110-403: The Ollamh Érenn ( Old Irish: [ˈol͈aṽ ˈeːrʲen͈] ) or Chief Ollam of Ireland was a professional title of Gaelic Ireland . An ollam (literally 'most great') was a poet or bard of literature and history. Each chief or tuath had its own ollam . The head ollam of a province such as Ulster would have been the head of all the ollams in that province, and would have been
220-499: A filé as his own chief ollamh after the example of the kings who went before him, and that each provincial king should have an ollamh, and, moreover, that each lord of a cantred or district in Ireland should have an ollamh, and Columcille proposed this plan and Aodh assented to it; From this regulation, which was made by Aodh, son of Ainmire , and Columcille, it followed that the king of Ireland and every provincial king and every lord of
330-526: A beard and mustache , and it was often seen as dishonourable for a Gaelic man to have no facial hair. Beard styles varied – the long forked beard and the rectangular Mesopotamian-style beard were fashionable at times. Warfare was common in Gaelic Ireland, as territories , kingdoms and clans fought for supremacy against each other and later against the Vikings and Anglo-Normans . Champion warfare
440-446: A dealg ( brooch ), with men usually wearing the dealg at their shoulders and women at their chests. The ionar (a short, tight-fitting jacket) became popular later on. In Topographia Hibernica , written during the 1180s, Gerald de Barri wrote that the Irish commonly wore hoods at that time (perhaps forming part of the brat ), while Edmund Spenser wrote in the 1580s that the brat
550-462: A fine (plural: finte ). This was a large group of related people supposedly descended from one progenitor through male forebears. It was headed by a man whose office was known in Old Irish as a cenn fine or toísech (plural: toísig ). Nicholls suggests that they would be better thought of as akin to the modern-day corporation. Within each fine , the family descended from a common great-grandparent
660-471: A rí ruirech (a rí who was a provincial overking). (See Rí .) Each king ruled directly only within the bounds of his own petty kingdom and was responsible for ensuring good government by exercising fír flaithemon (rulers' truth). His responsibilities included convening its óenach (popular assembly), collecting taxes, building public works, external relations, defence, emergency legislation, law enforcement, and promulgating legal judgment. The lands in
770-561: A cantred had a special ollamh, and that each of these ollamhs had free land from his own lord, and, moreover, the lands and worldly possessions of each of these ollamhs enjoyed general exemption and sanctuary from the men of Ireland. It was also ordained that a common estate should be set apart for the ollamh s where they could give public instruction after the manner of a University, such as Raith Cheannait and Masruidhe Mhuighe Sleacht , in Breithfne , where they gave free instruction in
880-743: A certain number of their father's cattle as their marriage-portion. It seems that, throughout the Middle Ages, the Gaelic Irish kept many of their marriage laws and traditions separate from those of the Church. Under Gaelic law, married women could hold property independent of their husbands, a link was maintained between married women and their own families, couples could easily divorce or separate, and men could have concubines (which could be lawfully bought). These laws differed from most of contemporary Europe and from Church law. The lawful age of marriage
990-401: A clergyman could never regain his standing. Some laws were pre-Christian in origin. These secular laws existed in parallel, and sometimes in conflict, with Church law . Although brehons usually dealt with legal cases, kings would have been able to deliver judgments also, but it is unclear how much they would have had to rely on brehons. Kings had their own brehons to deal with cases involving
1100-431: A great burden to them. If they refused they were satirised. The Synod or Convention of Drumceat in 584 AD was called to pass new laws to keep control of the ollams. Geoffrey Keating 's History of Ireland states that St Columba or Columcille interceded on their behalf as follows: "'I do not wish to keep the filés ,' said the king, 'so unjust are their demands and so numerous are they. For there are usually thirty in
1210-435: A half feet high. Chariots were generally drawn by horses or oxen, with horse-drawn chariots being more common among chiefs and military men. War chariots furnished with scythes and spikes, like those of the ancient Gauls and Britons , are mentioned in literature. Boats used in Gaelic Ireland include canoes , currachs , sailboats and Irish galleys . Ferryboats were used to cross wide rivers and are often mentioned in
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#17328510122491320-459: A helmet, but they sometimes wore simple helmets made from animal hides. Artwork from Ireland's Gaelic period is found on pottery , jewellery , weapons , drinkware , tableware , stone carvings and illuminated manuscripts . Irish art from about 300 BC incorporates patterns and styles which developed in west central Europe. By about AD 600, after the Christianization of Ireland had begun,
1430-414: A hierarchy of kings and chiefs. The smallest territory was the túath (plural: túatha ), which was typically the territory of a single kin-group. It was ruled by a rí túaithe (king of a túath ) or toísech túaithe (leader of a túath ). Several túatha formed a mór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by a rí mór túath or ruirí (overking). Several mór túatha formed a cóiced (province), which
