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101-480: The Oroqens are mainly hunters, and customarily use animal fur and skins for clothing. Many of them have given up hunting and adhered to laws that aimed to protect wildlife in the People's Republic of China. The government has provided modern dwellings for those who have left behind the traditional way of life. The Oroqen are represented in the People's Congress by their own delegate and are a recognized ethnic minority . In

202-410: A Russian girl and her mother were gassed and one Russian man was cut into two and preserved with formaldehyde. Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: " one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and

303-489: A demographic that takes up the smallest fraction of the population is not necessarily labelled the "minority" if it wields dominant power. In the academic context, the terms "minority" and "majority" are used in terms of hierarchical power structures . For example, in South Africa, during Apartheid , white Europeans held virtually all social, economic, and political power over black Africans. For this reason, black Africans are

404-574: A disability at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions designed to cater to the dominant group. ( See the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities .) People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in the West that people should have

505-782: A few days in Los Angeles , California , which since 1905 had been the center of a large community of Spiritual Christians from Russia. The Pryguny who recently immigrated via Iran rushed to the port and offered to host the Old Believers at their homes and prayer halls. In the process, addresses were exchanged. Later, once settled in South America, the elders used these addresses to contact potential sponsors, and eventually came to Los Angeles, with recommendations to go north to Oregon . Pryguny in Oregon agreed to advise them in settlement. Later on,

606-486: A minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination". The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively ascribed by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it

707-427: A minority, the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group. Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies. Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries. In

808-611: A party in January 1902 in Kashgar . This caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Uyghur populace against the Russians on the pretext of protecting Muslim women because anti-Russian sentiment had built up. Even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Uyghurs clashed violently with the Russians before they were dispersed. The Chinese sought to end the tensions to avoid giving the Russians

909-611: A post and telegraph office, a bank, and branches of national trading houses. Most of the Chinese worked in small own businesses. The Russian community could find here its only high school in the area, the seat of the Russian Association and the local branch of the nation-wide Office for the Russian Emigrants' Affairs (BREM) which published the weekly newspaper The Cossack Life ( Russian : Казачья Жизнь ). To Soviet visitors of

1010-562: A pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since

1111-875: A racial and religious minority). Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others. The term "minority group" often occurs within the discourse of civil rights and collective rights , as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live. Minority group members often face discrimination in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others. While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through structural inequalities , in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all. Those in favour of minority rights often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of

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1212-436: A section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted. The disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights emphasize

1313-547: A special veneration for animals, especially the bear and the tiger , which they consider their blood brothers. The tiger is known to them as wutaqi , which means "elderly man", while the bear is amaha , which means "uncle“. For tourism and other cultural activities, there are presently three new museums in the Autonomous Banner, one of which is dedicated to The Northern Wei Dynasty. Ethnic minority The term " minority group " has different usages, depending on

1414-726: A telegram to put an end to "the bloody nightmare of the Red henchmen". In this climate of anti-Soviet fear, the Three-River Russians initially welcomed the Japanese invasion . In December 1932, they greeted the new "era of order and justice" and promised their cooperation. Japan permitted a certain degree of cultural autonomy for minorities like the Russians, mainly to counter the numerically dominant Han Chinese in their new puppet state, Manchukuo . Russian language propaganda of Manchukuo painted local life in idyllic colors. This initial optimism

1515-507: A very different culture and language makes difficulties in the early stages of life in the new country. Voluntary immigrants do not experience a sense of divided identity as much as involuntary minorities and are often rich in social capital because of their educational ambitions. Major immigrant groups in the United States include Mexicans, Central and South Americans, Cubans, Africans, East Asians, and South Asians. The term sexual minority

1616-680: Is a Northern Tungusic language. Their language is very similar to the Evenki language and it is believed that speakers of these two languages can understand 70% of the other language. Their language is still unwritten; however, the majority of the Oroqen are capable of reading and writing Chinese , and some can also speak the Daur language . The Oroqen (Mongolian Guruchin ) are one of the oldest ethnic groups in northeast China. The endonym oroqen means "people who keep reindeer, reindeer herder(s) ." The ancestor of

