214-639: 1941 1942 Associated articles Operation Brevity was a limited offensive conducted in mid-May 1941, during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War . Conceived by the commander-in-chief of the British Middle East Command , General Archibald Wavell , Brevity was intended to be a rapid blow against weak Axis front-line forces in the Sollum – Capuzzo – Bardia area of
428-644: A British counter-offensive had advanced well into Libya, destroying the Italian Tenth Army in the process. British attention then shifted to Greece, which was under the threat of Axis invasion. While Allied divisions were being diverted from North Africa, the Italians reinforced their positions and were supported by the arrival of the German Afrika Korps under Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel . Rapidly taking
642-549: A Roman Catholic while most Greek people were Orthodox Christian , and the fact that his marriage to Queen Amalia remained childless. Furthermore, the new kingdom tried to eliminate the traditional banditry , something that in many cases meant conflict with some old revolutionary fighters ( klephtes ) who continued to exercise this practice. The Bavarian Regents ruled until 1837, when at the insistence of Britain and France, they were recalled, and Otto after that appointed Greek ministers, although Bavarian officials still ran most of
856-563: A flying column , to Beda Fomm and cut off the 10th Army. In late January 1941, the British learned that the Italians were evacuating Cyrenaica along the Via Balbia from Benghazi. The 7th Armoured Division, under Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh , was dispatched to intercept the remnants of the 10th Army by cutting through the desert south of the Jebel Akhdar via Msus and Antelat, as
1070-428: A 1941 plan to advance west against Tripolitania. The British overestimated Axis losses during Operation Crusader and believed that they faced 35,000 troops, rather than the true total of 80,000 men and also misjudged the speed of Axis reinforcement from Europe. The Eighth Army expected to be ready by February, well before an Axis attack. The 1st Armoured Division held the area around El Agheila and from 28 to 29 December
1284-469: A cost." Churchill ended the message by asking Wavell "What are your dates for bringing Tiger cubs into action?", in reference to the reinforcements that had arrived at Alexandria on 12 May as part of a convoy code-named Operation Tiger. The 11th Hussar's regimental history notes that "it was clear that no further offensive action would be possible before 7[th] Armoured Division was fully prepared". The Tiger convoy brought 238 tanks and made it possible to refit
1498-538: A counter-attack and was killed attempting to throw a hand-held bomb at a British tank. The British received plaudits from Winston Churchill , who sent a telegram to Wavell betraying his ignorance of events by stating: "Without using the Tiger cubs you have taken the offensive, advanced 30 mi (48 km), captured Halfaya and Sollum, taken 500 German prisoners and inflicted heavy losses in men and tanks. For this twenty I tanks and 1,000 or 1,500 casualties do not seem too heavy
1712-459: A day and moving its supplies 300 mi (480 km) required 1,170 2.0 t (2 long tons) lorry-loads. With seven Axis divisions, air force and naval units, 70,000 long tons (71,123 t) of supplies were needed per month. The Vichy French agreed to Axis use of Bizerta in Tunisia but this did not begin until late in 1942. From February to May 1941, a surplus of 45,000 long tons (45,722 t)
1926-747: A decisive offensive unless Italian forces were withdrawn to Italy, which was politically impossible. The geographical position of Italy made it possible for it to close the Mediterranean if war came and force the Mediterranean Fleet based in Egypt to rely on the Suez Canal. In 1939, Wavell began to plan a base in the Middle East to support about fifteen divisions (300,000 men), six in Egypt, three in Palestine and
2140-606: A feint by the 1st and 7th RTR out of Tobruk might have caused a realignment of the Axis forces, weakening their overall position and perhaps even forcing them to give up the Sollum area. Operation Brevity highlighted to Rommel the importance of the Halfaya Pass; whichever side held it would have a "comparatively safe route for his supplies" during offensives in the area. On 27 May, he launched Operation Skorpion , during which Herff recaptured
2354-513: A few miles west of Tobruk, from which the Panzerarmee had retreated seven weeks earlier. The British had 1,309 casualties from 21 January, had 42 tanks knocked out and another 30 damaged or broken down and lost forty field guns. The commander of XIII Corps Lieutenant-General Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen resigned over differences with the Eighth Army commander, Neil Ritchie. By February the front
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#17328528717722568-496: A group of Bavarian Regents ruled in his name and made themselves very unpopular by trying to impose German ideas of rigid hierarchical government on the Greeks, while keeping most significant state offices away from them. Nevertheless, they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps, him being
2782-461: A land connection with Italian East Africa. In August a lull fell on the frontier. Most British armoured units had withdrawn to Mersa Matruh, in order to conserve their ability to defend the port. The 7th Support Group took over and established observation posts from Sollum to Fort Maddalena, ready to delay an Italian offensive and the Hussars reconnoitred further into Libya. The Libyan divisions lacked
2996-476: A loss of 355 Australian and 45 British troops. The 7th Armoured Division drove 100 mi (160 km) towards Derna and the Babini Group (BCS – Brigata Corazzata Speciale under General Valentino Babini ), with about 300 tanks, at Mechili . The BCS slipped away and from 26 to 28 January the British tanks bogged down in heavy rain; Derna was abandoned next day. The 7th Armoured Division sent Combeforce ,
3210-538: A major reform program, including a new and more liberal constitution and reforms in the spheres of public administration, education and economy. French and British military missions were invited for the army and navy respectively, and arms purchases were made. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses were revealed by the ongoing Italo-Turkish War in Libya. Through spring 1912, a series of bilateral agreements among
3424-526: A maximum capacity of four troopships or five cargo ships at once and an unloading capacity of about 45,000 long tons (45,722 t) per month. Tripoli to Benghazi was 600 mi (970 km) along the Via Balbia and only halfway to Alexandria. The road could flood, was vulnerable to the Desert Air Force (DAF) and using desert tracks increased vehicle wear. The Axis advance of 300 mi (480 km) to
3638-471: A military rebellion, forcing Otto to accept the inevitable and leave the country. The Greeks then asked Britain to send Queen Victoria 's son Prince Alfred as their new king, but this was vetoed by the other Powers. Instead, a young Danish prince became King George I . George was a very popular choice as a constitutional monarch, and he agreed that his sons would be raised in the Greek Orthodox faith. As
3852-446: A mixed air unit with about 300 serviceable aircraft, airfield equipment and transport, stood by to support the advance and occupy airfields. The Italian invasion of Egypt on 13–18 September began as a limited tactical operation towards Mersa Matruh, rather than the strategic objectives sketched in Rome, due to the chronic lack of transport, fuel and wireless equipment, even with resupply from
4066-431: A mixed infantry and armoured force. The strategically important Halfaya Pass was taken against stiff Italian opposition, and deeper inside Libya Fort Capuzzo was captured, but German counter-attacks under Colonel Maximilian von Herff regained the fort during the afternoon causing heavy casualties amongst its defenders. Gott—concerned that his forces were in danger of being caught by German armour in open ground—conducted
4280-584: A new HQ Western Desert Force (Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse ). The 9th Australian Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British forces withdrew a further 100 mi (160 km) east to Sollum on the Egypt–Libya border . With the main Axis force conducting the siege of Tobruk a small battlegroup ( Kampfgruppe ) commanded by Colonel Maximilian von Herff continued to press eastwards. Capturing Fort Capuzzo and Bardia in passing, it then advanced into Egypt; by
4494-571: A peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek . Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that, when the New Testament
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#17328528717724708-609: A plan for the re-occupation of Tenedos, which the Greek destroyers used as a base, by an amphibious operation. The operation was scheduled for 4 January. On that day, weather conditions were ideal, and the fleet was ready, but the Yenihan regiment earmarked for the operation failed to arrive on time. The naval staff nevertheless ordered the fleet to sortie, and an engagement developed with the Greek fleet, without any significant results on either side. Similar sorties followed on 10 and 11 January, but
4922-716: A reward to the Greeks for adopting a pro-British king, Britain ceded the United States of the Ionian Islands to Greece. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Church was a part of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . The Ottoman authorities, who were Muslim, did not interfere with the church. With the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, however, the government decided to take control of the church, breaking away from
5136-470: A small force of bombers to the operation. Brigadier William Gott —in command of all Allied front-line forces since the retreat—was to lead the operation and his plan was to advance in three parallel columns . On the desert flank to the south, the 7th Armoured Brigade group was to move 30 mi (48 km) from Bir el Khireigat to Sidi Azeiz destroying any opposition encountered en route. This group included three small mobile forces (" Jock columns ") of
5350-529: A small number of Bedouin nomads. Bedouin tracks linked wells and the more easily traversed ground; navigation was by sun, star, compass and "desert sense", good perception of the environment gained by experience. When Italian troops advanced into Egypt in September 1940, the Maletti Group got lost leaving Sidi Omar, disappeared and had to be found by aircraft. In spring and summer the days are miserably hot and
5564-573: A staged withdrawal to the Halfaya Pass on 16 May, and Brevity was closed down. The importance of the Halfaya Pass as a safe supply route was highlighted to Rommel, and 11 days later it was recaptured during Operation Skorpion , a German counter-attack. In early September 1940, the Italian 10th Army based in Libya conducted the Italian invasion of Egypt and three months later, the British and Commonwealth troops of
5778-507: The 2nd Armoured Division with the WDF were also worn out, which left the division with only four tank regiments. The 6th Australian Division went to Greece in March with an armoured brigade group of the 2nd Armoured Division; the remainder of the division and the new 9th Australian Division , minus two brigades and most of its transport, was sent to Greece and was replaced by two under-equipped brigades of
5992-603: The 6th Australian Division pursued the Italians along the coast road north of the Jebel Akhdar. The terrain was hard going for the British tanks and Combeforce (Lieutenant-Colonel John Combe ), a flying column of wheeled vehicles, was sent on ahead. Late on 5 February, Combeforce arrived at the Via Balbia south of Benghazi and set up roadblocks near Sidi Saleh, about 20 mi (32 km) north of Ajedabia and 30 mi (48 km) south-west of Antelat. The forward elements of
