Misplaced Pages

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81-609: Download coordinates as: Operation Argus was a series of United States low-yield, high-altitude nuclear weapons tests and missile tests secretly conducted from 27 August to 9 September 1958 over the South Atlantic Ocean . The tests were performed by the Defense Nuclear Agency . The tests were to study the Christofilos effect , which suggested it was possible to defend against Soviet nuclear missiles by exploding

162-563: A tactical air force or numbered air force , which is an operational formation either within a national air force or comprising several air components from allied nations. Air forces typically consist of a combination of fighters , bombers , helicopters , transport planes and other aircraft. Many air forces may command and control other air defence forces assets such as anti-aircraft artillery , surface-to-air missiles , or anti-ballistic missile warning networks and defensive systems. Some air forces are also responsible for operations of

243-570: A COZI radar and other instrumentation for detecting man-made ionization . This instrumentation included International Geophysical Year (IGY) radiometers , receivers , radar , and optical equipment. After the IGY equipment was added, it sailed to the ocean around the area of the Azores to record data at the geomagnetic conjugate point of the South Atlantic test site, as the rest of task force 88 headed to

324-470: A given weapon type for a country is included, as well as tests that were otherwise notable (such as the largest test ever). All yields (explosive power) are given in their estimated energy equivalents in kilotons of TNT (see TNT equivalent ). Putative tests (like Vela incident ) have not been included. Air force An air force in the broadest sense is the national military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare . More specifically, it

405-610: A green uniform for everyone. This proved very unpopular , and in 1975 Canadian aviation units were reorganized under a single organization ( Air Command ) with a single commander . In 2011 the Canadian Forces Air Command reverted to its pre-1960s name, the Royal Canadian Air Force. The organizational structures of air forces vary between nations: some air forces (such as the United States Air Force ,

486-501: A number of populated islands in nearby atoll formations. Though they were soon evacuated, many of the islands' inhabitants suffered from radiation burns and later from other effects such as increased cancer rate and birth defects, as did the crew of the Japanese fishing boat Daigo Fukuryū Maru . One crewman died from radiation sickness after returning to port, and it was feared that the radioactive fish they had been carrying had made it into

567-678: A period of several months. In the end Britain emerged victorious, and this caused Adolf Hitler to give up his plan to invade Britain. Other prominent air force operations during the Second World War include the Allied bombing of Germany during 1942–1944 , and the Red Air Force operations in support of strategic ground offensives on the Eastern Front . The aerial warfare in Pacific Ocean theatre

648-523: A radiation belt in the extreme upper regions of the Earth's atmosphere. Such belts would be similar in effect to the Van Allen radiation belts . "Such radiation belts were viewed as having possible tactical use in war, including degradation of radio and radar transmissions, damage or destruction of the arming and fuzing mechanisms of ICBM warheads, and endangering the crews of orbiting space vehicles that might enter

729-528: A result of a scenario of a concentrated number of nuclear explosions in a nuclear holocaust , the thousands of tests, hundreds being atmospheric, did nevertheless produce a global fallout that has peaked in 1963 (the Bomb pulse ), reaching levels of about 0.15  mSv per year worldwide, or about 7% of average background radiation dose from all sources, and has slowly decreased since, with natural environmental radiation levels being around 1 mSv . This global fallout

810-538: A series of precautionary radiation safe measures to be followed in each stage of the operation. Though the chance of exposure to radiation from these missiles was minute, the safety measures were performed as directed by the commander by the crew of Task Force 88. Coordinated measurement programs involving satellite, rocket, aircraft, and surface stations were employed by the services as well as other government agencies and various contractors worldwide. The Argus explosions created artificial electron belts resulting from

891-621: A significant amount of support from other personnel to operate. Logistics, security, intelligence, special operations, cyber space support, maintenance, weapons loaders, and many other specialties are required by all air forces. The first aviation force in the world was the Aviation Military of the French Army formed in 1910, which eventually became l' Armée de l'Air . In 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War , Italy employed aircraft for

