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Zeila ( Somali : Saylac , Arabic : زيلع , romanized :  Zayla ), also known as Zaila or Zayla , is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland .

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165-404: [REDACTED]   United Kingdom [REDACTED]   Italy Associated articles Operation Appearance (16 March – 8 April 1941) was a British landing in the British Somaliland Protectorate against troops of the Italian Army . The Italian conquest of British Somaliland had taken place seven months previously, in August 1940. The British had withdrawn from the protectorate after

330-803: A fair trial . The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years' War , while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period. Early modern Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country. The English Reformation ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in

495-509: A subpolar oceanic climate . Higher elevations in Scotland experience a continental subarctic climate and the mountains experience a tundra climate . The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean, although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions,

660-587: A welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service , was created. The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947. Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of

825-503: A barrage was fired; no further Italian aircraft were seen during the day. On 11 March the 1st South African Brigade Group and the 22nd East African Brigade Group had been placed under the command of the 11th (African) Division , joining the 3rd (Nigerian) Brigade Group . The division advanced from Barawa (Brava), south of Mogadishu in Italian Somaliland. On 25 February the division departed Mogadishu and on 17 March, patrols of

990-633: A bombardment from Glasgow , along with Kandahar and Kingston , which carried the (mostly Somali) 200-man Commando of Force G (R) who were to make the subsidiary landing east of Berbera, covered by Kandahar . The ships were to close on the coast at 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h). Shoreham , Beaconsfield , Tuna with the three tugs and six lighters in tow, were about midway between Aden and Berbera, moving at 6 kn (6.9 mph; 11 km/h). At 1:01 a.m. on 16 March Glasgow , Kandahar , Kingston and M.L. 109 moved forward at 20 kn (23 mph; 37 km/h) towards Berbera Light and to find

1155-438: A contingent of fifty Somali musketeers and two cannons. Arriving outside the city, he instructed his men to fire the cannons close to the walls. Intimidated and not having seen such weapons before, El Barr and his men would flee and leave Zeila for Sharmarke. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and

1320-768: A delaying action at the Battle of Tug Argan . This withdrawal, after the disastrous conclusion of the Battle of France and the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, had repercussions among British leaders. It led Prime Minister Winston Churchill to lose confidence in General Archibald Wavell , the British commander in the Middle East, which culminated in Wavell's sacking on 20 June 1941. British, Empire and Commonwealth forces from

1485-515: A diversion; it was sent to the local commanders in East Africa using means by which the British expected it to leak to the Italians. The main invasion from Kenya required a huge supply effort and the plan to re-capture British Somaliland was intended to create a much closer supply route from Berbera for the southern invasion force. The port was rudimentary but improvements could quickly be effected. Aosta,

1650-509: A diversionary operation would come from Kenya in the south. In Operation Canvas, the real invasion plan, Kenya was the base for the main invasion. Force D and the Aden Striking Force conducted a beach landing at Berbera on 16 March 1941, taking the port by 10:00 a.m. The Italian garrison made a precipitate retreat back to Ethiopia and local troops deserted en masse. In a few days, Berbera was developed to receive troops and supplies for

1815-419: A document that, ...the loss of British Somaliland has always rankled bitterly between my government and myself. I got a rocket from the government and nearly lost my job at the time.... I have orders to recapture it as soon as resources are available and am most anxious to remove this blot on my reputation. The document purported Operation Canvas, the invasion of Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia from Kenya, to be

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1980-456: A leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801. After the defeat of France at the end of

2145-818: A policy of splendid isolation in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in Afghanistan and Persia , in what came to be known as the Great Game . During this time, Canada , Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing dominion status. At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the German Empire and the United States . The Edwardian era saw social reform and home rule for Ireland become important domestic issues, while

2310-752: A quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the largest empire in history . However, its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War damaged Britain's economic power and a global wave of decolonisation led to the independence of most British colonies. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy . The UK has three distinct jurisdictions: England and Wales , Scotland , and Northern Ireland . Since 1999, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various devolved matters. A developed country ,

2475-514: A resistance against Sharmarke's troops in 1852. Sharmarke was later succeeded as Governor of Zeila by Abu Bakr Pasha, a local Afar statesman in 1855 but would return and depose Abu Bakr in 1857 before finally being ousted in 1861 after Sharmarke's implication in the death of a French Consul. In 1874–75, the Egyptians obtained a firman from the Ottomans by which they secured claims over the city. At

2640-504: A result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries . In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society. Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan. The UK was the first democratic nation to lower its voting age to 18 in 1969. In

2805-777: A series of connected wars (including the English Civil War ) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the execution of King Charles I , and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England , Scotland and Ireland. Although the monarchy was restored , the Interregnum along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of

2970-546: Is an ancient city and has been identified with the trade post referred to in classical antiquity as Avalites (Greek: Αβαλίτες ), situated in the region of Barbara in Northeast Africa . During antiquity, it was one of many city-states that engaged in the lucrative trade between the Near East ( Phoenicia , Ptolemaic Egypt , Greece , Parthian Persia , Saba , Nabataea , Roman Empire , etc.) and India . Merchants used

3135-481: Is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland". The BBC historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland. The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and nationality . People of

3300-525: Is ranked 2nd out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index . A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050. England accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering 50,350 square miles (130,395 km ). Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the Tees–Exe line which roughly divides

3465-592: Is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole. The word England is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK. The term "Britain" is used as a synonym for Great Britain , but also sometimes for the United Kingdom. Usage is mixed: the UK Government prefers to use the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" on its website (except when referring to embassies), while acknowledging that both terms refer to

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3630-565: Is the Isle of Wight . Scotland accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering 30,410 square miles (78,772 km ). This includes nearly 800 islands , notably the Hebrides , Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK, the Highlands to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including