1540-598: A kind of fosterage was common, whereby (for a certain length of time) children would be left in the care of others to strengthen family ties or political bonds. Foster parents were beholden to teach their foster children or to have them taught. Foster parents who had properly done their duties were entitled to be supported by their foster children in old age (if they were in need and had no children of their own). As with divorce, Gaelic law again differed from most of Europe and from Church law in giving legal standing to both "legitimate" and "illegitimate" children. For most of
1650-469: A market of foreign traders. In the Middle Ages the main exports were textiles such as wool and linen while the main imports were luxury items. Money was seldom used in Gaelic society; instead, goods and services were usually exchanged for other goods and services ( barter ). The economy was mainly a pastoral one, based on livestock ( cows , sheep , pigs , goats , etc.) and their products . Cattle
1760-418: A marriage to, or sexual relationship with, a sovereignty goddess . The High King is free from blemish, enforces symbolic buada (prerogatives) and avoids symbolic geasa ( taboos ). According to 7th- and 8th-century law tracts, a hierarchy of kingship and clientship progressed from the rí tuaithe (king of a single petty kingdom ) through the ruiri (a rí who was overking of several petty kingdoms) to
1870-418: A payment based on their closeness to the victim, their status, and so forth. There were separate payments for the kin-group of the victim's mother, and for the victim's foster-kin. Execution seems to have been rare and carried out only as a last resort. If a murderer was unable or unwilling to pay éraic and was handed to his victim's family, they might kill him if they wished should nobody intervene by paying
1980-406: A petty kingdom were held allodially by various fine ( agnatic kingroups) of freemen. The king occupied the apex of a pyramid of clientship within the petty kingdom. This pyramid progressed from the unfree population at its base up to the heads of noble fine held in immediate clientship by the king. Thus the king was drawn from the dominant fine within the cenél (a wider kingroup encompassing
2090-506: A sacred kingship was integrated with the Christian idea in the ceremony of coronation , the relationship of king to overking became one of tigerna (lord) to king and imperium ( sovereignty ) began to merge with dominium (ownership). The Church was well disposed to the idea of a strong political authority. Its clerics developed the theory of a high kingship of Ireland and wrote tracts exhorting kings to rule rather than reign. In return,
2200-461: A social equal of the provincial king. Overall the provincial ollams was the Ard-Ollamh ( Rí-Ollam , Rí-Eigeas , Príméces ) who held the official post of Chief-Ollamh of Ireland or " Ollamh Érenn ". Generally within a Gaelic region or Kingdom, one particular Túath (the most powerful one), would provide an Ard-Ollamh and Overking (Ruiri) for the entire region. An example
2310-536: A style melding Irish, Mediterranean and Germanic Anglo-Saxon elements emerged, and was spread to Britain and mainland Europe by the Hiberno-Scottish mission . This is known as Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art, which continued in some form in Ireland until the 12th century, although the Viking invasions ended its "Golden Age". Most surviving works of Insular art were either made by monks or made for monasteries, with
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#17328510122492420-432: A valuable resource but had a lesser role in Irish pastoralism. Horticulture was practised; the main crops being oats , wheat and barley , although flax was also grown for making linen. Transhumance was also practised, whereby people moved with their livestock to higher pastures in summer and back to lower pastures in the cooler months. The summer pasture was called the buaile (anglicized as booley ) and it
2530-601: Is a common theme in Early Irish mythology , literature and culture. In the Middle Ages all able-bodied men, apart from the learned and the clergy, were eligible for military service on behalf of the king or chief . Throughout the Middle Ages and for some time after, outsiders often wrote that the Irish style of warfare differed greatly from what they deemed to be the norm in Western Europe. The Gaelic Irish preferred hit-and-run raids (the crech ), which involved catching
2640-409: Is a stone ringfort. The ringfort would typically have enclosed the family home, small farm buildings or workshops, and animal pens. Most date to the period 500–1000 CE and there is evidence of large-scale ringfort desertion at the end of the first millennium. The remains of between 30,000 and 40,000 lasted into the 19th century to be mapped by Ordnance Survey Ireland . Another kind of native dwelling
2750-700: Is in Ulaid , overall power was hotly contested and at times swapped between the ruling territory rival dynasties or Sept of the Dál Fiatach and Dál nAraidi . According to Daniel Corkery , in 18th century Munster , a custom similar to the Welsh Eisteddfod continued long after the destruction of the Irish clan system. In what was also both mimicry and satire of the English-dominated legal and court system,
2860-502: Is noteworthy that the Irish word for boy ( buachaill ) originally meant a herdsman. Many moorland areas were "shared as a common summer pasturage by the people of a whole parish or barony". Gaelic Ireland was well furnished with roads and bridges. Bridges were typically wooden and in some places the roads were laid with wood and stone. There were five main roads leading from Tara : Slíghe Asail, Slíghe Chualann , Slíghe Dála, Slíghe Mór and Slíghe Midluachra . Horses were one of