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972-468: A single salvo test; Pakistan's second and last official test exploded four different devices. Almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests; in the lists in Misplaced Pages (for example, Operation Cresset has separate items for Cremino and Caerphilly , which together constitute a single test), the lists are of explosions. Separately from these designations, nuclear tests are also often categorized by

1053-698: A small number of nuclear bombs high over the South Pacific. This would create a disk of electrons over the United States that would overload the electronics on the Soviet warheads as they descended. It was also possible to use the effect to blind Soviet radars , meaning that any Soviet missile-based ABM system would be unable to attack the US counterstrike. The tests demonstrated that the effect did occur, but that it dissipated too rapidly to be very effective. Papers concerning

1134-414: A training facility for crews involved in the testing. The X-17A missiles to be used in the test were unfamiliar to those conducting the tests. Exercises including assembly and repair of dummy missiles were performed aboard Norton Sound . It also carried a 27-MHz COZI radar, which was operated by Air Force Cambridge Research Center , which was used to monitor effects of the shots. It was responsible for

1215-447: A variety of fissile material compositions, densities, shapes, and reflectors . They can be subcritical or supercritical, in which case significant radiation fluxes can be produced. This type of test has resulted in several criticality accidents . Subcritical (or cold) tests are any type of tests involving nuclear materials and possibly high explosives (like those mentioned above) that purposely result in no yield . The name refers to

1296-439: Is the branch of a nation 's armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army aviation or naval aviation units. Typically, air forces are responsible for gaining control of the air , carrying out strategic and tactical bombing missions, and providing support to land and naval forces often in the form of aerial reconnaissance and close air support . The term air force may also refer to

1377-476: Is very unlikely to develop significant nuclear innovations without testing. One other approach is to use supercomputers to conduct "virtual" testing, but codes need to be validated against test data. There have been many attempts to limit the number and size of nuclear tests; the most far-reaching is the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty of 1996, which has not, as of 2013 , been ratified by eight of

1458-773: The Argentine Air Force in 1945. The Israeli Air Force came into being with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, but evolved from the pre-existing Sherut Avir (Air Service) of the Haganah paramilitary. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force was not established until 1954; in World War II Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the Army and Navy. Unlike all these countries, the Mexican Air Force remains an integral part of

1539-513: The Argus tests). This has proved contentious due to the greater-than-normal number of leukemia claims among TF-88 participants to the Veterans Administration . Because of this, it has been difficult to resolve to how much radiation the participants were exposed. USS Norton Sound was a United States Navy -guided missile ship responsible for missile-launching functions. It also served as

1620-579: The Mexican Army . Germany was the first country to organize regular air attacks on enemy infrastructure with the Luftstreitkräfte . In World War I , it used its zeppelins ( airships ) to drop bombs on British cities. At that time, Britain did have aircraft, though her airships were less advanced than the zeppelins and were very rarely used for attacking; instead, they were usually used to spy on German U-boats ( submarines ). Fixed-wing aircraft at

1701-1026: The Naval Research Laboratory , the Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory, the Army Map Service , the Naval Ordnance Test Station , and the Ballistic Research Laboratory along with ground tracking stations from the Aleutian Islands through the Azores from academic, industrial, and military organizations." To prepare for the launch of the ARGUS missiles, many tests and preparations were performed. As

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1782-877: The Royal title by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938, when its head was also designated as Chief of the Air Staff . Similarly, the Royal New Zealand Air Force was established in 1923 as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force, but did not become independent of the New Zealand Army until 1937. The Royal Indian Air Force was also formed on 8 October 1932. Other British-influenced countries also established independent air forces. For example,

1863-675: The Royal Air Force ) are divided into commands, groups and squadrons; others (such as the Soviet Air Force ) have an Army-style organizational structure. The modern Royal Canadian Air Force uses Air Division as the formation between wings and the entire air command. Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of squadrons. In the case of China the Air Force headquarters consists of four departments: Command, Political, Logistic, and Equipment, which mirrors