6206-594: The 7th Australian Division . The division took over in Cyrenaica, on the assumption that the Italians could not begin a counter-offensive until May, even with German reinforcements. In early 1941, after the big British and Commonwealth victory in Cyrenaica, the military position was soon reversed. The best-equipped units in XIII Corps went to Greece as part of Operation Lustre in the Battle of Greece. Adolf Hitler responded to
6420-561: The 7th Support Group , the cruiser tanks of 2nd RTR, and the armoured cars of the 11th Hussars , whose task was to patrol the open desert on the left flank and monitor the Sidi Azeiz–Bardia road. In the centre, the 22nd Guards Brigade group was to clear the top of the Halfaya Pass, secure Bir Wair, Musaid , and Fort Capuzzo, and conduct a company-sized probe toward Bardia. The group included two infantry formations (1st Battalion Durham Light Infantry and 2nd Battalion Scots Guards ) and
6634-609: The Asia Minor Campaign . A military coup d'état restored the monarchy in 1935 and Greece became a kingdom again until 1973. The kingdom was finally dissolved in the aftermath of a seven-year military dictatorship (1967–1974) and the Third Hellenic Republic was established following a referendum held in 1974. The Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire , also known as the Byzantine Empire, which ruled most of
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6848-456: The Bersaglieri , who had defended Halfaya Pass "...with lionlike courage until the last man against stronger enemy forces. The greatest part of them died faithful to the flag". Lieutenant Giacinto Cova , a platoon commander in the 8th Bersaglieri Regiment , received a posthumous Gold Medal of Military Valour , Italy's highest award for bravery. The medal citation reported that Cova had organised
7062-572: The Cape of Good Hope , which made Egypt as distant as Australia and New Zealand. The Middle East Supply Centre (MESC) operated in Egypt, Palestine and Syria to co-ordinate imports and create local substitutes for civilian rations and promote agricultural efficiencies. By March 1943 the MESC had replaced about 100 liberty ship deliveries' worth of imports with increased local production of potatoes, cooking oil, dairy products and fish; cattle drives from Sudan obviated
7276-458: The Corinth Canal overtaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Commission to pay off the country's debtors. Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic . Many of the educated elite saw this as
7490-556: The Crimean War the British occupied Piraeus to prevent Greece declaring war on the Ottomans as a Russian ally. A new generation of Greek politicians was growing increasingly intolerant of King Otto's continuing interference in government. In 1862, the King dismissed his prime minister, the former admiral Konstantinos Kanaris , the most prominent politician of the period. This dismissal provoked
7704-561: The Dardanelles campaign , offering Cyprus in exchange, their diverging views became apparent: Constantine had been educated in Germany , was married to Sophia of Prussia , sister of Kaiser Wilhelm , and was convinced of the Central Powers ' victory. Venizelos, on the other hand, was an ardent anglophile , and believed in an Allied victory. Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose
7918-663: The Dodecanese , which had been occupied by Italy in 1911. These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population. In March 1913, an anarchist, Alexandros Schinas , assassinated King George in Thessaloniki, and his son came to the throne as Constantine I. Constantine was the first Greek king born in Greece and the first to be Greek Orthodox. His very name had been chosen in the spirit of romantic Greek nationalism (the Megali Idea ), evoking
8132-685: The Eastern Mediterranean . The Great Powers supported Greece to regain its independence and following a decisive battle in the Navarino Bay , a ceasefire was agreed in London (see Treaty of London (1827) ). The autonomy of Greece was ultimately recognised by the London Protocol of 1828 and its full independence from the Ottoman Empire by the Protocol of London of 1830 . In 1831, the assassination of
8346-614: The High Commissioner being Prince George of Greece . Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the 1890s there were constant disturbances in Macedonia . Here the Greeks were in competition not only with the Ottomans but also with the Bulgarians, engaged in an armed propaganda struggle for the hearts and minds of the ethnically mixed local population, the so-called " Macedonian Struggle ". In July 1908,
8560-509: The Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) and Auto-Saharan Company ( Compagnie Auto-Avio-Sahariane ) which ranged the desert, raided and observed their opponents' dispositions. Benito Mussolini had no plans to invade Egypt, intending to remain on the defensive in Libya if war came. After the fall of France in 1940, the 5th Army could send reinforcements east and on 7 August, Mussolini ordered an invasion to occupy Egypt and establish
8774-661: The Mobile Division (Egypt) under Major-General Percy Hobart , one of only two British armoured training formations. In mid-1939 it was renamed the Armoured Division (Egypt) and on 16 February 1940, it became the 7th Armoured Division. The Egypt–Libya border was defended by the Egyptian Frontier Force and in June 1940, the headquarters of the 6th Infantry Division under Major-General Richard O'Connor took command in
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8988-572: The Nile Delta for rest and refitting. Wilson was replaced by Lieutenant-General Philip Neame ; parts of the 2nd Armoured Division and 9th Australian Division were deployed to Cyrenaica but both formations were inexperienced, ill-equipped and in the case of the 2nd Armoured Division, well under strength, after detachments to Greece. The Italians sent the 132nd Armored Division "Ariete" and 102nd Motorized Division "Trento" to North Africa. From February 1941 until early May, Operation Sonnenblume saw
9202-587: The Roman aqueducts at Mersa Matruh and Maaten Baggush . Water-boats from Alexandria and a distillation plant at Matruh increased supply but rigorous rationing had to be enforced and much water had to be moved overland to outlying areas. Not enough vehicles were available in 1939 and lorries were diverted to provide the Armoured Division with a better rear link. Only desert-worthy vehicles could be risked cross-country, which left tanks unable to move far from Matruh which
9416-585: The Western Desert Force began a counter-offensive, codenamed Operation Compass . In two months, the British advanced 500 mi (800 km), occupying the Italian province of Cyrenaica and destroying the 10th Army. The advance was halted in February 1941 due to supply shortages and because priority had been given to the Battle of Greece . Renamed XIII Corps and reorganised under HQ Cyrenaica Command (CYRCOM),
9630-515: The Young Turk Revolution broke out in the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of the Ottoman internal turmoil, Austria–Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Bulgaria declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire. On Crete, the local population, led by a young politician named Eleftherios Venizelos , declared Enosis , union with Greece, provoking another crisis. The fact that
9844-533: The deserts of Egypt and Libya and was the main theatre in the North African campaign of the Second World War . Military operations began in June 1940 with the Italian declaration of war and the Italian invasion of Egypt from Libya in September. Operation Compass , a five-day raid by the British in December 1940, was so successful that it led to the destruction of the Italian 10th Army (10ª Armata ) over
10058-582: The 10th Army Chief Engineer. At an engagement near the frontier wire at Nezuet Ghirba, a mixed force of British tanks, artillery and motorised infantry defeated an Italian force of 17 light tanks, four guns and 400 infantry. The British patrolled the frontier area as far west as Tobruk, establishing dominance over the 10th Army. On 5 August, thirty Italian tanks engaged the 8th Hussars in an inconclusive action and Wavell concluded that vehicle wear made it impractical to continue operations when an Italian offensive loomed. Sand wore out equipment quickly, shortening
10272-454: The 10th Army arrived thirty minutes later and found the Via Balbia blocked. The next day the Italians attacked to break through the roadblock and continued to attack into 7 February. With British reinforcements arriving and the Australians pressing down the road from Benghazi, the 10th Army surrendered. From Benghazi–Agedabia, the British took 25,000 prisoners, captured 107 tanks and 93 guns of
10486-411: The 11th Hussars cut the Via Balbia between Tobruk and Bardia, captured Sidi Omar on 16 December and forced the Italians to retreat from Sollum and Fort Capuzzo to Bardia, leaving garrisons at Siwa Oasis and Giarabub in the south. From 9 to 11 December, the British took 38,300 prisoners, 237 guns, 73 tanks and about 1,000 vehicles for 624 casualties. Bardia fell between 14 December and 5 January 1941;
10700-410: The 11th Hussars suffered four men wounded. Losses among the 2nd Rifle Brigade are unknown. German casualties numbered three tanks (a Panzer II and two Panzer IIIs, although several more suffered minor damage) and 258 men killed, wounded or captured. Jack Greene and Alessandro Massignani place total Italian losses at 395. Allied accounts record the capture of 347 of these men. On 5 August, Herff praised
10914-585: The 2nd Armoured Division, which had been withdrawn for the Greek campaign, the rest of the division had been destroyed. Several Axis attempts to seize Tobruk failed and the front line settled on the Egyptian border. Tobruk was defended by a force of some 25,000 Eighth Army troops, well stocked with supplies and linked to Egypt by the Royal Navy. The garrison had armoured cars and captured Italian tanks, which could raid Axis supply convoys as they passed through Tobruk for
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#173285287177211128-402: The 2nd Battalion, Panzer Regiment 5, an Italian motorised infantry battalion of the Trento Division, and supporting arms. The front line area around Halfaya Pass was defended by two companies of Bersaglieri —well trained Italian motorised infantry—with artillery support. On 9 May, the Germans intercepted a British weather report over the radio. The Afrika Korps war diary noted that "In
11342-470: The 5th Army. Musiad was subjected to a "spectacular" artillery bombardment at dawn, then occupied. The 1st Libyan Division took Sollum and the airfield. By evening the 2nd Libyan Division , 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene" , the Maletti Group from Musaid and the 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica" from Sidi Omar, pushed past British harassing parties and converged on Halfaya Pass . The British withdrew past Buq Buq on 14 September and continued to harass
11556-426: The 7th Armoured Brigade group. During the morning, reports were received of up to 30 German armoured vehicles operating nearby, and A Squadron 2nd RTR moved to investigate. Most of the German force had pulled back, but three tanks were located and brought under fire. One Panzer IV was disabled and the other two driven off, for the loss of one British tank due to mechanical failure. A second force of 15 German tanks
