Ordine Nuovo ( Italian for "New Order", full name Centro Studi Ordine Nuovo , "New Order Scholarship Center") was an Italian far right cultural and extra-parliamentary political and paramilitary organization founded by Pino Rauti in 1956. It had been the most important extra-parliamentary neofascist organization of the post-war Italian republic.
101-674: The name is shared by Movimento Politico Ordine Nuovo , a splinter group of Centro Studi Ordine Nuovo. The organization, considered as an attempt at reforming the Fascist Party (banned by the Constitution), was forcibly dissolved by the Italian government in 1973. Remaining elements of the group formed the Ordine Nero ( Black Order ) in 1974. Members and a leader of Movimento Politico Ordine Nuovo were involved in several terrorist attacks, such as
202-617: A coup d'état , titled the March on Rome by Fascist propaganda, in which almost 30,000 fascists took part. The quadrumvirs leading the Fascist Party, General Emilio De Bono , Italo Balbo (one of the most famous ras ), Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi , organised the March while the Duce stayed behind for most of the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with
303-656: A hammer on the back side (the poll). As easy-to-make weapons, axes have frequently been used in combat, and is one of humanity's oldest melee weapons. Hand axes , of stone , and used without handles (hafts) were the first axes. They had knapped (chipped) cutting edges of flint or other stone. Early examples of hand axes date back to 1.6 mya in the later Oldowan, in Southern Ethiopia around 1.4 mya, and in 1.2 mya deposits in Olduvai Gorge . Stone axes made with ground cutting edges were first developed sometime in
404-411: A reactionary restoration of the pre- French Revolutionary world, which it considered to have been flawed as it had a forward-looking direction. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its typical opposition to nationalism, but was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre . It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and
505-509: A "return" of Italy to North Africa. In January 1939, Italy annexed territories in Libya that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy. At the same time, indigenous Libyans were given the ability to apply for "Special Italian Citizenship" which required such people to be literate in
606-560: A Fascist. He was fired from his newspaper and put under 24-hour surveillance, but otherwise not harassed; his employment contract was settled for a lump sum and he was allowed to work for the foreign press. Knickerbocker contrasted his treatment with the inevitable torture and execution under Stalin or Hitler, and stated "you have a fair idea of the comparative mildness of the Italian kind of totalitarianism". However, since World War II, historians have noted that in Italy's colonies Italian Fascism displayed extreme levels of violence. One-tenth of
707-477: A biconical drilled hole and is fastened by wedges of antler and by birch-tar. It belongs to the early Cortaillod culture . The coat of arms of Norway features a lion rampant carrying an axe which represents King Olaf II of Norway , who was honoured as the Eternal King of Norway . In folklore , stone axes were sometimes believed to be thunderbolts and were used to guard buildings against lightning , as it
808-456: A clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people , alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy. Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of Risorgimento by incorporating Italia Irredenta ("unredeemed Italy") into the state of Italy. The National Fascist Party founded in 1921 declared that the party
909-413: A forward-looking direction on policy. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its typical opposition to nationalism, but was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre . It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy, as well as
1010-682: A full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers , Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that perceived slight to Italian nationalism in presenting Fascism as best suited for governing the country by successfully claiming that democracy, socialism and liberalism were failed systems. In 1919 at
1111-407: A handle) date only from 6,000 BC. The earliest examples of handled axes have heads of stone with some form of wooden handle attached ( hafted ) in a method to suit the available materials and use. Axes made of copper , bronze , iron and steel appeared as these technologies developed. The axe is an example of a simple machine , as it is a type of wedge , or dual inclined plane . This reduces
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#17328545185071212-603: A law passed in 1928 and Italy remained a one-party state until the end of the Fascist regime in 1943. The new laws were strongly criticised by the leader of the Socialist Party Giacomo Matteotti during his speech in Parliament and a few days later Matteotti was kidnapped and killed by fascist blackshirts. After taking sole power, the Fascist regime began to impose the Fascist ideology and its symbolism throughout