1717-418: Is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates. Also known as "castelike minorities", involuntary minorities are a term for people who were originally brought into any society against their will. In

1818-570: Is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or solidarity . Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group. Joe Feagin , states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by

1919-484: Is an important raw material in the traditional culture alongside the furs. It serves for the preparation of containers of all types, from the manufacture of cradles to boats. With respect to the reindeer herding of the Evenki, Oroqen and Nanai, which all shared the use of birch bark, it can be said that these cultures are part of a "birch bark" culture. The Oroqen is now among China's most highly educated ethnic groups. 23.3% of

2020-435: Is based on the idea that a group can be considered a minority even if it includes such a large number of people that it is numerically not a minority in society. Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries. As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs)

2121-414: Is called a sierranju ( Chinese : 斜仁柱 ; pinyin : xiérénzhù ) and is covered in the summer with birch bark and in the winter with deer furs. These dwellings have conical forms and are made out of 20 to 30 pine sticks. The dwellings are usually about six meters in diameter and five meters in height. In the centre a fire is placed that serves as a kitchen, as well as a source of lighting. Birch bark

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2222-491: Is frequently used by public health researchers to recognize a wide variety of individuals who engage in same-sex sexual behavior, including those who do not identify under the LGBTQ+ umbrella. For example, men who have sex with men (MSM), but do not identify as gay. In addition, the term gender minorities can include many types of gender variant people, such as intersex people, transgender people , or non-binary individuals. However,

2323-584: Is largely determined hereditarily . However, it can also be influenced by factors such as adoption , cultural assimilation , religious conversion , and language shift . As race and ethnicity often overlap, many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some Jews , Roma , and Sámi . In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both inter- and intra-group identification. In some countries, such as

2424-579: Is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life. The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics. All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity. In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities. This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from

2525-776: Is one of the criteria for to determine a national minority, upon the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina ). However, other minorities such as Roma and Jews , are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including

2626-686: Is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country" and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence. Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: ethnicity (ethnic minority), race (racial minority), religion ( religious minority ), sexual orientation ( sexual minority ), or disability . The framework of intersectionality can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both

2727-451: Is that he reported performing only one ritual journey to the lower world, which he called Buni. This term for the lowerworld or land of the dead is identical to that used by the Nanai people of Siberia in accounts of shamans collected almost a century ago. Sacrifices to ancestral spirits are still routinely made, and there is a folk psychological belief in animism. Traditionally the Oroqen have

2828-711: The Bolsheviks , many Cossacks and other refugees fled to Xinjiang under the lead of General Ivanov . Some of them rioted in Ili and Chuguchak but were finally suppressed by the Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin . Part of them later joined the Guihua soldiers recruited by the Xinjiang government. From 1931 to 1938, the Soviet government forced a lot of Chinese and their Russian relatives to move to China. More than 20,000 Russians entered China through

2929-936: The Ergun Right Banner . The earliest Russian immigrants who came to Xinjiang were the Kerjaks  [ ru ] (кержаки in Russian, Old Believers ), who were persecuted under the reign of Peter the Great for refusing to convert to the Russian Orthodox Church . They sent four heralds to negotiate with the Kazakh chief Kala Usman and they were allowed to settle down in Burqin . After several years, they also pioneered some settlements in Kanas , Chuguchak , and Ili . In 1861, 160 Kerjaks entered

3030-563: The Japanese occupation of Manchuria . Some Harbin Russians initially welcomed the occupation, hoping that the Japanese would help them in their anti-Soviet struggles and provide protection from the Chinese, who were desperately trying to restore their sovereignty over Harbin. During the late 17th century, the Russian Empire launched several military actions against the Qing Dynasty . Some of

3131-682: The Russian Empire , various peoples in various places were called Orochen ( Russian : Ороченъ ; orthography before Soviet reform ), in several variants (орочон, орончон, орочен). One of the most commonly accepted hypotheses is that the term is derived from the Manchu language: орунчунь ( orunchun ) meaning "deer people", or "deer herders" (cf. pinyin "Èlúnchūn"). This is not a self-naming of these peoples, but an exonym , i.e., assigned to them by Manchu, Tungus, or Russians, sometimes due to misunderstanding. Therefore old documents speaking about orochon / orochen must be considered cautiously. The Oroqen language