11770-475: The 7th Armoured Division, which had been out of action since February as a result of the losses it sustained during Operation Compass. Preparations could now be made for Operation Battleaxe and the relief of Tobruk. In the system of British and Commonwealth battle honours , units that served in the Halfaya Pass area between 15 and 27 May were awarded the honour Halfaya 1941 in 1957. The historian, Thomas Jentz, suggests that Brevity could have ended in victory for
11984-528: The Aegean. By mid-November Greek naval detachments had seized the islands of Imbros , Thasos , Agios Efstratios , Samothrace , Psara and Ikaria , while landings were undertaken on the larger islands of Lesbos and Chios only on 21 and 27 November respectively. Substantial Ottoman garrisons were present on the latter, and their resistance was fierce. They withdrew into the mountainous interior and were not subdued until 22 December and 3 January respectively. Samos , officially an autonomous principality ,
12198-413: The Aegean. It was hoped that the Averof , the only major Greek unit fast enough to catch the Hamidiye , would be drawn in pursuit and leave the remainder of the Greek fleet weakened. In the event, Hamidiye slipped through the Greek patrols on the night of 14–15 January and bombarded the harbor of the Greek island of Syros , sinking the Greek auxiliary cruiser Makedonia which lay in anchor there (it
12412-454: The Allies back to Egypt except for the siege of Tobruk at the port. At the end of 1941, Axis forces were defeated in Operation Crusader and retired again to El Agheila . In early 1942 Axis forces drove the Allies back again, then captured Tobruk after the Battle of Gazala but failed to destroy their opponents. The Axis invaded Egypt and the Allies retreated to El Alamein , where the Eighth Army fought two defensive battles, then defeated
12626-424: The Allies. In November 1916 the French occupied Piraeus , bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired at them, leading to a battle between French and Greek royalist forces. There were also riots against supporters of Venizelos in Athens (the Noemvriana ). Following the February Revolution in Russia, however, the Tsar's support for his cousin was removed, and Constantine
12840-478: The Axis forces in the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. The Eighth Army drove Axis forces out of Libya to Tunisia , which was invaded from the west by the Allied First Army in Operation Torch . In the Tunisian campaign the remaining Axis forces surrendered to the combined Allied forces in May 1943. The British Western Desert Force (renamed Cyrcom and later the Eighth Army) had been reduced in early 1941 to send units to Greece , rather than complete
13054-451: The Balkan states (Greece, Bulgaria , Montenegro and Serbia ) formed the Balkan League , which in October 1912 declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman intelligence had disastrously misread Greek military intentions. In retrospect, it would appear that the Ottoman staff believed that the Greek attack would be shared equally between the two primary avenues of approach, Macedonia and Epirus. The 2nd Army staff had therefore evenly balanced
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#173285287177213268-492: The Balkans. Once this was gone, the defeat of the Ottoman Army became inevitable. To be sure, the Bulgarians and the Serbs played a significant role in the defeat of the main Ottoman armies. Their great victories at Kirk Kilise , Lule Burgas , Kumanovo , and Monastir shattered the Eastern and Vardar armies. However, these victories were not decisive in the sense that they ended the war. The Ottoman field armies survived, and in Thrace, they actually grew stronger day by day. In
13482-424: The British Middle East Command —conceived Operation Brevity as a rapid blow in the Sollum area. Wavell intended to create advantageous conditions from which to launch Operation Battleaxe , the main offensive that he was planning for June. Operation Brevity's primary objectives were to recapture the Halfaya Pass, to drive the enemy from the Sollum and Capuzzo areas, and to deplete Rommel's forces. A secondary objective
13696-449: The British aircraft, ships and submarines based at Malta . In Africa, supplies had to be hauled huge distances by road or in small consignments by coaster. The distance from Tripoli to Benghazi was about 650 mi (1,050 km) and to El Alamein was 1,400 mi (2,300 km). A third of the Italian merchant marine was in ships berthed in British-controlled ports and was interned after Italy declared war. By September 1942 half of
13910-556: The British at El Agheila on 24 March and at Mersa el Brega on 31 March, exploited the success and by 15 April, had pushed the British back to the border at Sollum and besieged Tobruk. The new commander of XIII Corps (now HQ Cyrenaica Command) Lieutenant-General Philip Neame , O'Connor and Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry , commander of the 2nd Armoured Division were captured. The Western Desert Force HQ took over under Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse , who had been recalled from East Africa . Apart from an armoured brigade group of
14124-422: The British did not consider it capable of maintaining a high rate of operations. The 5th Army, with eight divisions, was based in Tripolitania , the western half of Libya, opposite Tunisia and the 10th Army, with six infantry divisions, held Cyrenaica in the east. When war was declared, the 10th Army sent the 1st Libyan Division to the Egyptian frontier from Giarabub to Sidi Omar and XXI Corps from Sidi Omar to
14338-412: The British into retreat. The pass was defended by the 3rd Coldstream Guards of Lieutenant-Colonel Moubray and supporting units but the bluff became a genuine attack and secured a commanding position, leaving the British in danger of being surrounded. Brigadier William Gott authorised a withdrawal and Moubray extricated the battalion. There were no reinforcements nearby and Gott ordered a withdrawal from
14552-429: The British suffered 456 Australian infantry casualties and lost 17 of 23 tanks, for 40,000 Italian casualties and prisoners, more than 400 guns, 130 tanks and hundreds of lorries. At dawn on 21 January, Australian infantry broke into Tobruk and made a path for 18 British I tanks. The Australians pressed on and captured half of the Tobruk defences by nightfall. The Australians took 25,000 prisoners, 208 guns and 87 tanks, for
14766-415: The British. While their tank forces were fighting ineffectively, the "gutsy" actions by 2nd RTR and their patrol toward Sidi Azeiz had convinced the Germans that the battle was lost by the evening of 15 May. Because of their failure to engage 2nd RTR late that day, several German commanders from Panzer Regiment 5, including its commanding officer, were removed from their posts after the battle. Jentz notes that
14980-416: The Byzantine emperors of that name. Besides, as the Commander-in-chief of the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars , his popularity was enormous, rivalled only by that of Venizelos, his Prime Minister. When World War I broke out in 1914, despite Greece's treaty of alliance with Serbia, both leaders preferred to maintain a neutral stance. However, when, in early 1915, the Allied Powers asked for Greek help in
15194-472: The Dardanelles and their forts. The Ottomans suffered 41 killed and 101 wounded. It was the last attempt of the Ottoman Navy to leave the Dardanelles, thereby leaving the Greeks dominant in the Aegean. On 5 February [ O.S. 24 January] 1913, a Greek Farman MF.7 , piloted by Lt. Moutousis and with Ensign Moraitinis as an observer, carried out an aerial reconnaissance of the Ottoman fleet in its anchorage at Nagara , and launched four bombs on
15408-789: The Dardanelles to Suez was instituted, which disrupted the Ottomans' flow of supplies (only the Black Sea routes to Romania remained open) and left some 250,000 Ottoman troops immobilized in Asia. In the Ionian Sea , the Greek fleet operated without opposition, ferrying supplies for the army units in the Epirus front. Furthermore, the Greeks bombarded and then blockaded the port of Vlorë in Albania on 3 December, and Durrës on 27 February. A naval blockade extending from
15622-689: The Eastern Mediterranean region for over 1100 years, had been fatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and advanced southwards into the Balkan peninsula capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, but by 1500 most of
15836-566: The Egyptian frontier in early 1941 increased the road transport distance to 1,100 mi (1,800 km). Benghazi was captured in April; coastal shipping there had a capacity of only 15,000 long tons (15,241 t) and the port was within range of the DAF. About 1,500 long tons (1,524 t) of supplies per day could be unloaded at Tobruk but lack of shipping made its capture irrelevant. A German motorised division needed 350 long tons (356 t) of supplies
16050-517: The Eighth Army offensive forced a retreat to El Agheila from 4 December, crowding the Via Balbia , where British ambushes destroyed about half of the remaining Axis transport. Convoys to Tripoli resumed and losses increased but by 16 December the supply situation had eased except for the fuel shortage. In December, the Luftwaffe was restricted to one sortie per day. Vichy sold the Axis 3,600 long tons (3,658 t) of fuel, U-boats were ordered into
16264-603: The Eighth Army. The Axis never overcame the supply constraints limiting the size of their land and air forces in North Africa and the desert war became a sideshow for Germany, when the expected quick conclusion of Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union , was not achieved. Cyrenaica (Libya) had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War in 1911–1912. With Tunisia , part of French North Africa , to
16478-644: The Germans believed that they had repulsed a strong British tank attack. As nightfall approached, Herff broke off the action and went on to the defensive. He intended to repair his damaged machines, reorganise, and resume offensive operations on 18 May. 2nd RTR pulled back to Bir el Khireigat, initially followed by two German tanks, one of which withdrew after the other was destroyed. The regiment arrived at Bir el Khireigat, from where it had set out two days previously, at around 02:30 on 17 May. Operation Brevity failed to achieve most of its objectives, succeeding only in retaking
16692-547: The Germans failed to turn a defensive success into an annihilating victory. Intelligence had provided details of British moves but the RAF had seen German counter-moves and slowed them enough to help the ground forces escape. The British had 969 casualties, 27 cruiser and 64 I tanks were knocked out or broken down and not recovered. The RAF lost 36 aircraft. German losses were 678 men and Italian losses are unknown, with in addition twelve tanks and ten aircraft lost. The British failure led to
16906-541: The Greek army to continue its advance into northern Epirus , the southern part of modern Albania, which it occupied. There its advance stopped, although the Serbian line of control was very close to the north. On the outbreak of hostilities on 18 October, the Greek fleet , placed under the newly promoted Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis , sailed for the island of Lemnos , occupying it three days later (although fighting continued on
17120-455: The Greek fleet's unpreparedness resulting from the premature outbreak of the war, such an early Ottoman attack might well have been able to achieve a crucial victory. Instead, the Ottoman Navy spent the first two months of the war in operations against the Bulgarians in the Black Sea, giving the Greeks valuable time to complete their preparations and allowing them to consolidate their control of
