of equipment, the supply of materials and the budgetary and financial control of the construction as well as the speed of planning for construction projects. To offset shortages, captured equipment from the French and other occupied countries armies were incorporated in the defences, casemates designed for non-German artillery, anti tank and machine guns and the use of turrets from obsolete tanks in tobrukstand pill boxes ( tobruk pits ). Organisation Todt (OT), formed in 1933, had designed
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#17328446053483692-409: The number of Regelbau types. This new building phase was called the Limes Programme. The fortress engineers were no longer in charge of construction; instead Organization Todt (OT) took over, promising Hitler it would deliver the number of structures he wanted. Plans for the Limes Programme did not envisage the inclusion of the cities of Aachen and Saarbrücken and they therefore ended up in front of
3763-410: The planned line of fortifications. That changed in 1939 with the Aachen-Saar Programme. From 1939, yet more new Regelbau bunkers were designed for the construction programme that saw increases in the construction thicknesses. From then on, only bunkers that met the "B new" and "A" standards were to be built. With the outbreak of the Second World War on 1 September 1939, priorities for the construction of
3834-441: The rooms were smaller. In 1940 work was ordered on a number of construction projects in Western Europe. Amongst the first were the Dover Strait guns begun in July 1940 and included Todt Battery . Building began in February 1941 on the Saint-Nazaire submarine base Following the first effective commando raid in March 1941 Operation Claymore and with the planning of Operation Barbarossa , Hitler decided in June 1941 to strengthen
3905-410: The sixth platform, which contained the control centre and accommodation. The seventh platform, set further out than the gun towers, was the searchlight tower. In Colonial times the Spanish Empire diverted significant resources to fortify the Chilean coast as consequence of Dutch and English raids. The Dutch occupation of Valdivia in 1643 caused great alarm among Spanish authorities and triggered
3976-406: The surrounding land. Built 1539 to 1544, the Device Forts are a series of artillery fortifications built for Henry VIII to defend the southern coast of England. Between 1804 and 1812 the British authorities built a chain of towers known as Martello Towers to defend the south and east coast of England , Ireland, Jersey and Guernsey against possible invasion from France . This type of tower
4047-431: The thickness of the walls and ceilings of the bunker. In the four years it took to build the Siegfried Line, changes were repeatedly made to the list of components to be used. The reasons for this were continual developments in weapon technology as well as the availability of armoured components and raw materials (steel) in general. Construction thicknesses (wall and ceiling thicknesses): In addition, bunker design
4118-470: The threat of losing their ships, and their way home with their loot, was often enough to force them to curtail their attack. In addition there was a system of fortified towns , burghs , that were positioned at choke points along navigable rivers to prevent raiders from sailing inland. Sea forts are completely surrounded by water – if not permanently, then at least at high tide (i.e. they are tidal islands ). Unlike most coastal fortifications, which are on
4189-484: The troops called Rommelspargel ("Rommel's Asparagus"). Low-lying river and estuarine areas were intentionally flooded. Rommel believed that Germany would inevitably be defeated unless the invasion could be stopped on the beach, declaring, "It is absolutely necessary that we push the British and Americans back from the beaches. Afterwards it will be too late; the first 24 hours of the invasion will be decisive." The Channel Islands were heavily fortified , particularly
4260-557: The two earlier fortifications. From these existing plans, fortress pioneers rapidly developed improved bunkers that were built from 1937. This building phase was named the Engineer Construction Programme and was characterized by bunkers built to B1 standard thicknesses (see above). Since the thickness of these structures was soon considered to be too weak and because there was a large number Regelbau designs (and hence confusion), new types were developed and implemented from 1938. These new designs were achieved largely by simplifying and reducing
4331-412: The wall exist in all of the nations where it was built, although many structures have fallen into the ocean or have been demolished over the years. World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939, with Nazi Germany 's invasion of Poland . Two days later, the UK and France declared war on Germany. Poland's geographical location, however, prevented the Allies from intervening directly. Four weeks into