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3232-657: The Russian Revolution , and the Russian Civil War . In the 1920s Harbin was flooded with 100,000 to 200,000 White émigrés fleeing from Russia. Harbin held the largest Russian population outside of the state of Russia. With Russian influence in Harbin coming to an end, Harbin had to live under Chinese and Japanese control for the next several decades. In 1920, the Republic of China announced that it would no longer recognize

3333-606: The Transbaikal region, the Qing dynasty was for a long time not interested in development of their side of the border. After the Decembrist revolt of 1825, political prisoners were sent to the Nerchinsk area. Some of them are said to have escaped from Katorga ( penal labor ) across the river and to have married indigenous women. Since the 1870s, Cossacks began grazing their cattle on

3434-488: The United Kingdom . The various minority groups in a country are often not given equal treatment. Some groups are too small or indistinct to obtain minority protections. For example, a member of a particularly small ethnic group might be forced to check "Other" on a checklist of different backgrounds and so might receive fewer privileges than a member of a more defined group. Many contemporary governments prefer to assume

3535-571: The United States , for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (58.4%) and all other racial and ethnic groups ( Mexican , African Americans , Asian Americans , American Indian , and Native Hawaiians ) are classified as "minorities". If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the plurality , not the majority. Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as people of color or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on

3636-446: The "minority group", despite the fact that they outnumber white Europeans in South Africa. This is why academics more frequently use the term "minority group" to refer to a category of people that experience relative disadvantage, as compared to members of a dominant social group. To address this ambiguity, Harris Mylonas has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that

3737-706: The 2nd People's Congress was held and the Guihua people were officially recognized as a minority group of Xinjiang. Besides damage done by previous European explorers, White movement bandits escaping from the Russian Civil War were responsible for vandalizing much of the Buddhist art at the Mogao Grottoes . They had caused trouble in Xinjiang , but were defeated when they tried to attack Qitai. The Governor of Xinjiang, Yang Zengxin , arranged for them to be transported to Dunhuang at

3838-746: The Chinese Communists, which also contributed to their population decline during this period. Following the expulsion of the Japanese from Manchuria, the Oroqen came under suspicion from the Chinese Communists as counterrevolutionaries and were subjected to persecution, particularly during the Cultural Revolution between 1966 and 1976. Some Oroqen were driven to suicide due to intense interrogation by Chinese Communist authorities, as well as having to endure public humiliations and beatings. The Oroqen are exogamous , only marriages among members of different clans being permitted. The traditional dwelling

3939-589: The Chinese side, first along the Khaul river which is closest to Russia, only a day's ride away from the Russian settlements. They erected simple shelters for haymaking in summer and autumn and for hunting in winter. Already before 1900, some of these cattle stations began to coalesce into the first villages, like Manerka (Russian: Манерка) at the lower Khaul. These settlers were tolerated by Chinese officials, usually themselves from nomadic groups (e.g. Mongols , Solons ). Han Chinese , which would have preferred farming like

4040-532: The Chinese side; secondly, other refugees of the civil war from the remainder of Transbaikal , many hoping to return soon; thirdly, the largest wave of refugees from Soviet collectivization , starting in 1929 (known as the tridtsatniki '1930-ers'); and lastly, laid-off employees of the Chinese Eastern Railway , which was run largely by Russians up until that time. As a result of these, ethnic Russians represented more than 80% of this region's population in

4141-546: The Crossings of Xinjiang and after 1941, many refugees fled to Xinjiang. Under the reign of Yang Zengxin, the Russians in Xinjiang were mainly divided into 3 parts: some of the refugees had joined the Chinese nationality, were called "Guihua ren" ( Chinese : 歸化人 , lit. "Naturalized people") and had to fill out applications and write volunteer certificates. Yang ordered officials from various regions to distribute land for them, and gave them farm animals and seeds. Some had joined