1313-432: A new kind of citizen – politically active Fascist Italians. The Doctrine of Fascism (1932) described the nature of Italian Fascism's totalitarianism, stating the following: Fascism is for the only liberty which can be a serious thing, the liberty of the state and of the individual in the state. Therefore for the fascist, everything is in the state, and no human or spiritual thing exists, or has any sort of value, outside
1414-460: A part of Italy". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging
1515-465: A sense of historical continuity and legitimacy. The Fascists publicly identified King Victor Emmanuel II – the first King of a reunited Italy, who had initiated the Risorgimento – along with other historic Italian figures, such as Gaius Marius , Julius Cæsar, Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , Giuseppe Garibaldi, and others, for being within a tradition of dictatorship in Italy that
1616-432: A shallow wedge angle, whereas splitting axes have a deeper angle. Most axes are double bevelled (i.e. symmetrical about the axis of the blade), but some specialist broadaxes have a single bevel blade, and usually an offset handle that allows them to be used for finishing work without putting the user's knuckles at risk of injury. Less common today, they were once an integral part of a joiner and carpenter's tool kit, not just
1717-523: A shared past amongst the Italian people, along with a commitment to a modernised Italy. In a famous speech in 1926, Mussolini called for Fascist art that was "traditionalist and at the same time modern, that looks to the past and at the same time to the future". Traditional symbols of Roman civilisation were used by the Fascists, particularly the fasces that symbolised unity, authority and the exercise of power. Other traditional symbols of ancient Rome used by
1818-648: A solid belief that Italy was destined to become the hegemonic power in Europe. The National Fascist Party along with its successor, the Republican Fascist Party , are the only parties whose re-formation is banned by the Constitution of Italy : "It shall be forbidden to reorganize, under any form whatsoever, the dissolved Fascist party." After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being
1919-454: A special significance, used by priestesses in religious ceremonies. In 1998, a labrys, complete with an elaborately embellished haft, was found at Cham-Eslen, Canton of Zug , Switzerland . The haft was 120 cm (47 in) long and wrapped in ornamented birch-bark . The axe blade is 17.4 cm (6.9 in) long and made of antigorite , mined in the Gotthard -area. The haft goes through
2020-545: A tool for use in forestry. A tool of similar origin is the billhook . Most modern axes have steel heads and wooden handles, typically hickory in the US and ash in Europe and Asia, although plastic or fibreglass handles are also common. Modern axes are specialised by use, size and form. Hafted axes with short handles designed for use with one hand are often called hand axes but the term hand axe refers to axes without handles as well. Hatchets tend to be small hafted axes often with
2121-461: Is a will to power and empire. The Roman tradition is here a powerful force. According to the Doctrine of Fascism, empire is not only territorial or military or mercantile concept, but a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, that is, a nation, which directly or indirectly guides other nations, without the need to conquer a single square kilometre of territory. Fascism emphasised the need for
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#17328545185072222-434: Is an implement that has been used for millennia to shape , split , and cut wood , to harvest timber , as a weapon , and as a ceremonial or heraldic symbol . The axe has many forms and specialised uses but generally consists of an axe head with a handle , also called a haft or a helve. Before the modern axe, the stone-age hand axe without a handle was used from 1.5 million years BP . Hafted axes (those with
2323-549: Is said to represent swift and balanced justice. Shango altars often contain a carved figure of a woman holding a gift to the god with a double-bladed axe sticking up from her head. The Hurrian and Hittite weather god Teshub is depicted on a bas-relief at Ivriz wielding a thunderbolt and an axe. The Arkalochori Axe is a bronze, Minoan, axe from the second millennium BC thought to be used for religious purposes. Inscriptions on this axe have been compared with other ancient writing systems. The axe has two primary components:
2424-470: Is to man what maternity is to the woman". In an effort to increase birthrates, the Italian Fascist government gave financial incentives to women who raised large families and initiated policies designed to reduce the number of women employed. Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation" and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within
2525-440: Is traditionally made of a resilient hardwood like hickory or ash , but modern axes often have hafts made of durable synthetic materials. Antique axes and their modern reproductions, like the tomahawk , often had a simple, straight haft with a circular cross-section that wedged onto the axe-head without the aid of wedges or pins. Modern hafts are curved for better grip and to aid in the swinging motion, and are mounted securely to