17334-458: The Greek government under Theodoros Diligiannis , bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897 the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state with
17548-420: The Greek government, led by Dimitrios Rallis , proved unable likewise to take advantage of the situation and bring Crete into the fold, rankled with many Greeks, especially with young officers. These formed a secret society, the " Military League ", with the purpose of emulating their Ottoman colleagues and seeking reforms. The resulting Goudi coup on 15 August 1909 marked a watershed in modern Greek history: as
17762-700: The Greek region and the first of them was launched on 6 March 1821, in the Danubian principalities . It was put down by the Ottomans, but the torch had been lit and by the end of the same month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt. In 1821, the Greek-speaking populations of Peloponnesus revolted against the Ottoman Empire . Following a region-wide struggle that lasted several months, the Greek War of Independence led to
17976-412: The Greek throne; however, he turned down the offer. Otto von Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria was chosen as its first king . Otto arrived at the provisional capital, Nafplion , in 1833 aboard a British warship . Otto's reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia , left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his reign,
18190-450: The Greek torpedo boat No. 14 under Lt. Periklis Argyropoulos off Ayvalık . The main Ottoman fleet remained inside the Dardanelles for the early part of the war, while the Greek destroyers continuously patrolled the Straits' exit to report on a possible sortie. Kountouriotis suggested mining the straits, but was not taken up for fear of international reactions. On 7 December, the head of
18404-410: The Halfaya Pass. The British lost five tanks destroyed and a further 13 were damaged but the tank regiments suffered no losses in personnel. Total casualties amounted to at least 206 men. The 1st Durham Light Infantry suffered the most during the operation losing 196 men killed, wounded or captured. The 2nd Scots Guards lost one man killed and four wounded, the 3rd Coldstream Guards lost one man killed and
18618-472: The Italian advance. They fell back to Alam Hamid the next day and to Alam el Dab [ sv ] on 16 September. An Italian force of fifty tanks attempted a flanking move so the British rearguard retired east of Sidi Barrani, which was occupied by the 1st CC.NN. Division "23 Marzo" and Graziani halted the advance. The British resumed observation and the 7th Armoured Division prepared to challenge an attack on Mersa Matruh. Despite prodding from Mussolini,
18832-467: The Italian army continued and caused damage which prisoners reported had lowered morale. Armoured car patrols dominated no man's land but a lack of landing grounds reduced the effectiveness of the RAF and Malta was out of range. Operation Compass , a British counter-attack to an Italian advance on Matruh, planned to destroy Italian forces and most of the WDF was moved up to the port. An additional armoured car company joined reconnaissance operations far behind
19046-423: The Italian disaster with Directive 22 (11 January) ordering Unternehmen Sonnenblume ( Operation Sunflower ), the deployment of a new Afrika Korps (DAK) to Libya, as a Sperrverband (barrier detachment). The DAK had fresh troops with better tanks, equipment and air support and was led by General Erwin Rommel, who had enjoyed great success in the Battle of France. The Axis force raided and quickly defeated
19260-463: The Italians dug in around Sidi Barrani and Sofafi, about 80 mi (130 km) west of the British defences at Mersa Matruh, repairing roads demolished by the British, cleaning wells and beginning work on a water pipeline from the border, accumulating supplies for the resumption of the advance in mid-December. Egypt broke off diplomatic relations with the Axis and Italian aircraft bombed Cairo on 19 October. British naval and air operations to harass
19474-422: The Mediterranean and air reinforcements were sent from Russia in December. The Italian navy used warships to carry fuel to Derna and Benghazi and made a maximum effort from 16 to 17 December. Four battleships, three light cruisers and 20 destroyers escorted four ships to Libya. The use of an armada for 20,000 long tons (20,321 t) of cargo ships, depleted the navy fuel reserve and only one more battleship convoy
19688-508: The Ottoman commander Hasan Tahsin Pasha surrendered Thessaloniki and its garrison of 26,000 men to the Greeks on 9 November [ O.S. 27 October] 1912. Two Corps HQs ( Ustruma and VIII), two Nizamiye divisions (14th and 22nd) and four Redif divisions (Salonika, Drama, Naslic and Serez) were thus lost to the Ottoman order of battle. Additionally, the Ottoman forces lost 70 artillery pieces, 30 machine guns and 70,000 rifles (Thessaloniki
19902-440: The Ottoman fleet Tahir Bey was replaced by Ramiz Naman Bey, the leader of the hawkish faction among the officer corps. A new strategy was agreed, whereby the Ottomans were to take advantage of any absence of the Greek flagship Averof to attack the other Greek ships. The Ottoman staff formulated a plan to lure a number of the Greek destroyers on patrol into a trap. A first such effort on 12 December failed due to boiler trouble, but
20116-509: The Ottoman fleet again sallied from the straits towards Lemnos, it was defeated for a second time in the Naval Battle of Lemnos . This time, the Ottoman warships concentrated their fire on the Averof , which again made use of its superior speed and tried to " cross the T " of the Ottoman fleet. Barbaros Hayreddin was again heavily damaged, and the Ottoman fleet was forced to return to the shelter of
20330-491: The Ottoman fleet suffered heavy damage to the Barbaros Hayreddin and 18 dead and 41 wounded (most during their disorderly retreat) and the Greeks one dead and seven wounded. In the aftermath of Elli, on 20 December the energetic Lt. Commander Rauf Bey was placed in effective command of the Ottoman fleet. Two days later he led his forces out, hoping again to trap the patrolling Greek destroyers between two divisions of
20544-508: The Ottoman fleet, one heading for Imbros and the other waiting at the entrance of the straits. The plan failed as the Greek ships quickly broke contact, while at the same time the Mecidiye came under attack by the Greek submarine Delfin , which launched a torpedo against it but missed; the first such attack in history. During this time, the Ottoman Army continued to press upon a reluctant Navy
20758-510: The Ottomans in 1877 , popular Greek sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece in the context of the Treaty of Berlin , while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete . Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897,
20972-505: The Russian pilot N. de Sackoff, flying for the Greeks, became the first pilot ever shot down in combat, when his biplane was hit by ground fire following a bomb run on the walls of Fort Bizani . He came down near small town of Preveza , on the coast north of the Ionian island of Lefkas , secured local Greek assistance, repaired his plane and resumed flight back to base. The fall of Ioannina allowed
21186-609: The Serbs. The Greek division, surprised by the presence of the Ottoman Corps, isolated from the rest of Greek army and outnumbered by the now counterattacking Ottomans centred on Bitola , was forced to retreat. As a result, the Serbs beat the Greeks to Bitola. In the Epirus front the Greek army was initially heavily outnumbered, but due to the passive attitude of the Ottomans succeeded in conquering Preveza (21 October 1912) and pushing north to
21400-485: The Tiger convoy lost one ship and arrived in Alexandria , with 238 tanks, to re-equip the 7th Armoured Division and 43 aircraft. On 28 May, planning began for Operation Battleaxe . During the evening of 26 May, Kampfgruppe von Herff under Oberst [Colonel] Maximilian von Herff comprising three panzer battalions, assembled on the coast at the foot of Halfaya Pass and attacked the next morning, intending to bluff
21614-471: The Tobruk garrison. The substantial commitment required to invest Tobruk prevented him from building up his forces at Sollum, making further advances into Egypt impractical.}}{{efn|Tripoli was the main supply base and all supplies then had to be shipped along the coast or driven to the front. By maintaining possession of Tobruk, the British had the initiative. General Archibald Wavell —the commander-in-chief of
21828-567: The Western Desert, with instructions to drive back the Italians from their frontier posts and dominate the hinterland if war began. The 7th Armoured Division, less the 7th Armoured Brigade, assembled at Mersa Matruh and sent the 7th Support Group forward towards the frontier as a covering force, where the RAF also moved most of its bombers. Malta was also reinforced. The HQ of the 6th Infantry Division, which lacked complete and fully trained units,
22042-504: The administration and the army. But Greece still had no legislature and no constitution. Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in Athens in September 1843. Otto agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November. The new constitution created a bicameral parliament , consisting of an Assembly ( Vouli ) and a Senate ( Gerousia ). Power then passed into
22256-530: The allies". The Treaty of London ended the war, but no one was left satisfied, and soon, the four allies fell out over the partition of Macedonia . In June 1913, Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia, beginning the Second Balkan War , but was beaten back. The Treaty of Bucharest , which concluded the war, left Greece with southern Epirus, the southern-half of Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean islands, except for
22470-404: The anchored ships. Although it scored no hits, this operation is regarded as the first naval-air operation in military history. General Nikola Ivanov , commander of the 2nd Bulgarian Army , acknowledged the role of the Greek fleet in the overall Balkan League victory by stating that "the activity of the entire Greek fleet and above all the Averof was the chief factor in the general success of
22684-516: The area—had grown uneasy. A Squadron's patrol was interpreted as an attempt to concentrate south of Sidi Azeiz, in preparation for a thrust north the next day; such a move threatened to sweep aside Herff's force and unhinge the German front in the Sollum–Bardia area. Herff broke contact with the British; his plan was to join up with Cramer's Panzer Regiment 8 to mount a concentrated counter-attack
22898-577: The armour of the Matilda infantry tanks. At 400 yd (370 m), the gunners shifted targets, aiming at the tracks and undercarriages, when the tanks raised up crossing low stone walls and rocks, seven tanks were disabled. For his conduct during this action, Rommel recommended that Montemurro be awarded the Iron Cross First Class . At the cost of the seven tanks, the position was taken by C Squadron 4th RTR and G Company 2nd Scots Guards and
23112-510: The arrival of the German Afrika Korps in Tripoli to reinforce their Italian allies. Commanded by Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel and consisting of the 5th Light and 15th Panzer Division , the Afrika Korps was to block British attempts to drive the Italians out of the region. Rommel seized on the weakness of his opponents and without waiting for his forces fully to assemble, rapidly went on
23326-447: The battleship squadron moved on north under cover of the forts at Kumkale and engaged the Greek fleet, coming from Imbros, at 9:40. Leaving the older battleships behind, Kountouriotis led the Averof into independent action: utilizing its superior speed, it cut across the Ottoman fleet's bow. Under fire from two sides, the Ottomans were quickly forced to withdraw to the Dardanelles. The whole engagement lasted less than an hour, in which