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4242-576: The Far East after the defeat of the White Russian anti-Bolshevik movement during the Russian Civil War and the withdrawal of the Entente and Japanese armies from Siberia . Having lost their livelihoods, and with most of them widowed, Doihara forced the women into prostitution, using them to create a network of brothels throughout China where they worked under inhuman conditions. The use of heroin and opium

4343-516: The Guihua army. The conscripted Russians were organized as the 1st Guihua Cavalry under the regimental commander Mogutnov. Later the cavalry were expanded into two groups, with Antonov and Bapingut as the commanders. Zhang Peiyuan commanded the Guihua Army and the Province Army finally defeated Ma's army, reoccupied Zhenxi and raised the siege of Hami . In 1932, the peasants of Turpan rebelled under

4444-611: The Mogao Grottoes, after talks with Governor Lu Hongtao of Gansu. The bandits wrote profanities on Buddhist statues, destroyed or damaged paintings, gouging out eyes and amputating the limbs of the statues, in addition to committing arson. This damage can still be seen to this day. In 1931, the Kumul Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang and the Province Army was defeated by Ma Zhongying 's troops. So Jin Shuren ordered Zhang Peiyuan to form

4545-455: The Old Believers' plight and came to their aid, helping them gather in Hong Kong and prepare for resettlement. Those from Manchuria and some from Sinkiang went to Brazil . Others from Sinkiang went to Argentina and a few went to Australia . The receiving countries offered them refugee assistance, including land, equipment, building materials and food. One group aboard a ship stopped for

4646-666: The Oroqen originally lived in the vast area south of the Outer Khingan Mountains and north of Heilongjiang . They once formed part of the ancient people known as the Shiwei . In the 17th century, following invasions by the Russian Empire , some Oroqens moved to the area near the Greater and Lesser Khingan Mountains. During the Japanese occupation of Manchuria , the Oroqen suffered a significant population decline. The Japanese distributed opium among them and subjected some members of

4747-514: The Russian consulates in China. On September 23, China ceased relations with representatives of the Russian Empire and deprived Russians of extraterritorial rights . The Chinese government took control of institutions in Harbin such as courts, police, prison, post office, and some research and educational institutions. From 1932 to 1945, Harbin Russians had a difficult time under the Manchukuo régime and

4848-481: The Russians, were at first not allowed to settle here. Around 1900, there were only a few Chinese shopkeepers in the area, selling alcohol and tobacco. The latter became much more profitable after the introduction of customs controls in 1900 and especially with the end of the 50- verst free trade zone along the border. The Qing authorities unsuccessfully tried to encourage Han farmers to settle there, but from 1905, they replaced indigenous officials with Han men, much to

4949-601: The Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. When the White Army was defeated in the war against

5050-583: The Sinkiang Old Believers in South America also joined the growing Old Believer community in Oregon. Therefore, a number of Russian Old Believers now live in Willamette Valley , Oregon. Some Russians found employment and remained in China: as late as 1969, an Australian journalist in the region identified a "Kazakh cavalry regiment of the People's Republic of China — Chinese Cossacks — stationed in

5151-512: The USSR nationality. Others refused to join either nationality. In 1928, when Jin Shuren came to power, he strengthened supervision and taxation of the Russians. Freedom of movement and trade were curtailed. According to the records from Xinjiang Gazette , from 1930 to 1931 there were 207 Russians who went through the Guihua procedure in Ürümqi and 288 in Chuguchak. In 1933, Jin abdicated. In 1935,

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5252-567: The United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race. Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins". The United Kingdom considers everyone but white British people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as White Irish people (excluding in Northern Ireland). A national minority

5353-431: The United States' one-drop rule and blood quantum laws , South Africa's apartheid , and Nazi Germany Nuremberg race laws . Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with de facto racist policies implemented. In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination. There are also social groups that are usually identified through ethnicity . Like race, ethnicity