2626-698: The Italian Peninsula to gradually transform it into an Italian land. The Fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the 18th century. To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica , Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia , Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , who
2727-511: The Mediterranean Sea . Italian Fascism promoted a corporatist economic system whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes . Italian Fascism opposed liberalism , but rather than seeking
2828-573: The New European Order and Jeune Europe It also had links with Italian intelligence agencies ( SIFAR and its successor agency SID), which were a source of funding. Peteano bombing , Milan police headquarters bombing , In 1969, Rauti, along with most of Ordine Nuovo, came back to the MSI party, then led by Giorgio Almirante . The remaining hardliners founded Movimento Politico Ordine Nuovo ("New Order Political Movement"). The motto of Ordine Nuovo
2929-579: The Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) under the direct control of the PNF and the Youth Fasces that were dissolved and merged into the new Gioventù Italiana del Littorio (GIL). On 27 May 1933, party membership was declared a basic requirement for public office. On 9 March 1937, it became mandatory if one wanted access to any public office and from 3 June 1938 those who did not join the party could not work. In 1939, Ettore Muti replaced Starace at
3030-687: The Paris Peace Conference , the Allies compelled the Kingdom of Italy to yield to Yugoslavia the Croatian seaport of Fiume ( Rijeka ), a mostly Italian city of little nationalist significance, until early 1919. Moreover, elsewhere Italy was then excluded from the wartime secret Treaty of London (1915) it had concorded with the Triple Entente , wherein Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join
3131-848: The Statuto Albertino , the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the conquest of power which fascism later celebrated, but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasised free market and laissez-faire economics. This proved overly optimistic, as Mussolini's corporatist view stressed total state power over businesses as much as over individuals, via governing industry bodies ("corporations") controlled by
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3232-448: The bed would assure male offspring . Basques , Australians and New Zealanders have developed variants of rural sports that perpetuate the traditions of log cutting with axe. The Basque variants, splitting horizontally or vertically disposed logs, are generically called aizkolaritza (from aizkora : axe). In Yorùbá mythology , the oshe (double-headed axe) symbolises Shango , Orisha (god) of thunder and lightning. It
3333-522: The "First Rome" and Renaissance-era Italy as the "Second Rome". Italian Fascism has emulated ancient Rome and Mussolini in particular emulated ancient Roman leaders, such as Julius Cæsar as a model for the Fascists' rise to power and Augustus as a model for empire-building. Italian Fascism has directly promoted imperialism , such as within the Doctrine of Fascism (1932) ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini, declared: The Fascist state
3434-515: The 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing . Previously, L'Ordine Nuovo ("The New Order") had been the name of a radical left-wing paper edited by Antonio Gramsci in the early 1920s, with Gramsci's followers being nicknamed "ordinovisti". However, later on the term—in Italian and various other languages— was appropriated by Fascists and Nazis , its original left-wing predecessors forgotten. The extreme right-wing organization here referred to, whose members were also nicknamed ordinovisti , though being
3535-645: The Fascist marchers. Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organisers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori . On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared before 60,000 people at the Fascist Congress in Naples : "Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy". Meanwhile, the Blackshirts, who had occupied
3636-462: The Fascist movement for seeking to create a total dictatorship. However, the Fascists responded by accepting that they were totalitarian, but presented totalitarianism from a positive viewpoint. Mussolini described totalitarianism as seeking to forge an authoritarian national state that would be capable of completing Risorgimento of the Italia Irredenta , forge a powerful modern Italy and create
3737-585: The Fascist movement", but later held key positions in Mussolini's administration. They sought to restore and expand Italian territories , which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists claimed that modern Italy is the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy and historically supported the creation of an Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonisation by Italian settlers and to establish control over