23540-413: The border between Egypt and Libya. Although the operation got off to a promising start, throwing the Axis high command into confusion, most of its early gains were lost to local counter-attacks, and with German reinforcements being rushed to the front the operation was called off after one day. Egypt had been invaded by Libyan-based Italian forces in September 1940, but by February of the following year
23754-434: The bottom of Halfaya Pass. This objective was finally achieved toward evening when S Company 2nd Rifle Brigade—supported by Australian anti-tank gunners fighting as infantry—overran the Italian positions taking around 130 prisoners. Although the German and Italian commands in North Africa knew that a British offensive was imminent, Operation Brevity nevertheless caught them unprepared, and Rommel recorded in his diary that
23968-590: The brigade group pushed on towards the Bir Wair-Musaid road. At around 08:00, it received the surrender of a large German-Italian camp, and by 10:15 Bir Wair and Musaid had been taken in the face of sporadic opposition. A Squadron 4th RTR and the 1st Durham Light Infantry (1DLI) continued the advance toward Fort Capuzzo. Concealed in hull down positions behind a ridge near the fort were 20–30 German tanks, supported by anti tank guns. These engaged A Squadron, disabling five tanks, but were forced to withdraw as
24182-544: The central column. Herff—who had been prepared to fall back—instead launched a local counter-attack toward Fort Capuzzo during the afternoon of 15 May with the 2nd Battalion Panzer Regiment 5. At around 13:30, D Company 1DLI at the landing ground was overrun, and with no anti-tank support more capable than the Boys anti-tank rifle , the remaining troops of 1DLI were forced to fall back toward Musaid. A fortuitous dust cloud aided their withdrawal but by 14:45 Panzer Regiment 5
24396-572: The city of Ioannina, and therefore had to wait for reinforcements from the Macedonian front. After the campaign in Macedonia was over, a large part of the Army was redeployed to Epirus, where Crown Prince Constantine himself assumed command. In the Battle of Bizani the Ottoman positions were breached and Ioannina taken on 6 March [ O.S. 22 February] 1913. During the siege, on 8 February 1913,
24610-412: The city, leaving the front line only thinly held. Wavell defined Operation Brevity's main objectives as the acquisition of territory from which to launch a further planned offensive toward Tobruk, and the depletion of German and Italian forces in the region. With limited battle-ready units to draw on in the wake of Rommel's recent successes, on 15 May Brigadier William Gott attacked in three columns with
24824-644: The coast, Bardia and Tobruk. The XXII Corps moved south-west of Tobruk to act as a counter-attack force. The British had based forces in Egypt since 1882 but these were greatly reduced by the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 . The small British and Commonwealth force garrisoned the Suez Canal and the Red Sea route. The canal was vital to British communications with its Far Eastern and Indian Ocean territories. In mid-1939, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell
25038-535: The combat strength of the seven Ottoman divisions between the Yanya Corps and VIII Corps , in Epirus and Macedonia respectively. The Greek Army also fielded seven divisions, but, having the initiative, concentrated all seven against VIII Corps, leaving only a number of independent battalions of scarcely divisional strength in the Epirus front. This had fatal consequences for the Western Group of Armies, since it led to
25252-555: The command of the 2nd South African Division , to defend Tobruk. Along with two South African brigades, were the 201st Guards (Motorised) Brigade , 11th Indian Infantry Brigade , 32nd Army Tank Brigade and the 4th Anti-Aircraft Brigade . Tobruk had been besieged for nine months in 1941 but this time the Royal Navy could not guarantee the supply of the garrison and Auchinleck viewed Tobruk as expendable but expected that it could hold out for two months. On 21 June, 35,000 Eighth Army troops surrendered to Lieutenant-General Enea Navarini ,
25466-559: The commander of XXI Corps. Auchinleck relieved Ritchie, took over the Eighth Army and stopped the Axis advance at El Alamein, 70 mi (110 km) from Alexandria; after the First Battle of El Alamein Auchinleck was also sacked. Kingdom of Greece Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1844–1924; 1935–1941; 1944–1973) The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek : Βασίλειον τῆς Ἑλλάδος [vaˈsili.on tis eˈlaðos] )
25680-472: The conquest of Libya, just as German troops and Italian reinforcements arrived. British Commonwealth and Empire troops released after the conclusion of the East Africa Campaign were sent to Egypt and by summer, the surviving Commonwealth troops had returned from Greece , Crete and Syria . From the end of 1941, increasing amounts of equipment and personnel, including US supplies and tanks, arrived for
25894-529: The constitution for a secret organization in Freemasonic fashion. Its purpose was to unite all Greeks in an armed organization to overthrow Turkish rule. The three founders were Nikolaos Skoufas from the Arta province, Emmanuil Xanthos from Patmos , and Athanasios Tsakalov from Ioannina . Soon after they initiated a fourth member, Panagiotis Anagnostopoulos from Andritsaina . Many revolts were planned across
26108-615: The country lacked international recognition and had no robust alliances in the Western world. Following the recapture of the Greek territories by the Ottoman Empire, the great powers of that time (the United Kingdom , the Russian Empire , and the Kingdom of France ) saw the Greek counter-offensive as an opportunity to weaken the Ottoman Empire further and in essence increase their influence in
26322-466: The creation of infrastructure and an indigenous industry, raising protective tariffs and progressive social legislation, while the more populist Deligiannis depended on the promotion of Greek nationalism and the Megali idea . Greece remained a quite impoverished country throughout the 19th century. The country lacked raw materials, infrastructure and capital. Agriculture was mostly at the subsistence level, and
26536-508: The desert of Egypt west of the Nile but came to describe the whole area of conflict, including eastern Cyrenaica in Libya. From the coast, a raised, flat plain of stony desert extends inland about 150 m (500 ft) above sea level and runs south for 120–190 mi (200–300 km) from the coast to the edge of the Sand Sea. Scorpions, vipers and flies abound in the region, which was inhabited by
26750-537: The direction of Ioannina . On 5 November, Major Spyros Spyromilios led a revolt in the coastal area of Himarë and expelled the Ottoman garrison without facing significant resistance, while on 20 November Greek troops from western Macedonia entered Korçë . However, Greek forces in the Epirote front had not the numbers to initiate an offensive against the German-designed defensive positions of Bizani that protected
26964-519: The early loss of the strategic centre of all three Macedonian fronts, the city of Thessaloniki , a fact that sealed their fate. In an unexpectedly brilliant and rapid campaign, the Army of Thessaly seized the city. In the absence of secure sea lines of communications, the retention of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople corridor was essential to the overall strategic posture of the Ottoman Empire in
27178-506: The eastern flank attacked at 2:50 a.m. and met with disaster when the British artillery bombardment fell short of the German anti-tank screen. The 22nd Armoured Brigade lost 60 of 156 tanks and turned away, leaving the 9th Indian Brigade stranded. An afternoon counter-attack by the Ariete and 21st Panzer divisions and a 15th Panzer Division attack on the Knightsbridge Box overran
27392-520: The effect of the much longer supply line from the base in Egypt. A few thousand men of the 10th Army escaped the disaster in Cyrenaica but the 5th Army in Tripolitania had four divisions. The Sirte, Tmed Hassan and Buerat strongholds were reinforced from Italy, which brought the 10th and 5th Armies up to about 150,000 men. German reinforcements were sent to Libya to form a blocking detachment ( Sperrverband ) under Directive 22 of 11 January. These were
27606-410: The end of 15 June, 48 British tanks remained operational. On 16 June, a German counter-attack forced back the British on the western flank but was repulsed in the centre. However, the British were reduced to 21 operational Cruiser tanks and seventeen infantry tanks . On 17 June, the British only just evaded encirclement by two Panzer regiments and ended the operation. Despite British overextension,
27820-519: The end of April it had taken Sollum and the tactically important Halfaya Pass . Rommel garrisoned these positions, reinforced the Kampfgruppe and ordered it onto the defensive. The Tobruk garrison received supplies from the Royal Navy and Rommel was unable to take the port. This failure was significant; his front line positions at Sollum were at the end of a long supply route from Tripoli, threatened by
28034-548: The establishment of the first autonomous Greek state since the mid-15th century. In January 1822, the First National Assembly of Epidaurus passed the Greek Declaration of Independence (part of the country's First Constitution ), which affirmed the sovereignty of Greece. However, the new Greek state was politically unstable and lacked the resources to preserve its territoriality in the long term. Most importantly,
28248-403: The first Governor of Greece, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias , created political and social instability that endangered the country's relationship with its allies. To avoid escalation and in order to strengthen Greece's ties with the great powers, Greece agreed to become a kingdom in 1832 (see London Conference of 1832 ). Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially the first candidate for
28462-722: The first units of the Afrika Korps of Generalleutnant (Lieutenant-General) Erwin Rommel . A week after the Italian surrender at Beda Fomm, the Defence Committee in London ordered Cyrenaica held with the minimum of forces and all spare troops sent to Greece. In the Western Desert Force (now XIII Corps ), the 6th Australian Division was fully equipped and had few losses to replace. The 7th Armoured Division had been operating for eight months, had worn out its mechanical equipment and had withdrawn to refit. Two regiments of
28676-458: The flank of the Gazala line and were isolated by Free French and other Allied troops at Bir Hakeim, who intercepted Axis supply convoys. Rommel retreated to a position abutting the British minefields and Ritchie ordered Operation Aberdeen , a counter-attack for 5 June. To the north, the 32nd Army Tank Brigade lost 50 of 70 tanks. The 7th Armoured Division and the 5th Indian Infantry Division on
28890-415: The following day aircraft were unable to locate the British, and it was reported that the "enemy intentions to attack were not known". On 13 May, Wavell's infantry battalions began to concentrate at their start lines, followed by the tank regiments during the early hours of 15 May. At 06:00, the three columns began their advance, supported overhead by a standing patrol of Hawker Hurricane fighters. Reaching
29104-406: The following morning. Realising that the 22nd Guards Brigade group would be vulnerable to German armoured counterattacks in the open ground around Bir Wair and Mussaid, Brigadier Gott withdrew it during the early hours of the morning of 16 May. By 10:00, the infantry had taken up new positions back at Halfaya Pass, although the 7th Armoured Brigade group was ordered to remain west of Fort Capuzzo for