5454-486: The United States, for instance, it includes but is not limited to Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, Puerto Ricans, African Americans, and in the 1800s, native-born Hispanics . Immigrants take on minority status in their new country, usually in hopes of a better future economically, educationally, and politically than in their homeland. Because of their focus on success, voluntary minorities are more likely to do better in school than other migrating minorities. Adapting to

5555-681: The area of Lop Nur to settle down. Almost all the Kerjaks were devout Christians; they rarely communicated with other groups. According to the census in 1943, there were 1,200 Kerjaks in Bulqin and Kaba . Many moved to Australia after the establishment of the People's Republic of China . In 1851, the Treaty of Kulja was established and many Russian merchants swarmed into Xinjiang . The Russian merchants killed approximately 200 mineworkers at Chuguchak , which enraged

5656-665: The basis of race . Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the European and American classifications of race that developed during the Age of Exploration , as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into pseudo-scientific phenotypical groups. In the United States's system, whiteness is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies mixed-race individuals as their subordinate race . Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as

5757-614: The bazar at Aksu. he saw Russian soldiers and Russian girls in the bazar at Urumchi. In the summer of 1934, when the war ended pro tempore, Sheng retracted the Guihua Headquarters, and selected about 500 Russians to form the 6th Cavalry to quarter at Ürümqi. In 1937, the Cavalry and the Red Army finally defeated Ma Hushan's troops during the Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937) . And later it

5858-432: The border region was intensified, and from the 1940s, traveling to and settling in the region required a permit. This increased the isolation of the community. Japanese general Kenji Doihara forced White Russian women into prostitution and drug addiction to spy and spread drugs to their male Chinese clients. He initially gave food and shelter to tens of thousands Russian White émigré women who had taken refuge in

5959-500: The captives were incorporated into the Eight Banners . During the Battle of Yagsi , nearly 100 Russians surrendered to the Qing authorities, and the Kangxi Emperor authorized them to join the Bordered Yellow Banner. Their descendants exist to this day and are known as Albazinians . From 1860 to 1884, many Russians came to Hulun Buir panning for gold. In 1900, Russian troops entered China, and destroyed several sentries. By 1907 there were already 1,000 households of Russian settlers in

6060-432: The chagrin of the Mongols. After the revolutionary turmoil of 1911, China struggled to reassert control of the Hulunbuir area which was partially achieved in 1915, fully only in 1920. The Russian Civil War and its aftermath changed the make-up of the Trekhrechye Russian community. Four waves of immigrants might be distinguished: firstly, the Cossacks which had lived on the Russian side on the Argun and now settled down on

6161-402: The city defense command on the afternoon of April 12. Later Jin Shuren fled to the outskirts. At the same night, they established the Interim Sustain Committee and sent liaison officers to contact Sheng Shicai . Later that night Jin's troops fought back, but were finally defeated and Jin had to return to give up his office, more than 70 Russians died in that battle. When Ma Zhongying heard that

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6262-425: The communist banishment of such "superstitions" in this region in 1952. Over three nights in July 1952, in several separate communities, the Oroqen peoples held rituals in which they begged the spirits to leave them forever. Evidence for and enhancement of auditory (spirit songs) and visual mental imagery during altered states of consciousness can be found in Chuonnasuan's account of his practice of shamanism. Noteworthy

6363-404: The community to human experiments, and combined with incidents of epidemic diseases this caused their population to decline until only 1,000 remained. The Japanese banned Oroqen from communicating with other ethnicities, and forced them to hunt animals for them in exchange for rations and clothing which were sometimes insufficient for survival, which lead to deaths from starvation and exposure. Opium

6464-410: The concept of minority rights and bringing prominence to it. The League of Nations Minorities Commission defined minority in 1919 as "nationals belonging to racial, religious, or linguistic minorities". Protection of minority groups, such as through careful drawing of boundaries of states and proportional representation , was seen as integral in preventing causes of future wars. Louis Wirth defined

6565-444: The construction and maintenance work on the China Eastern Railway . A record shows Harbin had a total of 68,549 people, most of Russian and Chinese descent. There were a total of 53 different nationalities. Most of the Harbin population were of Russian and/or European descent. Most were ethnic Russians including a minority of Germans, Ukrainians, Jews, and Poles. In the decade from 1913 to 1923, Russia went through World War I ,