3795-744: Is the highest peak in Wales. Wales has over 1,680 miles (2,704 kilometres) of coastline including the Pembrokeshire Coast . Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey ( Ynys Môn ). Zeila In the Middle Ages , the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila with the Biblical location of Havilah . Most modern scholars identify it with the site of Avalites mentioned in

3960-408: Is very populous, with good houses of stone and white-wash and good streets; the houses are covered with terraces, the dwellers in them are black. They have many horses and breed many cattle of all sorts, which they use for milk, butter, and meat. There is in this country abundance of wheat, millet, barley, and fruits, which they carry thence to Aden." Beginning in 1630, the city became a dependency of

4125-572: The 1884 Reform Act championed by William Gladstone granting suffrage to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation , causing significant social and economic stresses. By the late 19th century, the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury initiated a period of imperial expansion in Africa , maintained

4290-524: The Atlantic slave trade , mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial slave ships transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa. The slaves were taken to work on plantations , principally in the Caribbean but also North America . However, with pressure from the abolitionism movement , Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took

4455-576: The Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of clan chiefs . The British colonies in North America that broke away in the American War of Independence became the United States . British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India . British merchants played a leading part in

4620-742: The British Indian Army (1895–1947), which had fought in the colony during the Italian invasion, a Somali commando detachment and the 1401/1402 (Aden) Companies, Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps Group and 150 motor transport (MT) would be transported 140 nmi (160 mi; 260 km) across the Gulf of Aden. The East Indies Fleet , comprising ships of the Royal Navy and the Royal Indian Navy were to contribute Force D (Captain Harold Hickling),

4785-645: The Cairngorms , Loch Lomond and The Trossachs and Ben Nevis which at 1,345 metres (4,413 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles. Wales accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering 8,020 square miles (20,779 km ). Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales . The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon ( Welsh : Yr Wyddfa ) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft),

4950-512: The Commonwealth of Nations . The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test, Operation Hurricane , in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture . As

5115-731: The European Convention on Human Rights . The UK remained a great power with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO . The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the " war on terror " in the early 21st century. British troops fought in the War in Afghanistan , but controversy surrounded Britain's military deployment in Iraq , which saw

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5280-568: The European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles . It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement . Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in

5445-486: The Falkland Islands , leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a 2013 referendum . From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues. Another British overseas territory, Gibraltar , ceded to Great Britain in

5610-527: The French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830). Unchallenged at sea , British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace among the great powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became

5775-552: The Irish Sea . The United Kingdom had an estimated population of over 68.2 million people in 2023. The capital and largest city of both England and the United Kingdom is London , whose wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe , with a population of 14.9 million. The cities of Edinburgh , Cardiff , and Belfast are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, respectively. The lands of

5940-630: The Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote. Britain was one of the principal Allies that defeated the Central Powers in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts, British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on

6105-452: The Normandy landings . After the Italian garrison fled, a prisoner of war camp was built, eventually big enough for 5,000 men, to accommodate Italian prisoners taken in the region. Two battalions of the 2nd South African Brigade arrived by sea from Kenya, the third battalion arriving two weeks later, after making a road march with the brigade transport. On 8 April, Brigadier Arthur Chater ,

6270-483: The Ogaden . In 1845, he deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali authorities. The Emir of Harar Ahmad III ibn Abu Bakr already been at loggerheads with Sharmarke over fiscal matters. He was concerned about the ramifications that these movements might ultimately have on his own city's commerce. The Emir consequently urged Berbera's leaders to reconcile and mount

6435-622: The Representation of the People Act 1918 . After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the League of Nations and received a mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George , the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population. By

6600-875: The Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the Axis powers . There were eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic , the North Africa campaign and the Italian campaign . British forces played important roles in the Normandy landings of 1944 and the liberation of Europe . The British Army led the Burma campaign against Japan, and the British Pacific Fleet fought Japan at sea. British scientists contributed to

6765-617: The United Kingdom , British India , Australia and South Africa in Aden trained for a prospective invasion of British Somaliland. The Far Eastern Fleet provided Force D, comprising two cruisers, two destroyers and a collection of adapted troop transports. To deceive the Italians in Ethiopia about British intentions in East Africa, Operation Camilla was leaked, suggesting that troop movements to Sudan were for an invasion of British Somaliland and that

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6930-449: The Western Front . The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt. The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with

7095-408: The coastline paradox . It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel , which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world. The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Celtic broadleaf forests , English Lowlands beech forests , North Atlantic moist mixed forests , and Caledonian conifer forests . The area of woodland in

7260-436: The largest protest in British history in opposition to the government led by Tony Blair . The Great Recession severely affected the UK economy. The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits. Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering. A referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 resulted in

7425-418: The surf . Within the week, the 11th African Division was receiving supplies through Berbera, shortening by 500 mi (805 km) its supply line. In 2016, Andrew Stewart, in "The First Victory..." wrote that the British ascribed the success of Appearance to the extent of the preparations and training. He speculated that the use of ships as floating piers might have influenced the use of Mulberry harbours in

7590-471: The 1340s about the history of Awdal , the medieval state in western and northern parts of historical Somalia and some related areas, Al-Umari of Cairo states that in the land of Zayla’ ( Awdal ) “they cultivate two times annually by seasonal rains … The rainfall for the winter is called ‘Bil’ and rainfall for the ‘summer’ is called ‘Karam’ in the language of the people of Zayla’ [Awdali Somalis].” The author’s description about seasons generally corresponds to

7755-434: The 15th Punjab Regiment, was carried by Parvati which towed a tug and barge for the landing. Parvati was bracketed by three 4-inch shells but the landing was carried out without loss against scant opposition. The 2nd Punjab Regiment landed and advanced through the 15th Punjab towards the town, as a party of the 15th Punjab moved inland to cut the coast road. All of the troops involved got ashore before dawn. Little opposition

7920-512: The 16th century and established the Church of England . Moreover, it defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England , and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland. In 1603,