29318-451: The following two months. Benito Mussolini sought help from Adolf Hitler , who sent a small German force to Tripoli under Directive 22 (11 January). The Afrika Korps ( Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel ) was formally under Italian command, as Italy was the main Axis power in the Mediterranean and North Africa. In the spring of 1941, Rommel led Operation Sonnenblume , which pushed
29532-601: The fortified camps from Sidi Barrani to the Tummars and Maktila. The Maletti Group was based at Nibeiwa , the 63rd Infantry Division Cirene at Rabia and Sofafi, the 62nd Infantry Division Marmarica was on the escarpment from Sofafi to Halfaya Pass and the 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" was east of Buq Buq, behind the Nibeiwa–Rabia gap, supported by about 500 aircraft of the 5° Squada (General Felip Porro). The RAF attacked airfields on 7 December and destroyed 39 aircraft on
29746-465: The fortress while the bulk of the Afrika Korps maintained a mobile position south and east of the port. Operation Brevity (15–16 May) was a limited offensive, to inflict attrition on Axis forces and secure positions for a general offensive towards Tobruk. The British attacked with a small tank-infantry force in three columns, Desert , Centre and Coast . Desert Column , with British cruiser tanks ,
29960-413: The front line. The WDF had been reinforced with a new tank regiment with Matilda II tanks. Rather than wait for the Italians, the British began after about a month to prepare a raid of 4–5 days' duration on the central group of the Italian encampments and then on Sofafi. In December 1940, the 10th Army in Egypt had been reinforced with the 1st and 2nd Libyan divisions and 4th Blackshirt Division , in
30174-532: The frontier and isolate Giarabub . They crossed into Libya that night, exchanged fire with Italian troops at Sidi Omar and discovered that some Italians were unaware that war had been declared. On 14 June, the British captured Fort Capuzzo and Fort Madalena, taking 220 prisoners. Two days later, the British raided a convoy on the Tobruk –Bardia road, killed 21 Italian soldiers and took 88 prisoners, including Generale di Brigata ( Brigadier-General ) Romolo Lastrucci ,
30388-422: The frontier, thus preventing the Axis from invading Egypt. Rommel attempted to take the port but the 9th Australian Division under General Leslie Morshead , resolutely defended the port. The Italians were slow to provide blueprints for the port's fortifications and several attacks were repulsed. After three weeks Rommel suspended the attacks and resumed the siege. Italian infantry divisions took up positions around
30602-419: The garrison from breaking out to meet the British advance. Lieutenant-Colonel Hans Cramer was sent to reinforce Kampfgruppe von Herff with a tank battalion from Panzer Regiment 8 and a battery of 88 mm (3.46 in) anti-aircraft guns , and additional reinforcements under General Hans-Karl Freiherr von Esebeck were despatched the following day. The Germans concentrated their riposte against
30816-447: The ground. Operation Compass (the Battle of Marmarica/Battle of the Camps), began when Selby Force advanced from Matruh to isolate Maktila early on 9 December. The 4th Indian Division and the 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7th RTR) attacked Nibeiwa at dawn and overran the camp, then moved on Tummar West, which fell in the afternoon. A counter-attack from Tummar East was repulsed and the camp taken
31030-455: The gun positions and quickly neutralised them, but one carrier was disabled when the group was subsequently engaged by anti-tank guns. Riley executed a second charge, silencing these too and taking their crews prisoner. His carrier was hit three times; for his actions Riley was awarded the Military Medal , the battalion's first decoration of the war. On the desert flank, 2nd RTR advanced with
31244-536: The hands of a group of politicians, most of whom had been commanders in the War of Independence against the Ottomans. Greek politics in the 19th century was dominated by the national question. Greeks dreamed of liberating all the Greek lands and reconstituting a state embracing them all, with Constantinople as its capital. This was called the Great Idea ( Megali Idea ), and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, notably Crete , Thessaly and Macedonia . During
31458-450: The individual leaders, often bearing their names, two broad political tendencies existed: the liberals, led first by Charilaos Trikoupis and later by Eleftherios Venizelos , and the conservatives, led initially by Theodoros Deligiannis and later by Thrasivoulos Zaimis . Trikoupis and Deligiannis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th century, alternating in office. Trikoupis favoured cooperation with Great Britain in foreign affairs,
31672-408: The infantry tanks of 4th RTR. In the north, the coast group was to advance along the coast road, capturing the lower Halfaya Pass, Sollum barracks, and the town of Sollum. The group included elements of the 2nd Battalion The Rifle Brigade , and the 8th Field Regiment Royal Artillery . The main Axis opposition was Kampfgruppe von Herff , positioned on the desert plateau. It included 30–50 tanks of
31886-439: The initial attacks had caused him considerable losses. By midday on 15 May, Axis command was showing signs of confusion. It was erroneously believed that the offensive involved more than 100 tanks, and repeated requests were made to both the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica for a concerted effort to defeat it. Forces around Tobruk were redeployed east of the besieged city, to block any attempt at relief and to prevent
32100-412: The island until 27 October) and establishing an anchorage at Moudros Bay . This move was of major strategic importance, as it provided the Greeks with a forward base in close distance to the Dardanelles, the Ottoman fleet's main anchorage and refuge. In view of the Ottoman fleet's superiority in speed and broadside weight, the Greek planners expected it to sortie from the straits early in the war. Given
32314-446: The islands and was eased only by large-scale emigration to the United States. There was little education in the countryside. Nevertheless, there was progress in building communications and infrastructure, and elegant public buildings were erected in Athens. Despite the bad financial situation, Athens staged the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, which proved a great success. The parliamentary process developed greatly in Greece during
32528-532: The issue of a special " Tomos " decree which brought it back to a normal status. As a result, it retains certain special links with the " Mother Church ". There were only four bishops, and they had political roles. In 1833 Parliament dissolved 400 small monasteries having fewer than five monks or nuns. Priests were not salaried; in rural areas he was a peasant farmer himself dependent for his livelihood on his farm work and from fees and offerings by his parishioners. His ecclesiastical duties were limited to administering
32742-399: The lack of coordination between the Greek and Serbian HQs cost the Greeks a setback in the Battle of Vevi on 15 November [ O.S. 2 November] 1912, when the Greek 5th Infantry Division crossed its way with the VI Ottoman Corps (a part of the Vardar Army consisting of the 16th, 17th and 18th Nizamiye divisions), retreating to Albania following the Battle of Prilep against
32956-454: The late 1930s from three regiments each to two; reservists were recalled in 1939, along with the usual call-up of conscripts. Morale was considered high and the army had recent operational experience. The Italian navy had prospered under the Fascist regime, which had paid for fast, well-built, well-armed ships and a large submarine fleet but it lacked experience and training. The air force had been ready for war in 1936 but by 1939 had stagnated;
33170-434: The life of their tanks' engines fell from 1,400–1,600 mi (2,300–2,600 km) to 300–900 mi (480–1,450 km) and this problem was made worse by the lack of standardized spare parts for the German and Italian motor types. Italian supply shipments to Libya went about 600 mi (970 km) west around Sicily , then approached the coast of Tunisia before going on to Tripoli , in order to avoid interference from
33384-432: The mighty British navy , and citing the need for a respite after two wars, King Constantine favoured continued neutrality, while Venizelos actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side. Venizelos resigned, but won the next elections , and again formed the government. When Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally in October 1915, Venizelos invited Entente forces into Greece (the Salonika front ), for which he
33598-441: The military conspirators were inexperienced in politics, they asked Venizelos, who had impeccable liberal credentials, to come to Greece as their political adviser. Venizelos quickly established himself as an influential political figure, and his allies won the August 1910 elections . Venizelos became Prime Minister in October 1910, ushering a period of 25 years where his personality would dominate Greek politics. Venizelos initiated
33812-412: The need for refrigerated shipping. In 1940, British military forces had a base at the terminus of the Egyptian state railway, road and the port of Mersa Matruh (Matruh) 200 mi (320 km) west of Alexandria. Construction began on a water pipeline along the railway and the British surveyed sources of water. Wells were dug but most filled with salt water; in 1939 the primary fresh water sources were
34026-420: The next day. A 7th Armoured Division screen to the west prevented the reinforcement of Sidi Barrani and on 10 December, the British cut the coast road and the 7th Armoured Division mopped up around Buq Buq, taking many prisoners. On 11 December, the Italians were defeated at Sidi Barrani; Rabia and Sofafi were abandoned and the 7th Armoured Division pursued along the coast and the escarpment. Late on 14 December,
34240-401: The nights very cold. The sirocco ( gibleh or ghibli ), a hot desert wind, blows clouds of fine sand, which reduce visibility to a few metres and coat eyes, lungs, machinery, food and equipment; motor vehicles and aircraft need special oil filters and the barren terrain means that supplies for military operations have to be transported from outside. German engines tended to overheat and
34454-503: The offensive against his distracted and over-stretched opponent, by April 1941 Rommel had driven the British and Commonwealth forces in Cyrenaica back across the Egyptian border. Although the battlefront now lay in the border area, the port city of Tobruk —100 mi (160 km) inside Libya—had resisted the Axis advance, and its substantial Australian and British garrison constituted a significant threat to Rommel's lengthy supply chain. He therefore committed his main strength to besieging
34668-460: The offensive. During March and April, the remaining units of the 2nd Armoured Division were destroyed as the Axis forces advanced, which also forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat. Neame and the General Officer Commanding British Troops in Egypt —Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor —were captured and the British command structure had to be reorganised. HQ Cyrenaica was dissolved on 14 April and its command functions taken over by
34882-414: The only important export commodities were currants , raisins and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as merchants and shipowners, and Piraeus became a major port, but little of this wealth found its way to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses. By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and public insolvency was declared in 1893. Poverty was rife in the rural areas and