6666-446: The context. According to its common usage, the term minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number of individuals, or less than half, is a "minority". Usually a minority group is disempowered relative to the majority , and that characteristic lends itself to different applications of the term minority. In terms of sociology, economics, and politics,

6767-430: The coup had taken place in Xinjiang, he promptly led the army to the west and sent his general Ma Heying to Altay. In May 1933, the Russian and Kazakh peasants of Bulqin armed themselves to fight against Ma's army, but were forced to give ground. Sheng ordered Guihua colonel Helovsky to reinforce them, and defeated Ma Heying after two days. In June 1933, Sheng Shicai and Ma Zhongying fought a decisive battle at Ziniquan , Ma

6868-401: The difference in physical or psychological functioning rather than inferiority. For example, some autistic people argue for acceptance of neurodiversity , much as opponents of racism argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The deaf community is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities, and some deaf people do not see themselves as having

6969-516: The dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group. There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage. Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups. The above criticism

7070-455: The dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups. There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities . International criminal law can protect

7171-445: The earliest being Cossacks that settled in China during the late 17th century. There are currently over 16,000 ethnic Russians in China. In the 1957 census, there were over 9,000 ethnic Russians. The 1978 census counted just 600 Russians, but the figure rose to 2,935 in the 1982 census and 13,504 in the 1990 census. The first generation of Russians built the city from scratch. By 1913, Harbin had become an established Russian colony for

7272-716: The ethnic group received college education, only less than Russian Chinese , Chinese Tatars and Nanais . 19.2% received only primary school education or less, only higher than Koreans , Russian Chinese and Nanais. Until the early 1950s the main religion of the nomadic Oroqen was shamanism . In the summer of 1952 cadres of the Chinese Communist Party coerced the leaders of the Oroqen to give up their "superstitions" and abandon any religious practices. These tribal leaders, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu) and Zhao Li Ben , were also powerful shamans. The special community ritual to "send away

7373-425: The failure of the dominant English -speaking majority to integrate French Canadians has provoked Quebec separatism . Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, bilingual education may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen

7474-502: The foothills of the Tien Shan ". The Tryokhrechye (Russian: Трёхречье , IPA: [trʲɵxˈrʲet͡ʃjɪ] ‘Three-River Country’, Chinese : 三河, Sānhé ) designates a region of former Russian settlement in the northeast of Inner Mongolia , in the present-day city-prefecture of Hulunbuir , at the border with Russia , of roughly 11,500 km size. It takes its name from the three rivers Gan , Derbul and Khaul that descend from

7575-526: The freedom to choose their religion, including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion ( atheism and/or agnosticism ). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In Egypt , a new system of identity cards requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are Islam , Christianity , or Judaism (See Egyptian identification card controversy ). In most societies, numbers of men and women are roughly equal . Though women are not considered to be

7676-664: The heavily forested Khingan Mountains in the East and join the border river Argun in the West. In the North, there are dense Taiga forests, in the South – the open steppe around Hailar . While the region is naturally separated from Manchuria by the Khingan, it is quite open to Russian territory across the Argun as the river freezes in winter and presents many fords and islands even in summer. While soils on

7777-446: The late 1930s to the early 1940s. The Cossack settlers organized an administration of their own, consisting of village elders, with a chief elder in the village of Suchye (Russian: Сучье), where there was also a Chinese district chief. Chinese authorities attempted to assimilate the emigrants in the 1920s by introducing passports, raising taxes, prohibiting Orthodox feast days. When the archbishop of Harbin visited Dragotsenka in 1926, he

7878-731: The late 1940s, the Tryokhrechye villages seemed like curious, almost museum-like images of life in prerevolutionary Siberia. The villages were grouped around long straight streets and consisted of blockhouses made of larch wood, facing south, with ocher-painted floors. A similar archaism prevailed in religion and customs. The Russian Orthodox Church continued to play a central role. In addition to St. Peter and Paul's Church in Dragotsenka, there were nine other village churches and one monastery. With regards to traditions, people would e.g. strew flour into their hallways nine days after Easter and check