8085-408: The 16th century. The city subsequently came under Ottoman and British protection in the 18th century. Up until recently Zeila was surrounded by a large wall with five gates: Bab al Sahil and Bab al-jadd on the North. Bab Abdulqadir on the East: Bab al-Sahil on the west and Bab Ashurbura on the south. Zeila falls in the traditional territory of the ancient Somali Dir clan. The town of Zeila and

8250-401: The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, is a key military base . A referendum in 2002 on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected by 98.97% of voters in the territory. Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of

8415-406: The 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism , deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. In 1982, Argentina invaded the British territories of South Georgia and

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8580-404: The 1st-century Greco-Roman travelogue the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and in Ptolemy , although this is disputed. The town evolved into an early Islamic center with the arrival of Muslims shortly after the Hijrah . By the 9th century, Zeila was the capital of the early Adal Kingdom and Ifat Sultanate in the 13th century, it would attain its height of prosperity a few centuries later in

8745-480: The 3rd (Nigerian) Brigade reached Jijiga , cutting the road to Harar, the Italian line of retreat from the protectorate. On 19 March, Brigadier Buchanan and a staff officer arrived by air at Berbera to take command of Bucforce, a temporary name for the 2nd South African Infantry Brigade, most of which had sailed from Mombasa on 16 March and was due on 22 March. On 20 March, a party of Nigerian troops reached Tug Wajale , from whence two armoured cars drove to Berbera along

8910-476: The 5th century) united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century. In 1066, the Normans invaded England from northern France. After conquering England , they seized large parts of Wales , conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture. The Anglo-Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with,

9075-477: The 9th or 10th centuries. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly-established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia . By the years (1214–17), Ibn Said referred to both Zeila and Berbera . Zeila, as he tells us,

9240-442: The AOI. The collapse in France and the Armistice of 22 June 1940 drastically weakened the British strategic position in the Middle East and East Africa. The closure of the Mediterranean to British sea traffic left only the 13,000 mi (21,000 km) voyage around Africa, to supply the British forces in the Middle East. On the eve of the Italian declaration of war, the Italian colonies in East Africa had 91,203 Italian members of

9405-411: The Abyssinian empire. This campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia ( Futuh al Habash ). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire , which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama . Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides,

9570-486: The Berbera Light at 1:00 a.m. on 16 March according to the plan. The sloop HMS  Shoreham was sent from Aden to assist Beaconsfield and Tuna by 3:30 p.m. on 15 March. The second echelon sailed an hour later and rendezvoused as planned. At 1:00 a.m. on 16 March Glasgow , Caledon , Chantala , Chakdina , Netravati , Parvati and M.L. 109 were to land the 1/2 and 3/15 Punjab at Main Beach, 2 nmi (2.3 mi; 3.7 km) west of Berbera Light covered by

9735-407: The Berbera Light. The Somali was sent to find the gap in the reefs but Vernon found it at 3:58 a.m. At 4:13 a.m. the signal "Land, follow Glasgow's boats" was given and four minutes later Glasgow began to bombard the main beach with H.E. from its 4-inch guns and 2-pounder pom-poms . The fire from the 4-inch main armament was that used for E-boat attack, with half the shells bursting on impact and

9900-403: The British for control of the strategic Gulf of Aden littoral. On 25 March 1885, the French government claimed that they signed a treaty with Ughaz Nur II of the Gadabuursi placing much of the coast and interior of the Gadabuursi country under the protectorate of France. The treaty titled in French, Traitè de Protectorat sur les Territoires du pays des Gada-Boursis , was signed by both J. Henry,

10065-464: The Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales , Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland). Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century. Meanwhile, Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in

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10230-425: The Consular Agent of France and Dependencies at Harar-Zeila, and Nur Robleh, Ughaz of the Gadabuursi, at Zeila on 9 Djemmad 1302 (March 25, 1885). The treaty states as follows (translated from French): "Between the undersigned J. Henry, Consular Agent of France and Dependencies at Harrar-Zeilah, and Nour Roblé, Ougasse of the Gada-boursis, independent sovereign of the whole country of the Gada-boursis, and to safeguard

10395-426: The Consular Agent of France and Dependencies at Harrar-Zeila to circumvent British jurisdiction over the Gadabuursi country and allow France to lay claim to sections of the Somali coast. There was also suspicion that Ughaz Nur II had attempted to cause a diplomatic row between the British and French governments in order to consolidate his own power in the region. According to I. M. Lewis, this treaty clearly influenced

10560-432: The Hanafi population was in premodern Zeila. Through extensive trade with Abyssinia and Arabia, Adal attained its height of prosperity during the 14th century. It sold incense , myrrh , slaves, gold , silver and camels , among many other commodities. Zeila had by then started to grow into a huge multicultural metropolis, with Somalis (Predominantly), Afar, Harari, and even Arabs and Persian inhabitants. The city

10725-429: The Italian commander of the AOI was convinced by February that an invasion of the colony was imminent. The British made use of such resources as were available to British Forces Aden (Air Vice-Marshal Ranald Reid ) to re-capture Berbera and expand it into a bridgehead sufficient to supply 15,000 troops. About 3,000 men of the Aden Striking Force, comprising the 1/ 2nd Punjab Regiment and 3/ 15th Punjab Regiment of

10890-484: The Italian enemy leaping out of their trenches and racing towards transport vehicles....The vehicles started up and the entire enemy column high-tailed in a great cloud of yellowish grey dust...southwards...to Hargeisa.... A diversion to the east of Berbera was engaged by sixty members of the garrison but the landing party suffered only one Somali soldier killed and a British officer wounded. A wireless message sent to London that "The British flag flies again over Berbera" but

11055-419: The Italians. The fall of Addis Ababa restored confidence, internal trade resumed and by the autumn the export trade had revived. Once Berbera replaced Mogadishu as an entrepôt , demand for labour increased; payment in wages and in food acted as an economic stimulus and local businessmen immediately made use of the sea traffic to and from Berbera; a return to normal conditions did not occur Zeila and Boramo, near