35096-406: The outcome of the battle of Yenidje, the Bulgarian high command urgently dispatched their 7th Rila Division from the north in the direction of the city. The division arrived there a week later, the day after its surrender to the Greeks. Until 10 November, the Greek-occupied zone had been expanded to the line from Lake Dojran to the Pangaion hills west to Kavalla . In southern Yugoslavia however,
35310-403: The pass and reversed the last British territorial gain from Brevity. Original units: Replacement units: Artillery: (some original units, some replacements) Outside units: Western Desert Campaign [REDACTED] United Kingdom [REDACTED] Italy 1941 1942 Associated articles The Western Desert campaign ( Desert War ) took place in
35524-446: The pass, which Axis forces re-occupied. The Italo-German positions on the border were fortified with barbed wire and minefields and covered by 50 mm and 88 mm anti-tank guns. Behind the new defences the Axis began to accumulate supplies and receive the 15th Panzer Division , which began to arrive on 20 May. Operation Battleaxe, 15–17 June 1941 , was intended to lift the Siege of Tobruk and re-capture eastern Cyrenaica. The attack
35738-446: The past, such reports had always been issued prior to the important enemy offensives to capture Sidi Barrani , Bardi, Tobruk, and the Gebel". Rommel strengthened the eastern side of his cordon around Tobruk as a precaution against sorties from the garrison and to order Kampfgruppe von Herff to adopt a more aggressive posture. On 13 May, Axis aircraft bombed British tank concentrations and Herff expected an imminent British attack. On
35952-402: The patriarch in Constantinople. The government declared the church to be autocephalous (independent) in 1833 in a political decision of the Bavarian regents acting for King Otto , who was a minor. The decision roiled Greek politics for decades as royal authorities took increasing control. The new status was finally recognised as such by the Patriarchate in 1850, under compromise conditions with
36166-430: The plains and islands of Greece were in Ottoman hands; while in contrast, the mountains and highlands of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks to flee foreign rule and engage in guerrilla warfare. In the context of an ardent desire for independence from Turkish rule, and with the explicit influence of similar secret societies elsewhere in Europe, three Greeks came together in 1814 in Odesa to decide
36380-417: The position. D Company 1DLI—which had been in reserve during the attack—then made a wide left hook to capture a small landing ground to the north of the fort. In the afternoon, one company of the 2nd Scots Guards probed toward Bardia, the infantry coming under heavy machine gun fire from three positions as they neared Sollum barracks. A group of Universal Carriers —commanded by Sergeant F. Riley—charged
36594-443: The pre-war Greek border to Vlorë was also instituted on 3 December, isolating the newly established Provisional Government of Albania based there from any outside support. Lieutenant Nikolaos Votsis scored a major success for Greek morale on 31 October: he sailed his torpedo boat No. 11, under the cover of night, into the harbor of Thessaloniki , sank the old Ottoman ironclad battleship Feth-i Bülend and escaped unharmed. On
36808-592: The rationalistic and materialistic ideas that had seeped in from secular Western Europe. It promoted catechism schools, and circles for the study of the Bible. At the urging of Britain and King George, Greece adopted a much more democratic constitution in 1864. The powers of the king were reduced and the Senate was abolished, and the franchise was extended to all adult males. Nevertheless, Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it had always been. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis repeatedly occurred as prime ministers. Although parties were centered around
37022-492: The reign of George I. Initially, the royal prerogative in choosing his prime minister remained and contributed to governmental instability, until the introduction of the dedilomeni principle of parliamentary confidence in 1875 by the reformist Charilaos Trikoupis . Clientelism and frequent electoral upheavals, however, remained the norm in Greek politics and frustrated the country's development. Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like
37236-411: The remainder had been sunk, although much was replaced by new shipbuilding, salvage and transfers of German ships. From June 1940 to May 1943, 16 per cent of supply shipments were sunk. Tobruk was pressed into use in June 1942 but Allied bombing and its long approach route led this effort to be abandoned in August. The Germans assumed that the maximum distance a motorised army could operate from its base
37450-423: The rest further afield. Many of the supplies needed by the British were imported from the colonies and the rest obtained locally by stimulating the production of substitutes. The plan for a garrison of nine divisions in Egypt and Palestine was changed to fourteen divisions by June 1941 and then to 23 by March 1942. Once the Italians declared war in 1940 and until 1943, merchant ships travelled east from Britain around
37664-452: The results of these "cat and mouse" operations were always the same: "the Greek destroyers always managed to remain outside the Ottoman warships' range, and each time the cruisers fired a few rounds before breaking off the chase." In preparation for the next attempt to break the Greek blockade, the Ottoman Admiralty decided to create a diversion by sending the light cruiser Hamidiye , captained by Rauf Bey, to raid Greek merchant shipping in
37878-559: The sacking of Wavell, the XIII Corps commander, Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse and Creagh, the 7th Armoured Division commander. General Claude Auchinleck took over as the Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command. In September, the Western Desert Force was renamed the Eighth Army . The Eighth Army (Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham ) conducted Operation Crusader from 18 November to 30 December, aiming to relieve Tobruk and capture eastern Cyrenaica. The Eighth Army planned to destroy Axis armour before committing its infantry but
38092-468: The sacraments, supervising funerals, the blessings of crops, and exorcism. Few attended seminaries. By the 1840s, there was a nationwide revival, run by travelling preachers. The government arrested several and tried to shut down the revival, but it proved too powerful when the revivalists denounced three bishops for purchasing their office. By the 1880s the "Anaplasis" ("Regeneration") Movement led to renewed spiritual energy and enlightenment. It fought against
38306-404: The same day, Greek troops of the Epirus Army seized the Ottoman naval base of Preveza . The Ottomans scuttled the four ships present there, but the Greeks were able to salvage the Italian-built torpedo-boats Antalya and Tokat , which were commissioned into the Greek Navy as Nikopolis and Tatoi respectively. On 9 November, the wooden Ottoman armed steamer Trabzon was intercepted and sunk by
38520-447: The second try two days later resulted in an indecisive engagement between the Greek destroyers and the cruiser Mecidiye . The war's first major fleet action, the Naval Battle of Elli , was fought two days later, on 16 December [ O.S. 3 December] 1912. The Ottoman fleet, with four battleships, nine destroyers and six torpedo boats, sailed to the entrance of the straits. The lighter Ottoman vessels remained behind, but
38734-402: The squadron pressed its attack. On the final approach to Fort Capuzzo, contact was lost between 4th RTR's tanks and 1DLI's leading C Company, and the attack on the fort began without armoured support. The fort was vigorously defended, and it was not until just before midday that C Company, reunited with A Squadron 4th RTR and reinforced by A and B Companies 1DLI, eventually took
38948-476: The strategic point of view these victories were enabled partially by the weakened condition of the Ottoman armies brought about by the active presence of the Greek army and fleet. With the declaration of war, the Greek Army of Thessaly under Crown Prince Constantine advanced to the north, successfully overcoming Ottoman opposition in the fortified Straits of Sarantaporo. After another victory at Giannitsa on 2 November [ O.S. 20 October] 1912,
39162-449: The tactical HQs of the two British divisions and the 9th Indian Division. The 10th Indian Infantry Brigade and smaller units were dispersed and command broke down. The 9th Indian Brigade, a reconnaissance regiment and four artillery regiments were lost and the British fled from the Gazala Line on 13 June, with only 70 operational tanks. Gott, now a Lieutenant-General and commander of XIII Corps, appointed Major-General Hendrik Klopper to
39376-454: The time being. Cramer's reinforcements arrived in the Sidi Azeiz area at 03:00 and reached Fort Capuzzo at 06:30. At around 08:00, he made contact with Kampfgruppe von Herff but by mid-morning both groups had run out of fuel. The German advance resumed at 16:00 before being stopped by around 17 tanks of 2nd RTR. The British reported one German tank set alight and another disabled and that an advance of up to fifty tanks had been halted, while
39590-440: The top of the Halfaya Pass, the 22nd Guards Brigade group ran into heavy opposition from a company of the 8th Bersaglieri Regiment , supported by anti-tank guns, under the command of Colonel Ugo Montemurro . This unit fought tenaciously, doing much to repair the poor impression Rommel had of his Italian allies. Opening fire upon the attacking British tanks, the Bersaglieri found their 47 mm anti-tank guns could not penetrate
39804-551: The top of the pass and a retreat was ordered, covered by Desert Column. The Germans took Musaid back and a general British retreat began, to a line from Sidi Omar to Sidi Suleiman and Sollum, which left only the Halfaya Pass in British hands. Brevity failed to achieve most of its objectives and only briefly held the Halfaya Pass. The British lost 206 casualties. Five tanks were destroyed and 13 damaged. German casualties were 258 men, three tanks destroyed and several damaged. Italian casualties were 395, of whom 347 were captured. On 12 May,
40018-407: The totals for Operation Compass of 133,298 men, 420 tanks and 845 guns. On 9 February, Churchill ordered the advance to stop and troops to be dispatched to Greece to take part in Operation Marita of the Greco-Italian War , since a German attack through Macedonia was thought imminent. The British were unable to continue beyond El Agheila anyway, because of vehicle breakdowns, exhaustion and
40232-460: The track life of tanks. Spare parts ran out and only half the tank strength could be kept operational. A lull fell from August to early September as Operation Hats , a naval operation, reinforced the Mediterranean Fleet and helped to bring an army convoy of tanks and crews via the Cape. The British claimed to have inflicted 3,500 casualties with a loss of 150 men between 11 June and 9 September. Further afield, both sides established scouting groups,
40446-513: The transport necessary to operate with the Maletti Group, which had one medium, two mixed and four light tank battalions on the escarpment and were redeployed to the coast road. On 9 September, the Maletti Group got lost en route to Sidi Omar and Rodolfo Graziani cancelled a flanking move and concentrated on the coast road, with five divisions and the Maletti Group; the 4th CC.NN. Division "3 Gennaio" and 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" divisions stayed in reserve at Tobruk. The 5th Squadra ,