3838-470: The Fascist party, a model in which businesses retained the responsibilities of property, but few if any of the freedoms. Even though the coup failed in giving power directly to the Fascist Party, it nonetheless resulted in a parallel agreement between Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III that made Mussolini the head of the Italian government. On 15 December, the Grand Council of Fascism was founded and it
3939-540: The Fascist regime when Mussolini created the position of First Marshal of the Empire in 1938. This was a two-person position of control over the military held by both the King and the head of government. It had the effect of eliminating the King's previously exclusive legal authority over the military by giving Mussolini equal legal authority. In the 1930s, Mussolini became aggravated by the monarchy's continued existence due to envy of
4040-486: The Fascists declared that they emulated. However, this compromise with the monarchy did not yield a cordial relationship between the King and Mussolini. Although Mussolini formally accepted the monarchy, he pursued and largely achieved reduction of the power of the King to that of a figurehead. The King initially held complete nominal legal authority over the military through the Statuto Albertino . That ended during
4141-402: The Fascists included the she-wolf of Rome . The fasces and the she-wolf symbolised the shared Roman heritage of all the regions that constituted the Italian nation. In 1926, the fasces was adopted by the Fascist government of Italy as a symbol of the state. In that year, the Fascist government attempted to have the Italian national flag redesigned to incorporate the fasces. This was stopped by
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4242-736: The Grand Fascist Council: "We shall bring our border to the Gotthard Pass ". The Fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515. Claim
4343-547: The Italian language and confined this type of citizenship to be valid in Libya only. Tunisia , a French protectorate since 1881, had the highest concentration of Italians in North Africa and its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it. Upon entering World War II, Italy declared its intention to seize Tunisia as well as
4444-405: The Italian nation. In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" and that for women working was "incompatible with childbearing". Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force". Italian Fascism believed that the success of Italian nationalism required a clear sense of
4545-451: The Italian tricolour national flag. The issue of the rule of monarchy or republic in Italy was an issue that changed several times through the development of Italian Fascism. Initially Italian Fascism was republican and denounced the Savoy monarchy. However, Mussolini tactically abandoned republicanism in 1922 and recognised that the acceptance of the monarchy was a necessary compromise to gain
4646-557: The King to resume his full authority in officially removing Mussolini as prime minister , which he did. Mussolini was imprisoned, and the Fascist organizations immediately collapsed and the party was officially banned by Pietro Badoglio 's government on 27 July. After the Nazi -engineered Gran Sasso raid liberated Mussolini in September, the PNF was revived as the Republican Fascist Party ( Partito Fascista Repubblicano – PFR; 13 September), as
4747-455: The MSI, his movement would abandon the political scene, creating the "Centro Studi Ordine Nuovo", an association dedicated to "political studies and analysis". This wanted to be a literal application of the ideology of Julius Evola , that is, an aristocratic refusal of modern, materialist society. One Ordine Nuovo publication stated, "The work of Ordine Nuovo from 1953 to the present has been nothing but an effort to transfer J. Evola's teachings to
4848-500: The Po plain, took all strategic points of the country. On 26 October, former prime minister Antonio Salandra warned current prime minister Luigi Facta that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would govern quietly at his side. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Facta (who had resigned
4949-502: The Regent Duce (Leader) and promulgated the Carta del Carnaro ( Charter of Carnaro , 8 September 1920), a politically syncretic constitutional amalgamation of right-wing and left-wing politics – anarchist , proto-fascist and democratic republican ideas – which much influenced the politico-philosophic development of early Italian fascism. Consequent to the Treaty of Rapallo (1920),
5050-644: The Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921, the National Fascist Party marked the transformation of the paramilitary Fasci Italiani di Combattimento into a more coherent political group (the Fasci di Combattimento had been founded by Mussolini in Milan 's Piazza San Sepolcro on 23 March 1919). The Fascist Party was instrumental in directing and popularising support for Mussolini's ideology. In
5151-746: The agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919. The Fascist regime supported annexation of Yugoslavia's region of Slovenia into Italy that already held a portion of the Slovene population, whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province, resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of total population of 1.3 million Slovenes being subjected to forced Italianization . The Fascist regime supported annexation of Albania , claimed that Albanians were ethnically linked to Italians through links with