11220-452: The Manhattan Project whose task was to build an atomic weapon. Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan. The UK was one of the Big Three powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world ; it drafted the Declaration by United Nations with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . It worked closely with

11385-425: The Name of Great Britain". The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used as a description for the former Kingdom of Great Britain , although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain". The Acts of Union 1800 formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as

11550-408: The Navy considered that towing vessels from Aden was risky because the tows could part and delay the voyage. In poor visibility finding Berbera could not be guaranteed and approaching an unsurveyed, hostile and dark shore at night, then finding gaps in the reefs wide enough to tow through the lighters was a gamble. The importance of Berbera to the British offensive against Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia

11715-405: The Periplus' author also indicates that they sailed throughout the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden for trade. The document describes the Barbaroi's governance system as decentralized and essentially consisting of a collection of autonomous city-states. It also suggests that "the Berbers who live in the place are very unruly," an apparent reference to their independent nature. Islam was introduced to

11880-701: The Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7% to remain part of the United Kingdom. In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union . The UK left the EU in 2020. On 1 May 2021, the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement came into force. The COVID-19 pandemic had a severe impact on the UK's economy , caused major disruptions to education and had far-reaching impacts on society and politics in 2020 and 2021. The United Kingdom

12045-714: The Somali Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II of the Sultanate of Ifat . Landward, the terrain is unbroken desert for some fifty miles. Borama lies 151 miles (243 km) southeast of Zeila, Berbera lies 170 miles (270 km) east of Zeila, while the city of Harar in Ethiopia is 200 miles (320 km) to the west. The Zeila region named after this port city denoted the entire Muslim inhabited domains in medieval Horn of Africa . Zeila, along with Mogadishu and other Somali coastal cities,

12210-492: The UK has the world's sixth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product (GDP). It is a nuclear state , and is ranked fifth globally in military expenditure . The UK has been a permanent member of the UN Security Council since its first session in 1946. It is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , Council of Europe , G7 , OECD , NATO , Five Eyes , AUKUS and CPTPP . British influence can be observed in

12375-654: The UK have been inhabited continuously since the Neolithic . In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Roman departure was followed by Anglo-Saxon settlement . In 1066, the Normans conquered England . With the end of the Wars of the Roses the English state stabilised and began to grow in power, resulting by the 16th century in the annexation of Wales , the domination of Scotland , and

12540-509: The UK in 1922 as the Irish Free State , and the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 created the present United Kingdom. The UK became the first industrialised country and was the world's foremost power for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the " Pax Britannica " between 1815 and 1914. At its height in the 1920s, the British Empire encompassed almost

12705-484: The UK in 2023 is estimated to be 3.25 million hectares, which represents 13% of the total land area in the UK. Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round. The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below 0  °C (32  °F ) or rising above 30 °C (86 °F). Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience

12870-908: The UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include Cornwall , the New Forest , the South Downs and the Norfolk Broads . Upland areas include the Lake District , the Pennines , the Yorkshire Dales , Exmoor , and Dartmoor . The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames , Severn , and the Humber . England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike , at 978 metres (3,209 ft) in the Lake District; its largest island

13035-402: The United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government". The UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it

13200-411: The United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible. The hours of sunshine vary from 1200 to about 1580 hours per year, and since 1996 the UK has been and still is receiving above the 1981 to 2010 average hours of sunshine. Climate change has a serious impact on the country. A third of food price rise in 2023 is attributed to climate change. As of 2022, the United Kingdom

13365-436: The United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British , English , Scottish , Welsh , Northern Irish , or Irish ; or as having a combination of different national identities. Settlement by Cro-Magnons of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. The island has been continuously inhabited only since

13530-605: The United Kingdom. The 1928 Equal Franchise Act gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926 . Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the Great Depression (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government

13695-626: The United States to establish the IMF , World Bank and NATO . The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the Marshall Plan , but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe. In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government under Clement Attlee initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society in the following decades . Major industries and public utilities were nationalised ,

13860-625: The Viceroy of the AOI, had agreed to the evacuation of the protectorate. On 14 March the Italian garrison began to evacuate the territory and the 17th Colonial Brigade retired to Dire Dawa. The 70th Colonial Brigade remained, except for its commander, Brigadier-General Arturo Bertello who passed through Dire Dawa just before it was captured. When the naval bombardment began, about 1,500 Somali troops in Italian service and their Italian officers and NCOs retreated from Berbera towards Hargeisa. The first wave, comprising

14025-628: The Western flank in the armies of Sa'd ad-Din (d. 1415), ruler of Zeila." Legendary Arab explorer Ahmad ibn Mājid wrote of Zeila and other notable landmarks and ports of the northern Somali coast during the Adal Sultanate period, including Berbera , Siyara , the Sa'ad ad-Din islands aka the Zeila Archipelago, El-Sheikh , Alula , Ruguda , Maydh , Heis and El-Darad . Travellers' reports, such as

14190-607: The acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies , particularly in North America and the Caribbean. Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments. On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed,

14355-729: The ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo. Along with the neighboring Habash of Al-Habash to the west, the Barbaroi who inhabited the area were recorded in the 1st century CE Greek document the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as engaging in extensive commercial exchanges with Egypt and pre-Islamic Arabia . The travelogue mentions the Barbaroi trading frankincense , among various other commodities, through their port cities such as Avalites. Competent seamen,

14520-606: The area early on from the Arabian Peninsula , shortly after the Hijrah . Zeila's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city, suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least

14685-662: The armed forces and police and 199,973 Eritrean, Ethiopian and Somali ascari . In July, the British had 47,000 men in British Kenya, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and British Somaliland. On 3 August 1940, British reconnaissance aircraft discovered that about 400 Italian troops had crossed the Ethiopian–British Somaliland frontier at Biyad, near Borama (Boorama). The Italian invasion force moved in three widely dispersed columns, co-ordinated by wireless and liaison aircraft. The main (central) Italian column advanced from