7979-542: The lead of Makhsut, but were beaten down by Guihua Army. Near the Chinese New Year Eve of 1933, the capital Ürümqi was besieged by Ma Shimin's units during the Battle of Urumqi (1933) , Jin Shuren formed the 2nd Guihua Cavalry and repulsed them. The Guihua soldiers were unhappy with Jin's arrears of military expenditures. Several Jin dissenters persuaded Pappengut and Antonov to launch a coup d'état, and they occupied

8080-516: The left Russian bank of the Argun are poor, those in the Trekhrechye are fertile, enabling agriculture as known in Russia proper. Forests in the east provided wood and game, the steppe to the South offered ample pasture. The Argun river served as a Sino-Russian border since the 1689 treaty of Nerchinsk but was hardly policed in a meaningful way. While the Russians erected Cossack posts ( ostrogi ) in

8181-549: The local people, who burned the Russian trade circle down under the lead of two Hui men Xu Tianrao and An Yuxian. As a result, the Russians forced the Qing government to pay heavy war reparations . In 1871, the Russian Empire conquered the area of Ili and many Russian merchants migrated there. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, three Cossacks, and a Russian courier invited local Uyghur prostitutes to

8282-509: The minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group. Prior to the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) , the term "minority" primarily referred to political parties in national legislatures, not ethnic, national, linguistic or religious groups. Such minority parties were powerless relative to the majority (or plurality) political group. The Paris Conference has been attributed with coining

8383-557: The nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it. Russians in China Russians in China are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized in the People's Republic of China . Enhe Russian Ethnic Township is the only ethnic township in China designated for China's Russian minority . Russians have been living in China for centuries,

8484-798: The next morning whether their dead parents had returned. On Whitmonday , the Cossacks washed and consecrated their horses. During the Soviet intervention for the Chinese Eastern Railway, the Red Army led punitive expeditions into the Tryokhrechye in August and September 1929. It was reported that 150 emigrants were killed, and that there was a wave of refugees to Harbin . For some time before, White units had made small-scale raids onto Soviet territory. The Russian diaspora proved to be well-connected: The Russians of Shanghai pleaded to US President Hoover in

8585-423: The other villages were almost exclusively inhabited by Russians.) There was also a 500-strong garrison nearby. It was the seat of the head cossack, responsible for the Russians in the area, as well as the seat of regional police and a Japanese military mission. There was a small power station, a refinery for vegetable oil, a steel-rolling mill, a dairy factory, auto repair shops, saddleries, leather and felt factories,

8686-436: The people they rule all belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for race and ethnicity on its official census forms, which thus breaks up and organizes its population into sub-groups, primarily racial rather than national. Spain does not divide its nationals by ethnic group or national minorities, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages, that

8787-503: The politics of some countries, a "minority" is an ethnic group recognized by law, and having specified rights. Speakers of a legally recognized minority language , for instance, might have the right to education or communication with the government in their mother tongue. Countries with special provisions for minorities include Canada , China , Ethiopia , Germany , India , the Netherlands , Poland , Romania , Russia , Croatia , and

8888-661: The presidency. There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European nation-state model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to separatism or supremacism . In Canada , some feel that

8989-530: The provincial government controlled the north. Georg Vasel , a Nazi German agent, was told "Must I tell him that I am a Russian? You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." by his driver, a White Russian when meeting Dungan ( Hui ) Ma Zhongying . In the 1930s, during the Kumul Rebellion , the traveler Ahmad Kamal was asked by Uyghur men if the veils donned by Turki women in Xinjiang were also worn by women in America (Amerikaluk). The label of "whores" (Jilops)

9090-598: The recognition of LGBTQ+ people as members of a minority group. These inequalities include social discrimination and isolation, unequal access to healthcare , employment, and housing, and experience negative mental and physical health outcomes due to these experiences. Leading up to the Human Rights Act 1998 in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had

9191-541: The rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways. The right to self-determination is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in South Africa under apartheid . In