40660-417: The troops of the former Western Desert Force adopted a defensive posture. Over the next few months, HQ Cyrenaica lost its commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson , followed by the 2nd New Zealand Division and the 6th Australian Division when they were sent to Greece in Operation Lustre . The 7th Armoured Division , with virtually no serviceable tanks left, was also withdrawn and sent to
40874-580: The west of Tobruk to the Gazala Line and then back to El Agheila, leaving the Axis garrisons at Bardia and Sollum isolated and which surrendered later. The British suffered 17,700 casualties against 37,400 Axis, many of them taken prisoner when the garrisons left behind at Halfaya and Bardia surrendered. Tobruk had been relieved, Cyrenaica recaptured and airfields reoccupied to cover convoys supplying Malta. Axis supplies from Europe to Libya were moved by road and after Operation Compass (December 1940 – February 1941), only Tripoli remained as an entrepôt , with
41088-619: The west, and Egypt to the east, the Italians prepared to defend both fronts through a North Africa Supreme Headquarters, under the command of the Governor-General of Italian Libya , Marshal of the Air Force, Italo Balbo . Supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army (General Italo Gariboldi ) and the 10th Army (General Mario Berti ), which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions of about 13,000 men each, three Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale ( Blackshirt ) divisions and two Libyan divisions , each with an establishment with 8,000 men. Italian army divisions had been reorganised in
41302-670: Was 120 mi (190 km) east of the Libyan border. From the border there was no water at Sollum or for another 50 mi (80 km) east of Sollum to Sidi Barrani , along a very poor road. An invader would have to move through a waterless and trackless desert to reach the main British force. In September 1940, the New Zealand Railway Battalion and Indian labourers began work on a coastal railway, which reached Sidi Barrani by October 1941 and Tobruk by December 1942, 400 mi (640 km) west of El Alamein, carrying 4,200 long tons (4,267 t) of water per day. On 11 June 1940, hostilities commenced. British troops were ordered to dominate
41516-490: Was 200 mi (320 km) but on average about a third of Axis lorries were unserviceable and 35–50 per cent of the fuel deliveries were consumed transporting the remainder to the front. Fuel oil shortages in Italy, the small size of the ports in Libya and the need to meet civilian demand, required the inefficient dispatch of large numbers of small convoys. Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH, German army high command) concluded that German forces in Libya could not be supplied for
41730-435: Was again dismissed by Constantine. In August 1916, after several incidents where both combatants encroached upon the still theoretically neutral Greek territory, Venizelist officers rose up in Allied-controlled Thessaloniki, and Venizelos established a separate government there. Constantine was now ruling only in what was Greece before the Balkan Wars ("Old Greece"), and his government was subject to repeated humiliations from
41944-439: Was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the new Middle East Command , over the Mediterranean and Middle East theatres . Until the Franco-Axis armistice, French divisions in Tunisia faced the Italian 5th Army on the western Libyan border. In Libya, the Royal Army had about 215,000 men and in Egypt, the British had about 36,000 troops and another 27,500 men training in Palestine . British forces included
42158-456: Was at the Gazala line, west of Tobruk. In the spring both sides prepared for another battle. The British planned Operation Buckshot for June to destroy the Panzerarmee and re-capture Cyrenaica but in early May defensive measures on the Egyptian border took priority, as an Axis attack became imminent. Unternehmen Venezia (the Battle of Gazala ) from 26 May to 21 June 1942, began when Afrika Korps and Italian tanks drove south, around
42372-490: Was bombed and ships diverted to Tripoli; air supply in October made little difference. Deliveries averaged 72,000 long tons (73,155 t) a month from July to October but the consumption of 30 to 50 per cent of fuel deliveries by road transport and truck non-serviceability of 35 per cent reduced deliveries to the front. In November, a five-ship convoy was sunk during Operation Crusader and ground attacks on road convoys stopped journeys in daylight. Lack of deliveries coupled with
42586-497: Was delivered; attacks from Malta had some effect but in May, the worst month for ship losses, 91 per cent of supplies actually arrived. Lack of transportation in Libya left German supplies in Tripoli and the Italians had only 7,000 lorries for deliveries to their 225,000 men. A record amount of supplies arrived in June but shortages worsened at the front. There were fewer Axis attacks on Malta from June and ship losses increased from 19% in July, to 25 per cent in September, when Benghazi
42800-432: Was engaged by two tanks of No 2 Troop, destroying a Panzer III and forcing the remainder to withdraw. By midday, the brigade group had reached a position west of Fort Capuzzo, and in the afternoon the nine remaining cruisers of A Squadron 2nd RTR began a reconnaissance patrol towards Sidi Azeiz. The advance along the coastal road—which lacked tank support—was held up all morning by determined Italian resistance at
43014-415: Was engaged near Ajedabia and lost 61 of 90 tanks, vs. seven German tanks lost. Panzerarmee Afrika began Operation Theseus on 21 January and defeated the 2nd Armoured Brigade in detail . By 23 January, the brigade was down from 150 to 75 tanks, against a German loss of 29 tanks out of 100. Benghazi fell on 28 January and Timimi on 3 February. By 6 February, the British were back to the Gazala line,
43228-399: Was established in 1832 and was the successor state to the First Hellenic Republic . It was internationally recognised by the Treaty of Constantinople , where Greece also secured its full independence from the Ottoman Empire after nearly four centuries. The Kingdom of Greece was dissolved in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was established following Greece's defeat by Turkey in
43442-433: Was fought primarily in the area known as the Western Desert , which was about 240 mi (390 km) wide, from Mersa Matruh in Egypt to Gazala on the Libyan coast, along Litoranea Balbo ( Via Balbia ), the only paved road. The Sand Sea , 150 mi (240 km) inland, marked the southern limit of the desert at its widest points at Giarabub and Siwa . In British parlance, the term "Western Desert" applied to
43656-437: Was later raised and repaired). The Hamidiye then left the Aegean for the Eastern Mediterranean, making stops at Beirut and Port Said before entering the Red Sea . Although providing a major morale boost for the Ottomans, the operation failed to achieve its primary objective, as Kountouriotis refused to leave his post and pursue the Hamidiye . Four days later, on 18 January [ O.S. 5 January] 1913, when
43870-406: Was not attacked until 13 March 1913, out of a desire not to upset the Italians in the nearby Dodecanese . The clashes there were short-lived as the Ottoman forces withdrew to the Anatolian mainland so that the island was securely in Greek hands by 16 March. At the same time, with the aid of numerous merchant ships converted to auxiliary cruisers , a loose naval blockade on the Ottoman coasts from
44084-428: Was possible. Bizerta was canvassed as an entrepôt but it was within range of RAF aircraft from Malta and was another 500 mi (800 km) west of Tripoli. The Eighth Army advance of 500 mi (800 km) to El Agheila transferred the burden of an over-stretched supply line to the British. In January 1942, the British withdrew from the front to reduce the supply burden and to prepare for Operation Acrobat ,
44298-608: Was renamed the Western Desert Force on 17 June. In Tunisia, the French had eight divisions, capable only of limited operations and in Syria, three poorly armed and trained divisions, about 40,000 troops and border guards, on occupation duties against the civilian population. Italian land and air forces in Libya greatly outnumbered the British in Egypt but suffered from poor morale and were handicapped by inferior equipment. In Italian East Africa , there were another 130,000 Italian and African troops with 400 guns, 200 light tanks and 20,000 lorries. Italy declared war on 11 June 1940. The war
44512-437: Was reporting that it had recaptured Capuzzo, inflicting heavy casualties on the British and taking 70 prisoners. On the desert flank, A Squadron 2nd RTR's patrol toward Sidi Azeiz was being monitored by Panzer Regiment 5, but the Germans misidentified the light cruiser tanks as heavily armoured Matilda infantry tanks, and reported that an attack was not possible. Herff—believing the British had two divisions operating in
44726-541: Was repulsed several times, culminating in the defeat of the 7th Armoured Division by the Afrika Korps at Sidi Rezegh. Rommel ordered the panzer divisions to relieve the Axis positions on the Egyptian border but failed to find the main body of the Allied infantry, which had bypassed the fortresses and headed for Tobruk. Rommel pulled his armour back from the frontier towards Tobruk and achieved several tactical successes, which led Auchinleck to replace Cunningham with Major-General Neil Ritchie . The Axis forces then withdrew to
44940-518: Was the central arms depot for the Western Armies). The Ottoman forces estimated that 15,000 officers and men had been killed during the campaign in Macedonia, bringing total losses up to 41,000 soldiers. Another direct consequence was that the destruction of the Macedonian Army sealed the fate of the Ottoman Vardar Army, which was fighting the Serbs to the north. The fall of Thessaloniki left it strategically isolated, without logistical supply and depth to manoeuvre, ensuring its destruction. Upon learning of
45154-400: Was to advance inland and destroy tanks found en route to Sidi Aziz . Centre Column was to capture the top of the Halfaya Pass, Bir Wair and Musaid, then press on to Fort Capuzzo. Coast Column was to take Sollum and the foot of Halfaya Pass. Sollum, Halfaya Pass and Fort Capuzzo were captured but then the fort was lost to a counter-attack. A German counter-attack on 16 May threatened the force at
45368-471: Was to advance toward Tobruk, although only as far as supplies would allow, and without risking the force committed to the operation. Operation Brevity would be carried out by the 22nd Guards Brigade and elements of the 7th Armoured Division. Its armoured component consisted of 29 cruiser tanks of the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment (2nd RTR) and 24 infantry tanks of the 4th Royal Tank Regiment (4th RTR). The Royal Air Force (RAF) allocated all its fighters and
45582-466: Was to be conducted by the 7th Armoured Division and a composite infantry force based on the 4th Indian Division headquarters, with two brigades. The infantry were to attack in the area of Bardia, Sollum, Halfaya and Capuzzo, with the tanks guarding the southern flank. For the first time in the war, a large German force fought on the defensive. The Halfaya Pass attack failed, Point 206 was captured and only one of three attacks on Hafid Ridge had any success. At
45796-427: Was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka ). This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s. All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Especially in Crete , a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and
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