14850-468: The border with French Somaliland, due to the need to blockade the pro- Vichy regime. United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , commonly known as the United Kingdom ( UK ) or Britain , is a country in Northwestern Europe , off the coast of the continental mainland . It comprises England , Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland . The UK includes

15015-531: The caravan routes and mainly to protect French trade, throughout the extent of its territory. Art. 7 – The Ougasse of the Gada-boursis undertakes not to make any treaty with any other power, without the assistance and consent of the French government. Art. 8 – A monthly allowance will be paid to the Ougasse of the Gada-boursis by the French government, this allowance will be fixed later, by a special convention, after

15180-532: The cargo ships Beaconsfield and Tuna , carrying troops and towing three tugs and six lighters. The second wave of Force D comprised Glasgow , Caledon , Kingston and M.L. 109, all transporting troops. Training began in January, ships were converted to carry troops, two of the lighters, designed by the Sea Transport Officer, Aden, Commander Vernon were to be used as floating piers, fitted with ramps to ease

15345-584: The city name its Somali name Awdal (Adal), still known among the local Somali . By the fourteen century, the significance of this Somali port for the Ethiopian interior increased so much so that all the Muslim communities established along the trade routes into central and south-eastern Ethiopia were commonly known in Egypt and Syria by the collective term of "the country of Zeila." Historian Al-Umari in his study in

15510-468: The civilian wireless and telephone networks were out of action. Army signals units had to carry civilian administration messages until the infrastructure had been restored. The economy of the protectorate had been greatly harmed by the war, internal trade had stopped, there were no regular shipping services with Aden and only dhows were available. There was little food in the territory but the livestock herd had increased since 1939 and had suffered little from

15675-416: The coast belonging to the territory of the Gada-boursis. Art. 3 The French government will have the option of establishing customs in the posts open to trade, and on the points of the borders of the territory of the Gada-boursis where it deems it necessary. Customs tariffs will be set by the French government, and the revenues will be applied to public services. Art. 4 – Regulations for the administration of

15840-421: The country will be elaborated later by the French government. In agreement with the Ougasse of the Gada-boursis they will always be revisable at the will of the French government, a French resident may be established on the territory of the Gada-boursis to sanction by his presence the protectorate of France. Art. 5 – The troops and the police of the country will be raised among the natives, and will be placed under

16005-445: The cruisers HMS  Glasgow and Caledon , the destroyers HMS  Kandahar and Kipling , the auxiliary cruisers Chakdina and Chantala , Royal Indian Navy trawlers Netravati and Parvati (Lieutenant HMS Choudri , R.I.N.), the troop transports S.S. Beaconsfield and Tuna and ML 109. Force D was to conduct the voyage in two parts, the advanced part comprising Kandahar , Chantala , Chakdina , Parvati , Netravati and

16170-697: The decades-long process of European integration , the UK was a founding member of the Western European Union , established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). In a 1975 referendum 67% voted to stay in it. When the EC became

16335-676: The defenders gradually being overwhelmed. By the time that the northern Italian column reached Bulhar, the defence of the Tug Argan gap had begun to collapse. Major-General Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen had been sent to command the forces in British Somaliland and on 14 August, judged that the situation at Tug Argan was irretrievable and was instructed by the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Middle East Henry Maitland Wilson to withdraw from

16500-411: The demarcation of the boundaries between the two protectorates, establishing the coastal town of Djibouti as the future official capital of the French colony: "By the end of 1885 Britain was preparing to resist an expected French landing at Zeila. Instead, however, of a decision by force, both sides now agreed to negotiate. The result was an Anglo-French agreement of 1888 which defined the boundaries of

16665-423: The early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar , where Sabr ad-Din II , the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen. Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time to Harar . From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran") that invaded

16830-477: The eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream , bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills. The average total annual sunshine in

16995-532: The establishment of the British Empire . Over the course of the 17th century, the role of the British monarchy was reduced, particularly as a result of the English Civil War . In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland united under the Treaty of Union to create the Kingdom of Great Britain . The Acts of Union 1800 incorporated the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Most of Ireland seceded from

17160-575: The first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort. In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain . Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz . The Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States and

17325-414: The force and made for the eastern beach; Glasgow stopped and launched a motor boat and skiff for Commander Vernon to use to find the gap in the reef off the western beach. The gap was hard to find and there was a delay of 63 minutes in landing the first tows. Kandahar and Kingston found their gap in the reef off the eastern beach at 3:00 a.m. although the reconnaissance photographs had shown this to be

17490-569: The formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of regions such as East Asia and Latin America . Throughout the Victorian era , political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies. Beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832, Parliament gradually widened the voting franchise , with

17655-493: The former commander of the Somaliland Camel Corps was appointed Military Governor. The Italians had abandoned Zeila on 18 March and a retired Somali police inspector uncovered a hidden British flag, raised it and began to collect abandoned Italian arms and equipment. On 23 March a Somaliland police officer landed and recalled the local police. The Somaliland Camel Corps had been disbanded after the British evacuation and by

17820-610: The gaps in the reefs off the landing beaches. Caledon , Chantala , Chakdina , Netravati and Parvati were to arrive off the west beach at 2:30 a.m. and drop anchor near Glasgow which would be showing a red light out to sea. During the approach lights were seen ashore from vehicles on the Hargeisa Road, bound for Berbera. At 2:03 a.m. on 16 March, the Berbera Light was seen on a bearing 186° at 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) distance. Kandahar and Kingston separated from

17985-731: The global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the Crimean War , allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia , participating in the naval battles of the Baltic Sea known as the Åland War in the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland , among others. Following the Indian Rebellion in 1857 , the British government led by Lord Palmerston assumed direct rule over India . Alongside

18150-428: The governor succeeded in fending off incursions by both the disunited nomads of the interior, who had penetrated the area, as well as brigands in the Gulf of Aden. By the first half of the 19th century, Zeila was a shadow of its former self, having been reduced to "a large village surrounded by a low mud wall, with a population that varied according to the season from 1,000 to 3,000 people." The city continued to serve as