1944-663: The Royal Egyptian Air Force was created in 1937, when Egyptian military aviation was separated from Army command. The Afghan Air Force was established on 22 August 1924, with support from the Soviet Union and Great Britain, but a civil war destroyed most of the planes and it was not reestablished until 1937, when King Mohammed Nadir Shah took power. Outside of the British Empire, the Italian Royal Air Force

2025-483: The South Atlantic Anomaly , the Van Allen radiation belt is closer to the Earth's surface at that location. The (extreme) altitude of the tests was chosen so as to prevent personnel involved with the test from being exposed to any ionizing radiation . Even with the very minor threat of radiation exposure, precautions were taken to prevent radiological exposure. The task force commander and his staff had devised

2106-520: The Vela incident . From the first nuclear test in 1945 until tests by Pakistan in 1998, there was never a period of more than 22 months with no nuclear testing. June 1998 to October 2006 was the longest period since 1945 with no acknowledged nuclear tests. A summary table of all the nuclear testing that has happened since 1945 is here: Worldwide nuclear testing counts and summary . While nuclear weapons testing did not produce scenarios like nuclear winter as

2187-492: The jet engine ; the missile ; the helicopter; and inflight refueling . In 1954 the Japan Air Self-Defense Force was founded as a separate service. Previously Japan had delivered its service aviation from within its Army and Navy. During the 1960s, Canada merged the Royal Canadian Air Force with the army and the navy to form the unified Canadian Forces , with air assets divided between several commands and

2268-445: The β-decay of fission fragments. These lasted for several weeks. Such radiation belts affect radio and radar transmissions, damage or destroy arming and fusing mechanisms of intercontinental ballistic missile warheads , and endanger crews of orbiting space vehicles . It was found after performing these tests that the explosions did in fact degrade the reception and transmission of radar signals, another proof that Christofilos

2349-469: The " Annex 2 countries " required for it to take effect, including the United States. Nuclear testing has since become a controversial issue in the United States, with a number of politicians saying that future testing might be necessary to maintain the aging warheads from the Cold War . Because nuclear testing is seen as furthering nuclear arms development, many are opposed to future testing as an acceleration of

2430-458: The "greatest scientific experiment ever conducted". This was an unauthorized publication that caused great controversy among scientists because many of them were unaware of the presence of artificial particles in the Earth's atmosphere. Approximately nine ships and 4,500 people participated with the operation. After the completion of testing, the task force returned to the United States via Rio de Janeiro , Brazil. The tests were announced officially

2511-579: The ARGUS missile launchings were "stationing of ships, MSQ-1A radar tracking by the USS Neosho and the USS Tarawa , communications, positioning of sky-camera S2F aircraft, and area surveillance S2F aircraft." About 1800 km southwest of Cape Town , South Africa, USS Norton Sound launched three modified X-17A missiles armed with 1.7 kt W-25 nuclear warheads into the upper atmosphere , where high altitude nuclear explosions occurred. Due to

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2592-730: The British Army's Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . At its inception, the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft. It was commanded by a Chief of the Air Staff with the rank of major-general and was governed by its own government ministry (the Air Ministry ). Arguably, the Finnish Air Force was the first independent air force in the world, formed on 6 March 1918, when the Swedish count, Eric von Rosen gave Finland

2673-531: The CTBT has been signed by 183 States, of which 157 have also ratified. However, for the Treaty to enter into force it needs to be ratified by 44 specific nuclear technology-holder countries. These "Annex 2 States" participated in the negotiations on the CTBT between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power or research reactors at that time. The ratification of eight Annex 2 states is still missing: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and

2754-590: The Japanese food supply. Castle Bravo was the worst U.S. nuclear accident, but many of its component problems—unpredictably large yields, changing weather patterns, unexpected fallout contamination of populations and the food supply—occurred during other atmospheric nuclear weapons tests by other countries as well. Concerns over worldwide fallout rates eventually led to the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which limited signatories to underground testing. Not all countries stopped atmospheric testing, but because