9292-538: The spirits" and beg them not to return was held over three nights in Baiyinna and in Shibazhan . The last living shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan ( Chinese : 孟金福 ; pinyin : Mèng Jīn Fú ), died at the age of 73 on 9 October 2000. His life, initiatory illness, and training as a shaman are detailed in a published article, also available online. Chuonnasuan was the last living shaman who practiced his craft prior to

9393-482: The terms sexual and gender minority are often not preferred by LGBTQ+ people, as they represent clinical categories rather than individual identity. Though lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , and queer (LGBTQ+) people have existed throughout human history, they represent a numerical and social minority. They experience numerous social inequalities stemming from their group membership as LGBTQ+ people. LGBTQ+ rights movements across many western countries led to

9494-579: The yellow men, now we must destroy the white. In the last days of World War II, the USSR entered the war against Japan and invaded western China. In doing so, Soviet forces encountered, to their surprise, Russian Old Believer villages. Many of the Old Believer men were taken back to Russia and imprisoned. Those who stayed found their way of life drastically changed and they often sought ways to leave China. The Red Cross and World Council of Churches learned of

9595-498: Was arrested. "Mixed" ( polukrovtsy ): 3,468 At its height, there were 21 Russian villages in the Three-River Country, with Dragotsenka ( Russian : Драгоценка , modern Sanhexiang Chinese : 三河鄕 ) as its political and socioeconomic center. Dragotsenka counted only 450 inhabitants in 1933 but grew to 3,000 in 1944. Only half of those inhabitants were Russians whereas there lived 1,000 Chinese and 500 Japanese. (Most of

9696-576: Was defeated, and was forced to flee to Turpan . Zhang Peiyuan then defected and joined forces with Ma Zhongying. Together, they almost defeated Sheng Shicai at the Battle of Urumqi (1933–34) . During the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang , however, the Soviets intervened on the side of the Provincial government and the Guihua White Russians, and Ma Zhongying ended up in control of southern Xinjiang while

9797-607: Was disbanded, all the Guihua soldiers became ordinary people. The White Russians again sided with the Soviets during the Ili Rebellion in 1944. During the Ili Rebellion, American telegrams reported that the Soviet secret police threatened to assassinate Muslim leaders from Ining and put pressure on them to flee to "inner China" via Tihwa (Ürümqi), White Russians grew fearful of Uyghur Muslim mobs as they chanted, "We freed ourselves from

9898-457: Was distributed to Oroqen adults older than 18 as a means of control. After 2 Japanese troops were killed in Alihe by an Oroqen hunter, the Japanese poisoned 40 Oroqen to death. The Japanese forced Oroqen to fight for them in the war which led to a population decrease of Oroqen people. Even those Oroqen who avoided direct control by the Japanese found themselves facing conflict from anti-Japanese forces of

9999-544: Was promoted to them as a way to tolerate their miserable fate. Once addicted, the women were used to further spread the use of opium among the Chinese population by earning one free opium pipe for every six they were selling to Chinese customers. Japanese scientists conducted human experiments on White Russian men, women and children by gassing, injecting and vivisecting them in Unit 731 and Unit 100 . There were multiple Russian victims of Unit 731 and testimonies and records show that

10100-481: Was used for Russian (Russ) and American (Amerikaluk) women by Uyghur men when what these women wore in public while bathing and the fact that no veil was worn by them was described by Ahmad Kamal to the Turki men. Chinese swines and Russ infidels was a saying by Turki Muslims (Uyghurs) in Xinjiang. Anti Russian hatred was spouted by Tungans (Hui Muslims) to the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in Xinjiang. Ahmad Kamal saw Russians in

10201-522: Was weakened by strict Japanese surveillance. The main tool for this was the BREM with which they had to register. In 1944, the BREM district for the Khingan (incl. Tryokhrechye) was the second largest by members (21,202) after Harbin (39,421). The BREM organized local propaganda and indoctrination, especially for Russian youth, and the celebrations for March 1, Manchukuo's national holiday. From 1937 onwards, control of

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