18315-479: The harder of the two to find. The delay led to apprehension by Colonel Pollock and Captain Hickling (the captain of Glasgow) that the landing might occur in daylight. The landing at the eastern beach due at 3:30 a.m. was also delayed; at 3:26 a.m. a Somali fisherman in a canoe rowed up to Glasgow . The fisherman said that Italians still occupied the town but some had left by lorry that night; there were Italians near

18480-409: The ingenious nature of the city, as indicated by the composition of its population, and, by implication through the presence of the livestock, the existence of the nomads in its vicinity. He also describes Zeila as a big metropolis city and many great markets filled with many wealthy merchants. Zeila has also been known to be home to a number of Hanafis, but no research has been conducted as to how large

18645-439: The interests of the latter who is asking for the protectorate of France, It was agreed as follows: Art. 1st – The territories belonging to Ougasse Nour-Roblé of the Gada-boursis from "Arawa" to "Hélo" from "Hélô" to Lebah-lé", from "Lebah-lé" to "Coulongarèta" extreme limit by Zeilah, are placed directly under the protection of France. Art. 2 – The French government will have the option of opening one or more commercial ports on

18810-414: The invaders had forgotten to bring one and had to borrow it from a resident. RAF fighters provided a standing patrol on the day of the invasion and for the next four days. The second echelon ships had arrived by the time that Berbera fell and tugs checked the harbour for mines with Oropesa sweeps . By 2:00 p.m. Force D was unloading; the special motor transport pier consisting of the two modified lighters

18975-736: The island of Great Britain , the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland , and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles , making up a total area of 94,354 square miles (244,376 km ). Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland ; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , the North Sea , the English Channel , the Celtic Sea , and

19140-403: The kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots , inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions. In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in

19305-408: The last retreat of the ice around 11,500 years ago. By the end of the region's prehistoric period , the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed Insular Celtic , comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland . The Roman conquest , beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain , was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing

19470-440: The late 19th century continued the neglect of Zeila. At the beginning of the next century, the city was described in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica as having a "good sheltered anchorage much frequented by Arab sailing craft. However, heavy draught steamers are obliged to anchor a mile and a half from the shore. Small coasting boats lie off the pier and there is no difficulty in loading or discharging cargo. The water supply of

19635-409: The legal and political systems of many of its former colonies , and British culture remains globally influential, particularly in language , literature , music and sport . English is the world's most widely spoken language and the third-most spoken native language . The Acts of Union 1707 declared that the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by

19800-524: The local cultures. Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and tried unsuccessfully to annex Scotland . Asserting its independence in the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath , Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in near-constant conflict with England . In 1215 the Magna Carta was the first document to state that no government was above the law, that citizens have rights protecting them and that they were entitled to

19965-415: The local seasons in historical Awdal where Karan or Karam is an important rainy season at the beginning of the year. The second half of the year is called ‘Bilo Dirir’ (Bil = month; Bilo = months). It appears that the historian was referring, in one way or another, to these still used terms, Karan and Bil. This indicates that the ancient Somali solar calendar citizens of Zeila were using was very similar to

20130-411: The main British force slowly retired from the town. On the same day, the northern invasion column captured the port of Zeila (Saylac), not far from French Somaliland and then slowly advanced the 150 mi (240 km) down the coast road to Berbera , taking Bulhar (Bulaxaar), about 50 mi (80 km) from Berbera, on 17 August. The main Italian force advanced in the centre from Hargeisa along

20295-600: The major part of the British Isles archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel . The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London

20460-587: The memoirs of the Italian Ludovico di Varthema , indicate that Zeila continued to be an important marketplace during the 16th century, despite being sacked by the Portuguese in 1517 and 1528. Later that century, separate raids by nomads from the interior eventually prompted the port's then ruler, Garad Lado, to enlist the services of 'Atlya ibn Muhammad to construct a sturdy wall around the city. Zeila, however, ultimately began to decline in importance following

20625-669: The mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes. Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936. The rise of Irish nationalism , and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule , led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921. A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931 . Northern Ireland remained part of

20790-523: The one they use today. This also gives further credence that the medieval inhabitants of Zeila were predominantly Somali, spoke Somali, and had Somali farming practices. In the following century, the Moroccan historian and traveller Ibn Battuta describes the city being inhabited by Somalis , followers of the Shafi‘i school, who kept large numbers of camels, sheep and goats. His description thus indicates both

20955-463: The only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also widely referred to as countries . The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom. Some statistical summaries, such as those for

21120-473: The operations against Ethiopia, reducing the supply distance to the fighting front by 500 mi (805 km). A British military administration was imposed on the protectorate, the local police and the Somaliland Camel Corps were re-established, civilians were disarmed and the economy was revived. On 10 June 1940, when Italy declared war on Britain and France , Italian military forces commanded by

21285-431: The other half bursting 50 ft (15 m) over the target, until 4:20 a.m. when Kingston received the order to begin landing on the eastern beach. Kandahar bombarded the beach from 4:25–4:35 a.m. Tows moved through the gaps to the eastern and western beaches, success signals coming from at the western beach was made at 4:48 a.m. and at the eastern beach at 5:26 a.m. During the disembarkations shells burst among

21450-556: The power station and refrigerating plant required assistance from Aden to make them operational. The water supply was about to be blown up but the occupation troops prevented it. Mining of the aerodrome had been carried out and the RAF was informed. The landing force sent 43 Italian prisoners of war to Aden in Parvati on the day of the landings, as the hospital ship Karapara which was not needed. About 5:33 a.m. on 17 March some aircraft were heard and