2835-659: The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions everywhere, including underground. For that purpose, the Preparatory Commission of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization is building an international monitoring system with 337 facilities located all over the globe. 85% of these facilities are already operational. As of May 2012 ,

2916-400: The South Atlantic to perform the tests. USS Tarawa served as overall command of the operation, with her commander serving as Task Group Commander. It carried an Air Force MSQ-1A radar and communication system for missile tracking. It also housed VS-32 aircraft for search and security operations as well as scientific measurement, photographic, and observer missions for each test. HS-5

2997-922: The United Kingdom until 1991, the United States until 1992, and both China and France until 1996. In signing the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty in 1996, these countries pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing; the treaty has not yet entered into force because of its failure to be ratified by eight countries. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998. North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006 , 2009 , 2013 , January 2016 , September 2016 and 2017. The most recent confirmed nuclear test occurred in September 2017 in North Korea. Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting

3078-555: The United States and the Soviet Union were responsible for roughly 86% of all nuclear tests, their compliance cut the overall level substantially. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China until 1980. A tacit moratorium on testing was in effect from 1958 to 1961 and ended with a series of Soviet tests in late 1961, including the Tsar Bomba , the largest nuclear weapon ever tested. The United States responded in 1962 with Operation Dominic , involving dozens of tests, including

3159-457: The United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it. The following is a list of the treaties applicable to nuclear testing: Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. As public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the nuclear fallout , various studies were done to assess

3240-409: The amount of it that is necessary. Hydronuclear tests study nuclear materials under the conditions of explosive shock compression. They can create subcritical conditions, or supercritical conditions with yields ranging from negligible all the way up to a substantial fraction of full weapon yield. Critical mass experiments determine the quantity of fissile material required for criticality with

3321-433: The appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare and numerous flying aces . An independent air force is one which is a separate branch of a nation's armed forces and is, at least nominally, treated as a military service on par with that of older services like navies or armies. The British Royal Air Force was the first independent air force in the world. The RAF was founded on 1 April 1918 by amalgamation

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3402-417: The arms race. In total nuclear test megatonnage , from 1945 to 1992, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including eight underwater) were conducted with a total yield of 545 megatons , with a peak occurring in 1961–1962, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and Soviet Union , while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992

3483-522: The belt." Prior to Argus, Hardtack Teak had shown disruption of radio communications from a nuclear blast, though this was not due to the creation of radiation belts . Argus was implemented rapidly after inception due to forthcoming bans on atmospheric and exoatmospheric testing in October 1958. Consequently, the tests were performed within a mere half-year of conception (whereas "normal" testing took one to two years). Because nuclear testing during this time

3564-482: The burial points of all explosive devices can be connected by segments of straight lines, each of them connecting two burial points, and the total length does not exceed 40 kilometers. For nuclear weapon tests, a salvo is defined as two or more underground nuclear explosions conducted at a test site within an area delineated by a circle having a diameter of two kilometers and conducted within a total period of time of 0.1 seconds. The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in

3645-695: The day and at night, accelerated fighter aircraft developments. The war ended when United States Army Air Forces Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945. The United States Air Force became an independent service in 1947. As the Cold War began, both the USAF and the Soviet Air Force built up their nuclear-capable strategic bomber forces. Several technological advances were widely introduced during this time:

3726-567: The east coast units of TF 88 were heading towards the South Atlantic , they participated with countdown, launch, and missile- tracking drills using Loki/Dart high-altitude, antiaircraft rockets launched from the USS Warrington . Fourteen of these Loki launches were conducted from 12 to 22 August. These tests were performed to test equipment and procedures, and to train personnel in specialized assignments. Some of these assignments necessary for

3807-715: The explosion of a missile launched from a submarine. Almost all new nuclear powers have announced their possession of nuclear weapons with a nuclear test. The only acknowledged nuclear power that claims never to have conducted a test was South Africa (although see Vela incident ), which has since dismantled all of its weapons. Israel is widely thought to possess a sizable nuclear arsenal, though it has never tested, unless they were involved in Vela. Experts disagree on whether states can have reliable nuclear arsenals—especially ones using advanced warhead designs, such as hydrogen bombs and miniaturized weapons—without testing, though all agree that it