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#17328545185075252-421: The axe head , and the haft . The axe head is typically bounded by the bit (or blade) at one end, and the poll (or butt) at the other, though some designs feature two bits opposite each other. The top corner of the bit where the cutting edge begins is called the toe , and the bottom corner is known as the heel . Either side of the head is called the cheek , which is sometimes supplemented by lugs where
5353-529: The axe was normally hafted by wedging . Birch-tar and rawhide lashings were used to fix the blade. The distribution of stone axes is an important indication of prehistoric trade . Thin sectioning is used to determine the provenance of the stone blades. In Europe , Neolithic "axe factories", where thousands of ground stone axes were roughed out, are known from many places, such as: Metal axes are still produced and in use today in parts of Papua , Indonesia . The Mount Hagen area of Papua New Guinea
5454-461: The beginning of the " strategy of tension " in Italy. At various times groups from both left and right have been accused of being behind the attack. Ordine Nuovo member Delfo Zorzi was among those convicted for the crime on June 20, 2001, together with Carlo Maria Maggi and Giancarlo Rognoni, but all were later found not guilty in 2004. National Fascist Party The National Fascist Party ( Italian : Partito Nazionale Fascista , PNF )
5555-618: The canton of Valais in addition to the claims raised earlier. To the south, the regime claimed the archipelago of Malta , which had been held by the British since 1800. Mussolini claimed that the Maltese language was a dialect of Italian, and theories about Malta being the cradle of the Latin civilisation were promoted. Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it
5656-483: The colonies. In 1930 came the Youth Fasces of Combat. The 1930s were characterised by the secretary Achille Starace , "faithful" to Mussolini and one of the few fascist secretaries from Southern Italy , who launched a campaign of Fascism in the country made up of a wave of ceremonies and rallies and the creation of organisations which aimed to frame the country and the citizen in all its manifestations (both public and private). To regiment youth movements, Starace brought
5757-671: The country. Party membership in the PNF became necessary to seek employment or gain government assistance. The fasces adorned public buildings, Fascist mottos and symbols were displayed in art and a personality cult was created around Mussolini as the nation's saviour called " Il Duce ", "The Leader". The Italian parliament was replaced in duties by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations , solely filled with Fascist Party members. The PNF promoted Italian imperialism in Africa and staunchly promoted racial segregation and white supremacy of Italian settlers in
5858-405: The early years, groups within the PNF called Blackshirts ( squadristi ) built a base of power by violently attacking socialists and their institutions in the rural Po Valley , thereby gaining the support of landowners. Compared to its predecessor, the PNF abandoned republicanism to turn decisively towards the right-wing of the political spectrum. On 28 October 1922, Mussolini attempted
5959-459: The effort needed by the wood chopper. It splits the wood into two parts by the pressure concentration at the blade. The handle of the axe also acts as a lever allowing the user to increase the force at the cutting edge—not using the full length of the handle is known as choking the axe. For fine chopping using a side axe this sometimes is a positive effect, but for felling with a double bitted axe it reduces efficiency. Generally, cutting axes have
6060-524: The enemy by declaring war against the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in exchange for territories at war's end, upon which the Kingdom of Italy held claims (see Italia irredenta ). In September 1919, the nationalist response of outraged war hero Gabriele D'Annunzio was declaring the establishment of the Italian Regency of Carnaro . To his independent Italian state, he installed himself as
6161-592: The existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by annexation of Corsica into Italy. To the north of Italy, the Fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch -populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland (the Romansch are a people with a Latin-based language). In November 1938, Mussolini declared to
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#17328545185076262-610: The fact that his counterpart in Germany Adolf Hitler was both head of state and head of government of a republic; and Mussolini in private denounced the monarchy and indicated that he had plans to dismantle the monarchy and create a republic with himself as head of state of Italy upon an Italian success in the then-anticipated major war about to erupt in Europe. Axe An axe ( / æ k s / ; sometimes spelled ax in American English ; see spelling differences )