21615-534: The principal maritime outlet for Harar and beyond it in Shewa . However, the opening of a new sea route between Tadjoura and Shewa cut further into Zeila's historical position as the main regional port. Sharifs of Mocha exercised nominal rule on behalf of the Ottoman Empire over Zeila. Hajji Sharmarke Ali Saleh came to govern Zeila after the Turkish governor of Mocha and Hodeida handed governorship from Mohamed El Barr to him. Mohamed El Barr would not leave peacefully and Sharmarke departed for Zeila with

21780-588: The protectorate (Wavell was in Britain). The garrison retreated to Berbera and by 2:00 p.m. 18 August, most of the contingent had been evacuated to Aden, with the HQ sailing in HMAS  Hobart on the morning of 19 August; Italian forces entered Berbera that evening. The British suffered 38 men killed and 222 men wounded; the Italians 2,052 casualties. After the retreat to Aden, the British established Military Mission No. 106 (Hamilton's Mission) to conduct sabotage and subversion operations in occupied British Somaliland. The former Senior Administrative Officer of

21945-456: The protectorate, Reginald Smith, made several secret journeys to the land to glean information. In Cairo, General Archibald Wavell , GOC-in-C Middle East Command concocted Operation Camilla, a deception to mislead the Italians about the transfer of troops to Sudan. The operation was intended to convince the Italians that the troops movements were part of a plan to invade British Somaliland in February 1941 and then advance on Harar. Wavell wrote in

22110-424: The ratification of this treaty by the French government. Art. 9 – This treaty was made voluntarily and signed by the Ougasse of the Gada-boursis, which undertakes to execute it faithfully and to adopt the French flag as its flag. In witness whereof the undersigned have affixed their stamps and signatures. J.Henry Signature of Ougasse Done at Zeilah on 9 Djemmad 1302 (March 25, 1885)." The French claimed that

22275-399: The region of Harar in Italian Ethiopia, crossed the border south of Borama and reached Hargeisa on 5 August. The Somaliland Camel Corps skirmished with the Italians as they advanced and the central column attacked Hargeisa with infantry and light tanks covered by artillery and air attacks. A Rhodesian infantry company blocking the road retreated, after knocking out three light tanks, while

22440-442: The rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system . With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power and the interest in voyages of discovery led to

22605-406: The result of the Acts of Union 1707 between the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland . In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole , in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of Jacobite uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart . The Jacobites were finally defeated at

22770-413: The road from Hargeisa and joined with the Aden Striking Force. The Italian 70th Colonial Brigade became one of the many units of the Italian colonial forces in the AOI that had begun to desert en masse. When Bertello was captured in Western Abyssinia, he claimed that his brigade had "melted away". On 21 March, Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham , commander of the East African Force , visited to congratulate

22935-415: The road to Berbera, only slightly delayed by road demolitions and improvised land mines. British troops in advanced positions were withdrawn on 10 August and the Battle of Tug Argan took place from 11 to 15 August. The Italians had achieved air superiority by 6 August and the defenders held the gap against Italian attacks for 72 hours, eventually running out of ammunition. Italian artillery superiority led to

23100-430: The ruler of Mocha , who, for a small sum, leased the port to one of the office-holders of Mocha. The latter, in return, collected a toll on its trade. Zeila was subsequently ruled by an Emir, whom Mordechai Abir suggested had "some vague claim to authority over all of the Sahil , but whose real authority did not extend very far beyond the walls of the town." Assisted by cannons and a few mercenaries armed with matchlocks ,

23265-410: The same time, the Egyptians received British recognition of their nominal jurisdiction as far east as Cape Guardafui . In actuality, however, Egypt had little authority over the interior. Their period of rule on the coast was brief, lasting only a few years (1870–84). When the Egyptian garrison in Harar was evacuated in 1885, Zeila became caught up in the competition between the Tadjoura-based French and

23430-461: The short-lived conquest of Abyssinia. 16th-century Zeila, along with several other settlements on the East African coast, had been visited by the Portuguese explorer and writer Duarte Barbosa , describing the city as such: "Having passed this town of Berbara, and going on, entering the Red Sea, there is another town of the Moors, which is named Zeyla, which is a good place of trade, whither many ships navigate and sell their clothes and merchandise. It

23595-399: The superior command of an officer designated by the French government. Arms and ammunition for the native troops may be provided by the French government and their balance taken from the public revenues, but, in case of insufficiency, the French government may provide for them. Art. 6 – The Ougasse of the Gada-boursis, to recognize the good practices of France towards it, undertakes to protect

23760-421: The time British returned to the headquarters in Burao on 18 April, 80 per cent of the former members had made their way to Berbera. On 4 May a company of the corps began a mission to suppress a Mijjertein raiding party, the rest of the corps conducting disarmament operations with a motley of captured Italian weapons and equipment. Many of the buildings in Berbera had been damaged, government stations demolished and

23925-480: The town is drawn from the wells of Takosha, about three miles distant; every morning camels, in charge of old Somali women and bearing goatskins filled with water, come into the town in picturesque procession. ... [Zeila's] imports, which reach Zaila chiefly via Aden, are mainly cotton goods, rice , jowaree, dates and silk ; the exports, 90% of which are from Abyssinia, are principally coffee , skins, ivory , cattle , ghee and mother-of-pearl ". Buralle Robleh

24090-401: The tows and ships offshore, thought to be from four to six 4-inch guns and some ineffectual machine-gun fire; the 6-inch, 4-inch and pom-poms of the bombardment ships silenced the Italian artillery. Glasgow mainly engaged trenches near the Berbera Light and west of the aerodrome. Kandahar concentrated on the defences to the east of the town. Anticipating a British landing, the Duke of Aosta,

24255-402: The trade that gave birth to other coastal and hinterland towns such as Heis , Maydh , and Abasa , Awbare , Awbube , Amud in the Borama area, Derbiga Cad Cad, Qoorgaab, Fardowsa, Maduna , Aw-Barkhadle in the Hargeisa region and Fardowsa , near Sheikh. Ancient Zeila was divided into five residential districts; Khoor-doobi, Hafat al-Furda, Asho Bara, Hafat al-Suda and Sarrey. Zeila