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#17328446053484402-724: The wall were spearheaded by organisations in Germany, the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom. The question has been raised over whether France should declare the wall a National Monument to ensure it is preserved; however no government so far has envisaged this. Although the defensive wall was never fully completed, many bunkers still exist near Ostend , Channel Islands , on Walcheren , near Scheveningen , The Hague , Katwijk , Noordwijk , Den Helder , and in Scandinavia ( Denmark and Norway specifically). Coastal defence and fortification In littoral warfare , coastal defence counteracts naval offence, such as naval artillery , naval infantry ( marines ), or both. Rather than
4473-413: The wall's defences. Believing the existing coastal fortifications to be entirely inadequate, he immediately began strengthening them. Rommel's main concern was Allied air power. He had seen it first-hand when fighting the British and Americans in North Africa , and it had left a profound impression on him. He feared that any German counterattack would be broken up by Allied aircraft long before it could make
4544-456: The weather, equipment inventory and quality, level of supervision, employee absences, staffing levels, deaths and problems experienced all had to be filed with the OT. Throughout most of 1942–43, the Atlantic Wall remained a relaxed front for the Axis troops manning it, with only two large-scale British attacks. Operation Chariot , launched near St Nazaire in March 1942, successfully destroyed German pumping machinery for, and severely damaged,
4615-434: The west against possible attacks. The Channel Islands were chosen to become major fortifications, followed in 1942 with the order to build the Atlantic Wall . A mass of equipment was needed, cement, sand, gravel and steel to construct the concrete fortifications, weapons and armour plate for defence and hundreds of thousands of workers. To offset shortages, equipment from French and other occupied armies were incorporated in
4686-530: Was a response to fears of an attack by Russia . The second wave occurred during World War II and was due to fears of invasion by the Japanese . The fortifications were built from British designs adapted to New Zealand conditions. These installations typically included gun emplacements, pill boxes, fire command or observation posts , camouflage strategies, underground bunkers , sometimes with interconnected tunnels, containing magazines , supply and plotting rooms and protected engine rooms supplying power to
4757-417: Was also used elsewhere in the British Empire and in the United States. In the early Victorian era, Alderney was strongly fortified to provide a massive anchorage for the British Navy before France became an ally of Britain in the Crimean War , even so plans changed slowly and the Palmerston Forts , a group of forts and associated structures were built during the Victorian period on the recommendations of
4828-405: Was always possible as the OT controlled the material and manpower of each firm, could find themselves closed down, or more likely fined, or taken over or merged with another firm to make a more efficient larger unit. Successful firms however could make attractive profits. The OT obtained quotes for necessary works and signed contracts with each construction company setting out the price and terms of
4899-446: Was arranged in "series", the 1939 designs with A and B thickness falling into the 100 series . Later 400 , 500 and 600 series were created, the new series were more designed to enable the casemate to be capable of taking captured weapons than to be stronger, the 400 series was designed for Czechoslovakian weapons. The Channel Islands received mainly 600 series constructions. Whilst constructions were undertaken and planned by
4970-435: Was created to operate these defences. The development of military aviation rendered these open topped emplacements vulnerable to air attack. Therefore, the next, and last, generation of coastal artillery was mounted under thick concrete shields covered with vegetation to make them virtually invisible from above. In anticipation of a conflict with Japan , most of the limited funds available between 1933 and 1938 were spent on
5041-524: Was to make them into an impregnable fortress to be completed within 14 months. Festungspionierkommandeur XIV was created to command the project of fortifying the Channel Islands. It was six months later on 23 March 1942 that Hitler issued Führer Directive No. 40, which called for the creation of an "Atlantic Wall". He ordered naval and submarine bases to be heavily defended. Fortifications remained concentrated around ports until late in 1943, when defences were increased in other areas. This decision required
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