6363-403: The head by wedging. The shoulder is where the head mounts onto the haft, and this is either a long oval or rectangular cross-section of the haft that is secured to the axe head with small metal or wooden wedges. The belly of the haft is the longest part, where it bows in gently, and the throat is where it curves sharply down to the short grip , just before the end of the haft, which is known as
6464-403: The head meets the haft, and the hole where the haft is mounted is called the eye . The part of the bit that descends below the rest of the axe-head is called the beard , and a bearded axe is an antiquated axe head with an exaggerated beard that can sometimes extend the cutting edge twice the height of the rest of the head. The axe haft , sometimes called the handle or the helve ,
6565-509: The helm of the party, a fact that testifies to the increasing influence of Galeazzo Ciano , the Minister of Foreign Affairs and son-in-law of Mussolini. On 10 June 1940, from the balcony of Palazzo Venezia Mussolini announced the entry of Italy into World War II on the side of Hitler 's Germany . On 25 July 1943, following a request from Dino Grandi due to the failure of the war the Grand Council of Fascism overthrew Mussolini by asking
6666-512: The late Neolithic , elaborate axes (battle-axes, T-axes, etc.) had a religious significance and probably indicated the exalted status of their owner. Certain types almost never show traces of wear ; deposits of unshafted axe blades from the middle Neolithic (such as at the Somerset Levels in Britain) may have been gifts to the deities . In Minoan Crete , the double axe ( labrys ) had
6767-658: The late Pleistocene in Australia , where grind-edge axe fragments from sites in Arnhem Land date back at least 44,000 years; grind-edge axes were later present in Japan some time around 38,000 BP, and are known from several Upper Palaeolithic sites on the islands of Honshu and Kyushu . Hafted axes are first known from the Mesolithic period ( c. 6000 BC ). Few wooden hafts have been found from this period, but it seems that
6868-524: The metropolitan Italian military deposed the Regency of Duce D'Annunzio on Christmas 1920. In the development of the fascist model of government, D'Annunzio was a nationalist and not a fascist, whose legacy of political– praxis ("Politics as Theatre") was stylistic (ceremony, uniform, harangue and chanting) and not substantive, which Italian fascism artfully developed as a government model. Founded in Rome during
6969-504: The moral development of people that will affect society. Italian Fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding sexuality . Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered abnormal sexual behaviour. It deemed homosexuality as deviant sexual conduct. The Fascist State also criminalised the dispersion of birth control as well as abortion and created laws that taxed bachelors. Fascist Italy regarded
7070-482: The nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes . Moreover, the PNF strongly advocated autarky . Italian Fascism, similarly to German Fascism (Nazism) , opposed liberalism , but did not seek a reactionary restoration of the pre- French Revolutionary world, which it considered to have been flawed, and not in line with
7171-407: The nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. It supports criminalisation of strikes by employees and lockouts by employers, as it deems these acts prejudicial to the national community as a whole. The Italian Fascists' political anthem was called Giovinezza ("The Youth"). Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for
7272-407: The next day on 29th October 1922 but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the king about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the king would agree. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order. On 30 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and
7373-567: The political level." Evola in turn endorsed the Ordine Nuovo as "the only group that has held fast in its doctrine, without stooping to compromise." ON's publications valorized the defeated Axis powers and prewar Fascist movements, as well as the Organisation armée secrète and the militaries of South Africa and Rhodesia , among others. ON rejected all the characteristic institutions of modernity—capitalism, socialism, parliamentary democracy, etc. It
7474-602: The political opposite of the earlier ones, was born from an internal current and then a schism in the Movimento Sociale Italiano (MSI). In 1954 Arturo Michelini , a moderate seeking an alliance with the Italian Monarchic Party , and possibly with the Christian Democracy , became general secretary of the MSI. This led to the schism of the most intransigent and spiritualist, Evolian current ( Nazism
7575-572: The population of the Italian colony of Libya died during the Fascist era, including from the use of gassings, concentration camps , starvation and disease; in Ethiopia during and after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , a quarter of a million Ethiopians died. Italian Fascism promotes a corporatist economic system. The economy involves employer and employee syndicates being linked together in corporative associations to collectively represent