3888-441: The explosion's effects, it did not give an appreciable understanding of nuclear fallout , which was not well understood by the project scientists until well after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The United States conducted six atomic tests before the Soviet Union developed their first atomic bomb ( RDS-1 ) and tested it on August 29, 1949. Neither country had very many atomic weapons to spare at first, and so testing

3969-405: The extent of the hazard. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention / National Cancer Institute study claims that nuclear fallout might have led to approximately 11,000 excess deaths, most caused by thyroid cancer linked to exposure to iodine-131 . The following list is of milestone nuclear explosions. In addition to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , the first nuclear test of

4050-476: The first time ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing missions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The Italian–Turkish war of 1911–1912 was the first in history that featured air attacks by airplanes and dirigible airships . During World War I France, Germany, Italy, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed significant forces of bombers and fighters . World War I also saw

4131-487: The formation of these treaties. Examples can be seen in the following articles: The Partial Nuclear Test Ban treaty makes it illegal to detonate any nuclear explosion anywhere except underground, in order to reduce atmospheric fallout. Most countries have signed and ratified the Partial Nuclear Test Ban, which went into effect in October 1963. Of the nuclear states, France, China, and North Korea have never signed

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4212-720: The four general departments of the People's Liberation Army . Below the headquarters, Military Region Air Forces (MRAF) direct divisions (Fighter, Attack, Bomber), which in turn direct regiments and squadrons. Air assault and Airborne infantry in air forces are used primarily for ground-based defense of air bases and other air force facilities. They also have a number of other specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defense , offensive operations in defense of air force assets, and training other air force personnel in basic ground defense tactics. Some air forces also include special forces which are used in

4293-487: The lack of creation of a critical mass of fissile material. They are the only type of tests allowed under the interpretation of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty tacitly agreed to by the major atomic powers. Subcritical tests continue to be performed by the United States, Russia, and the People's Republic of China, at least. Subcritical tests executed by the United States include: The first atomic weapons test

4374-409: The later phases of the Cold War , though, both countries developed accelerated testing programs, testing many hundreds of bombs over the last half of the 20th century. Atomic and nuclear tests can involve many hazards. Some of these were illustrated in the U.S. Castle Bravo test in 1954. The weapon design tested was a new form of hydrogen bomb, and the scientists underestimated how vigorously some of

4455-619: The launching of three low-yield nuclear warheads into the high atmosphere . Its commanding officer, Captain Arthur R. Gralla , commanded Task Force 88. Gralla would later receive the Legion of Merit for his role conducting the tests expeditiously. USS Albemarle , fresh out of an overhaul , was not listed on the TF-88 order. It set out to the Atlantic Ocean , supposedly as a shakedown cruise. It, too, had

4536-455: The medium or location of the test. Another way to classify nuclear tests is by the number of explosions that constitute the test. The treaty definition of a salvo test is: In conformity with treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union, a salvo is defined, for multiple explosions for peaceful purposes, as two or more separate explosions where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where

4617-409: The military space and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). Some nations, principally countries who modelled their militaries along Soviet lines, have or had an air defence force which is organizationally separate from their air force. Peacetime /non-wartime activities of air forces may include air policing and air-sea rescue . Air forces are not just composed of pilots, but also rely on

4698-509: The military effects of atomic weapons ( Crossroads had involved the effect of atomic weapons on a navy, and how they functioned underwater) and to test new weapon designs. During the 1950s, these included new hydrogen bomb designs, which were tested in the Pacific, and also new and improved fission weapon designs. The Soviet Union also began testing on a limited scale, primarily in Kazakhstan . During

4779-426: The next year, but the full results and documentation of the tests were not declassified until 30 April 1982. Nuclear testing The first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site in New Mexico on July 16, 1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT . The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of an engineered device, codenamed Ivy Mike ,