24420-413: The treaty with the Ughaz of the Gadabuursi gave them jurisdiction over the entirety of the Zeila coast and the Gadabuursi country. However, the British attempted to deny this agreement between the French and the Gadabuursi citing that that Ughaz had a representative at Zeila when the Gadabuursi signed their treaty with the British in December of 1884. The British suspected that this treaty was designed by

24585-436: The twelve NUTS 1 regions , refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions". Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province". With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences". The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. It

24750-424: The two protectorates as between Zeila and Jibuti: four years later the latter port became the official capital of the French colony." On 9 February 1888, France and Britain concluded an agreement defining the boundary between their respective protectorates . As a result, Zeila and its eastern neighbor Berbera came to be part of British Somaliland . The construction of a railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa in

24915-467: The unloading of the MT, including armoured cars. The RAF flew reconnaissance sorties to find suitable landing points, discover Italian defensive preparations and find potential landing grounds for their aircraft. With fire support from the cruisers and destroyers, the invasion force was to land on beaches between reefs to the east and west of Berbera, create a bridgehead and then re-occupy the protectorate. The air photographs obtained were an incomplete set and

25080-430: The value of firearms like the matchlock musket , cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons. I. M. Lewis gives an invaluable reference to an Arabic manuscript on the history of the Gadabuursi Somali. ‘This Chronicle opens’, Lewis tells us, ‘with an account of the wars of Imam ‘Ali Si’id (d. 1392) from whom the Gadabuursi today trace their descent, and who is described as the only Muslim leader fighting on

25245-458: The viceroy and governor general of Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI, Italian East Africa), the Duke of Aosta became a threat to the British and French holds on their colonies in East Africa. Italian forces in Eritrea endangered British sea routes along the coast of East Africa, to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal . Anglo-Egyptian Sudan , French Somaliland , British Somaliland and Kenya Colony (British Kenya) were vulnerable to attacks from

25410-426: The victors, to make arrangements for the expansion of the port facilities and announce the establishment of a British military administration. The Italian occupation had lasted seven months; in the British official history volume I (1957), I. S. O. Playfair wrote that the port was quickly prepared, despite a shortage of lighters, no electric lights, the heat and the Kharif (autumn wind) blowing sand and increasing

25575-430: The western flank in the armies of Se’ad ad-Din, ruler of Zeila. I. M. Lewis (1959) states: "Further light on the Dir advance and Galla withdrawal seems to be afforded by an Arabic manuscript describing the history of the Gadabursi clan. This chronicle opens with an account of the wars of Imam ‘Ali Si’id (d. 1392), from whom the Gadabursi today trace their descent and who is described as the only Muslim leader fighting on

25740-418: The wider Zeila District is inhabited by the Gadabuursi and Issa , both subclans of the Dir clan family. Zeila is situated in the Awdal region in Somaliland . Located on the Gulf of Aden coast near the Djibouti border, the town sits on a sandy spit surrounded by the sea. It is known for its coral reef , mangroves and offshore islands, which include the Sa'ad ad-Din archipelago named after

25905-413: Was a wealthy city of considerable size and its inhabitants were completely Muslim. Ibn Said 's description gives the impression that Berbera was of much more localized importance, mainly serving the immediate Somali hinterland while Zeila was clearly serving more extensive areas. But there is no doubt that Zeila was also predominantly Somali , and Al-Dimashqi, another thirteen-century Arab writer, gives

26070-417: Was also instrumental in bringing Islam to the Oromo and other Ethiopian ethnic groups. In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting the Abyssinian Emperor Amda Seyon 's march toward the city. When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II , was also killed by Dawit I of Ethiopia in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen , before later returning in 1415. In

26235-458: Was assembled at the spit and motor transport unloaded from Beaconsfield by 6:00 p.m. The landing force was well established ashore with adequate stores and rations, local water being available. Air reconnaissance reported the hinterland to be deserted (naval protection ended on 18 March when Glasgow departed; air cover continued until 20 March). The Shaad and customs piers had been damaged but could be repaired with local materials; demolitions at

26400-416: Was chosen as the defining point of the Prime Meridian at the International Meridian Conference in 1884. The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° and 61° N , and longitudes 9° W and 2° E . Northern Ireland shares a 224-mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland. The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long, though measurements can vary greatly due to

26565-404: Was formed in 1931. Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system." After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War . Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in

26730-399: Was founded upon an indigenous network involving hinterland trade, which happened even before significant Arab migrations or trade with the Somali coast. That goes back approximately four thousand years. According to textual and archeological evidence, Zeila, was founded by Sh. Saylici was one of many small towns developed by the Somali pastoral and trading communities which flourished through

26895-440: Was met with ashore and the town was captured by 9:20 a.m. on 16 March. The British and Indian troops suffered few casualties and over 100 prisoners were taken. Due to a mistake, the Aden Pioneers, who were unarmed, had been ordered to attack with the Punjabis and their commander, Captain S. J. H. Harrison wrote later, The sun was just peeping over the eastern skyline [;] we came under rifle fire...when to our utter amazement we saw

27060-538: Was such that the risks were accepted. On the three nights before the landings, the RAF bombed the big Italian base at Dire Dawa in Ethiopia. On 14 March the first echelon departed Aden at 10:45 p.m. but only 10 nmi (12 mi; 19 km) out, tows parted, some wrapping around the ships' propellers. To keep to the schedule a quick change of plan was made; Kandahar left the tugs and lighters for Beaconsfield and Tuna to tow. The naval ships went ahead to make rendezvous 10 nmi (12 mi; 19 km) north of

27225-432: Was the first country in the world to use an approved COVID-19 vaccine , developing its own vaccine through a collaboration between Oxford University and AstraZeneca , which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world. The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 94,354 square miles (244,376 km ), with a land area of 93,723 square miles (242,741 km ). The country occupies

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