7676-520: The prehistoric Italiotes , Illyrian and Roman populations and that the major influence exerted by the Roman and Venetian empires over Albania justified Italy's right to possess it. The Fascist regime also justified the annexation of Albania on the basis that — because several hundred thousand people of Albanian descent had been absorbed into society in Southern Italy already — the incorporation of Albania
7777-606: The promotion of male sexual excitation before puberty as the cause of criminality amongst male youth. Fascist Italy reflected the belief of most Italians that homosexuality was wrong and even went as far as to create punitive laws against homosexuals. Instead of the traditional Catholic teaching that it was a sin, a new approach was taken based on then-modern psychoanalysis that it was a social disease. Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women. Mussolini perceived women's primary role to be childbearers while men were warriors, once saying that "war
7878-424: The province of Constantine of Algeria from France. To the south, the Fascist regime held interest in expanding Italy's African colonial possessions. In the 1920s, Italy regarded Portugal as a weak country that was unbecoming of a colonial power due to its weak hold on its colonies and mismanagement of them and as such Italy desired to annexe Portugal's colonies. Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by
7979-622: The restoration of the Mazzinian Risorgimento tradition that pursued the unification of Italy, that the Fascists claimed had been left incomplete and abandoned in the Giolittian -era Italy. Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed "unredeemed" territories to Italy. To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy and supported
8080-658: The return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice . The Fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The Fascists were outraged after World War I, when
8181-461: The right-wing part of population. The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the squadristi had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment. Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 31 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power in accordance with
8282-409: The rise to power of the authoritarian conservative nationalist regime of António de Oliveira Salazar , which borrowed fascist methods, though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with Britain . In 1925, the PNF declared that Italy's Fascist state was to be totalitarian . The term "totalitarian" had initially been used as a pejorative accusation by Italy's liberal opposition that denounced
8383-730: The single party of the Northern and Nazi-protected Italian Social Republic (the Salò Republic). Its secretary was Alessandro Pavolini . The PRF did not outlast Mussolini's execution and the disappearance of the Salò state in April 1945, amidst the final Allied offensive in Italy . Italian Fascism was rooted in Italian nationalism and Georges Sorel 's revolutionary syndicalism that eventually evolved into national syndicalism in Italy. Most Italian revolutionary syndicalist leaders were not only "founders of
8484-583: The state. In this sense fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state which is the synthesis and unity of every value, interprets, develops and strengthens the entire life of the people. American journalist H. R. Knickerbocker wrote in 1941: "Mussolini's Fascist state is the least terroristic of the three totalitarian states. The terror is so mild in comparison with the Soviet or Nazi varieties, that it almost fails to qualify as terroristic at all." As example he described an Italian journalist friend who refused to become
8585-470: The strong opposition of Italian monarchists. Afterwards, the Fascist government in public ceremonies raised the national tricolour flag along with a Fascist black flag. Years later, after Mussolini was deposed by the King and rescued by German forces in 1943, the Italian Social Republic founded by Mussolini and the Fascists did incorporate the fasces on the state's war flag, which was a variant of
8686-433: The support of the establishment to challenge the liberal constitutional order that also supported the monarchy. King Victor Emmanuel III had become a popular ruler in the aftermath of Italy's gains after World War I and the army held close loyalty to the King. Thus any idea of overthrowing the monarchy was discarded as foolhardy by the Fascists at this point. Importantly, Fascism's recognition of monarchy provided Fascism with
8787-445: The unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the italianità of the island. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is
8888-624: Was Il nostro onore si chiama fedeltà , or "Our honour is named loyalty", also the motto of the Waffen SS ( Meine Ehre heißt Treue ). The symbol of the organization was a double-head axe . Several members of Movimento Politico Ordine Nuovo, including one of its leaders, Pierluigi Concutelli, participated in terrorist attacks. On 12 December 1969, unknown individuals placed a bomb in Piazza Fontana in Milan, killing 16 and wounding 90. This bombing marked