4860-469: The operation. It was also outfitted with Air Force MSQ-1A radar and communication vans. Neosho also served as the flagship for TG 88.3, the Mobile Logistics Group, which consisted of Neosho , USS Salamonie (AO-26), and assigned destroyers. USS Salamonie returned to the United States upon arrival at TF-88, and did not participate with any tests. Two satellite launches were attempted in order to obtain data from these high-altitude tests. Explorer 4

4941-448: The project were US$ 9,023,000. The United States Navy Task Force 88 (or TF-88), was formed 28 April 1958. TF-88 was organized solely to conduct Operation Argus . Once Argus was completed, the task force was dissolved, and its records dispersed. Some of these records have been destroyed or lost during the time period intervening. Of particular note among the missing documents were the film records (which recorded radiation levels during

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5022-528: The purpose of the test itself. Aside from these technical considerations, tests have been conducted for political and training purposes, and can often serve multiple purposes. Computer simulation is used extensively to provide as much information as possible without physical testing. Mathematical models for such simulation model scenarios not only of performance but also of shelf life and maintenance . A theme has generally been that even though simulations cannot fully replace physical testing, they can reduce

5103-427: The second aircraft, a Thulin Typ D . Some considered that the Finnish Air Force did not officially exist during the Finnish Civil War (27 January – 15 May 1918), and the Red Guards had its own air force. Over the following decades, most countries with substantial military capability established independent air forces. The South African Air Force was formed on 1 February 1920 and the Royal Australian Air Force

5184-421: The start of the Second World War in 1939 was the Soviet Red Air Force , and although much depleted, it would stage the largest air operations of WWII over the four years of combat with the German Luftwaffe . Arguably the war's most important air operation, known as the Battle of Britain , took place during 1940 over Britain and the English Channel between Britain's Royal Air Force and Germany's Luftwaffe over

5265-436: The then four nuclear states and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty , pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space . The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing . France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980. Neither has signed the treaty. Underground tests conducted by the Soviet Union continued until 1990,

5346-590: The time were quite primitive, being able to achieve velocities comparable to that of modern automobiles and mounting minimal weaponry and equipment. Aerial services were still largely a new venture, and relatively unreliable machines and limited training resulted in stupendously low life expectancies for early military aviators. By the time World War II began, planes had become much safer, faster, and more reliable. They were adopted as standard for bombing raids and taking out other aircraft because they were much faster than airships. The world's largest military Air Force by

5427-408: The topic were published the next year, emphasizing the events as purely scientific endeavors. The tests were proposed by Nicholas Christofilos in an unpublished paper of what was then the Livermore branch of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ) as a means to verify the Christofilos effect , which argued that high-altitude nuclear detonations would create

5508-455: The weapon materials would react. As a result, the explosion—with a yield of 15 Mt —was over twice what was predicted. Aside from this problem, the weapon also generated a large amount of radioactive nuclear fallout , more than had been anticipated, and a change in the weather pattern caused the fallout to spread in a direction not cleared in advance. The fallout plume spread high levels of radiation for over 100 miles (160 km), contaminating

5589-493: Was 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt. The yields of atomic bombs and thermonuclear are typically measured in different amounts. Thermonuclear bombs can be hundreds or thousands of times stronger than their atomic counterparts. Due to this, thermonuclear bombs' yields are usually expressed in megatons which is about the equivalent of 1,000,000 tons of TNT. In contrast, atomic bombs' yields are typically measured in kilotons, or about 1,000 tons of TNT. In US context, it

5670-532: Was also aboard and provided intra-task-force transportation for personnel and cargo. USS Warrington , in conjunction with Bearss , Hammerberg , and Courtney , maintained a weather picket 463 km west of the task force, provided an airplane guard for Tarawa during flight operations , and performed standard destroyer functions (such as surface security and search and rescue). Warrington also carried equipment for launching Loki Dart sounding rockets . USS Neosho refueled task force ships during