8989-466: Was a political party in Italy , created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italian fascism and as a reorganisation of the previous Italian Fasces of Combat . The party ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 when Fascists took power with the March on Rome until the fall of the Fascist regime in 1943, when Mussolini was deposed by the Grand Council of Fascism . The National Fascist Party
9090-491: Was a reasonable measure that would unite people of Albanian descent into one state. The Fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus – particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. After Italy annexed Albania in 1939, the Fascist regime endorsed assimilating Albanians into Italians and colonising Albania with Italian settlers from
9191-418: Was also a reference), led by Pino Rauti , Lello Graziani and Sergio Baldassini. They refused any compromise that brought the party apart from aristocratic principles. The intransigent and spiritualist Ordine Nuovo was then founded in Rome, but still a part of the MSI. The real break with MSI happened at the MSI congress in Milan in 1956. Pino Rauti declared that, being disappointed with the moderate drift of
9292-675: Was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the Mesolcina valley and Hinterrhein were held by the Milanese Trivulzio family, who ruled from the Mesocco Castle in the late 15th century. Also during the summer of 1940, Galeazzo Ciano met with Adolf Hitler and Joachim von Ribbentrop and proposed to them the dissection of Switzerland along the central chain of the Western Alps , which would have left Italy also with
9393-592: Was also strongly anti-Semitic. Ordine Nuovo, nonetheless, had a capillary and hierarchical organization on the Italian territory, and often behaved more like an extra-parliamentary political organization than a simple "scholarship center". Ordine Nuovo had around ten thousand members in the mid-1960s. Ordine Nuovo had an aboveground existence as a political activist group, but its members also engaged in street-fighting ( squadrismo ) and became involved in several coup attempts and terrorist attacks. Ordine Nuovo had links with other neofascist groups outside Italy, including
9494-465: Was an important production centre. From the late Neolithic / Chalcolithic onwards, axes were made of copper or copper mixed with arsenic . These axes were flat and hafted much like their stone predecessors. Axes continued to be made in this manner with the introduction of Bronze metallurgy . Eventually the hafting method changed and the flat axe developed into the "flanged axe", then palstaves , and later winged and socketed axes. At least since
9595-451: Was believed ( mythically ) that lightning never struck the same place twice. This has caused some skewing of axe distributions. Steel axes were important in superstition as well. A thrown axe could keep off a hailstorm , sometimes an axe was placed in the crops , with the cutting edge to the skies to protect the harvest against bad weather . An upright axe buried under the sill of a house would keep off witches , while an axe under
9696-474: Was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting
9797-401: Was one of Malta's official languages until 1937, when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. Italian irredentists had claimed that territories on the coast of North Africa were Italy's Fourth Shore and used the historical Roman rule in North Africa as a precedent to justify the incorporation of such territories to Italian jurisdiction as being
9898-483: Was succeeded by the Republican Fascist Party in the territories under the control of the Italian Social Republic , and it was ultimately dissolved at the end of World War II . The National Fascist Party was rooted in Italian nationalism and the desire to restore and expand Italian territories , which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists claimed that modern Italy
9999-470: Was the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy and historically supported the creation of an Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonisation by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea . The party also supported social conservative stances. Fascists promoted a corporatist economic system, whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent
10100-463: Was the supreme organ of the PNF. After a drastic modification of electoral legislation (the Acerbo Law ), the Fascist Party clearly won the highly controversial elections of April 1924 . In early 1925, Mussolini dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a total dictatorship. From that point onward, the PNF was effectively the only legally permitted party in the country. This status was formalised by
10201-550: Was to serve as "a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles: order, discipline, hierarchy". It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance and promotes the cultural identity of Romanitas ("Roman-ness"). Italian Fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a " Third Rome ", identifying ancient Rome as
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