5751-475: Was arguably a violation of the rules, the military borrowed International Geophysical Year equipment to disguise the nuclear tests . Originally Argus was designated Hardtack-Argus , and later Floral . For reasons of security, both names were disused in favor of the independent name Argus . Funding was provided by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP), the predecessor of the present Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). Total funds allotted for

5832-473: Was conducted near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, during the Manhattan Project , and given the codename " Trinity ". The test was originally to confirm that the implosion-type nuclear weapon design was feasible, and to give an idea of what the actual size and effects of a nuclear explosion would be before they were used in combat against Japan. While the test gave a good approximation of many of

5913-576: Was correct about the Christofilos effect. Argus proved the validity of Christofilos' theory: the establishment of an electron shell derived from neutron and β-decay of fission products and ionization of device materials in the upper atmosphere was demonstrated. It not only provided data on military considerations, but produced a "great mass" of geophysical data. The tests were first reported journalistically by Hanson Baldwin and Walter Sullivan of The New York Times on 19 March 1959, headlining it as

5994-819: Was decided during the Manhattan Project that yield measured in tons of TNT equivalent could be imprecise. This comes from the range of experimental values of the energy content of TNT, ranging from 900 to 1,100 calories per gram (3,800 to 4,600 kJ/g). There is also the issue of which ton to use, as short tons, long tons, and metric tonnes all have different values. It was therefore decided that one kiloton would be equivalent to 1.0 × 10 calories (4.2 × 10  kJ). The nuclear powers have conducted more than 2,000 nuclear test explosions (numbers are approximate, as some test results have been disputed): There may also have been at least three alleged but unacknowledged nuclear explosions (see list of alleged nuclear tests ) including

6075-470: Was formed shortly thereafter, on 31 March 1921, although it was not until 1922 that the head of the Service was titled as Chief of the Air Staff , placing him on a par with his Australian Army and Navy counterparts. The Canadian Air Force was formed at the end of World War I and was abolished and reorganized several times between 1918 and 1924. It became the permanent Royal Canadian Air Force when it received

6156-669: Was founded in 1923, the Romanian Air Force was established as a force category on 1 January 1924, the Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928, the Chilean Air Force was founded in 1930 and the Brazilian Air Force was created in 1941. Both the United States Air Force and the Philippine Air Force were formed as a separate branches of their respective armed forces in 1947, as did

6237-450: Was launched successfully to orbit on 26 July on Juno I missile from Cape Canaveral. The satellite had enough battery power to function for sixty days. This was long enough for the satellite to track and measure ARGUS. Explorer 5 experienced a launch failure on 24 August. There were many tracking systems used by the task force along with these satellites along with many organizations that helped track these missiles. "These included

6318-709: Was of a comparable strategic significance to the Battle of Britain but was largely conducted by the US and Japanese naval aviation services and not by air forces. The air force's role of strategic bombing against enemy infrastructure was developed during the 1930s by the Japanese in China and by the Germans during the Spanish Civil War . This role for the bomber was perfected during World War II, during Allied "Thousand Bomber Raid" operations. The need to intercept these bombers, both during

6399-692: Was one of the main drivers for the ban of nuclear weapons testing, particularly atmospheric testing. It has been estimated that by 2020 up to 2.4 million people have died as a result of nuclear weapons testing. There are many existing anti-nuclear explosion treaties, notably the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty . These treaties were proposed in response to growing international concerns about environmental damage among other risks. Nuclear testing involving humans also contributed to

6480-501: Was relatively infrequent (when the U.S. used two weapons for Operation Crossroads in 1946, they were detonating over 20% of their current arsenal). However, by the 1950s the United States had established a dedicated test site on its own territory ( Nevada Test Site ) and was also using a site in the Marshall Islands ( Pacific Proving Grounds ) for extensive atomic and nuclear testing. The early tests were used primarily to discern

6561-563: Was tested at the Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1, 1952 (local date), also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the Tsar Bomba of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30, 1961, with the largest yield ever seen, an estimated 50–58 megatons . With the advent of nuclear technology and its increasing impact an anti-nuclear movement formed and in 1963, three (UK, US, Soviet Union) of

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