2970-489: The Brehon Laws as subject to strict regulations. Sometimes they were owned by individuals and sometimes they were the common property of those living round the ferry. Large boats were used for trade with mainland Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages, the common clothing amongst the Gaelic Irish consisted of a brat (a woollen semi circular cloak) worn over a léine (a loose-fitting, long-sleeved tunic made of linen). For men
3080-566: The Irish round towers were built. In the fifty years before the Norman invasion , the term "castle" ( Old Irish : caistél/caislén ) appears in Gaelic writings, although there are few intact surviving examples of pre-Norman castles. After the invasion, the Normans built motte-and-bailey castles in the areas they occupied, some of which were converted from ringforts. By 1300 "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by
3190-577: The Lordship of Ireland – and the island as a whole. However, the Gaelic system continued in areas outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to an area known as the Pale and, outside this, many Hiberno-Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture. In 1542, the Lordship of Ireland became the Kingdom of Ireland when Henry VIII of England was given the title of King of Ireland by
3300-533: The Parliament of Ireland . The English then began to extend their control over the island . By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end. Gaelic culture and society was centred around the fine (explained below). Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe (druids) were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down
3410-547: The Scoti or Irish "believing in Christ". Early medieval traditions credit Saint Patrick as being the first Primate of Ireland . Christianity would eventually supplant the existing pagan traditions, with the prologue of the 9th century Martyrology of Tallaght (attributed to author Óengus of Tallaght ) speaking of the last vestiges of paganism in Ireland. In Gaelic Ireland each person belonged to an agnatic kin-group known as
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3520-572: The Uí Néill (encompassing descendants of Niall of the Nine Hostages , such as the Cenél nEógain ), who, as kings of Tara , had been conquering petty kingdoms, expelling their rulers, and agglomerating their territories under the direct rule of their expanding kindred since the fifth century. Gaelic and foreign , pagan and Christian ideas were comingled to form a new idea of Irish kingship. The native idea of
3630-503: The Uí Néill and the kings of Ulaid, but that a king had to be whole in body appears to have been accepted at this time. The business of Irish succession is rather complicated because of the nature of kingship in Ireland before the Norman take-over of 1171 . Ireland was divided into a multiplicity of kingdoms, with some kings owing allegiance to others from time to time, and succession rules (insofar as they existed) varied. Kings were often succeeded by their sons, but often other branches of
3740-586: The Viking Age , and even then not a consistent one. While the High Kings' degree of control varied, they never ruled Ireland as a politically unified state , as the High King was conceived of as an overlord exercising suzerainty over, and receiving tribute from, the independent kingdoms beneath him. Early Irish kingship was sacred in character. In some early Irish sources, High Kings can gain their power through
3850-412: The léine reached to their ankles but was hitched up by means of a crios (pronounced 'kriss') which was a type of woven belt. The léine was hitched up to knee level. Women wore the léine at full length. Men sometimes wore tight-fitting trews (Gaelic triúbhas) but otherwise went bare-legged. The brat was simply thrown over both shoulders or sometimes over only one. Occasionally the brat was fastened with
3960-543: The ogham alphabet , began in the protohistoric period , perhaps as early as the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity , beginning in the 5th century, accompanied the introduction of literature . In the Middle Ages, Irish mythology and Brehon law were recorded by Irish monks, albeit partly Christianized . Gaelic Irish monasteries were important centres of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars were influential in western Europe and helped to spread Christianity to much of Britain and parts of mainland Europe. In
4070-478: The pantheons of other European nations. Two groups of supernatural beings who appear throughout Irish mythology—the Tuatha Dé Danann and Fomorians —are believed to represent the Gaelic pantheon. They were also animists , believing that all aspects of the natural world contained spirits, and that these spirits could be communicated with. Burial practices—which included burying food, weapons, and ornaments with
4180-493: The paruchiae (monastic federations) of the Irish church received royal patronage in the form of shrines, building works, land, and protection. The concept of a high king was occasionally recorded in various annals, such as an entry regarding the death of Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid in 862 in the Annals of Ulster, which lists him as rí Érenn uile (king of all Ireland), a title which his successor Aed Finliath apparently never
4290-417: The timpan (a small string instrument played with a bow or plectrum ), the feadan (a fife ), the buinne (an oboe or flute ), the guthbuinne (a bassoon -type horn ), the bennbuabhal and corn ( hornpipes ), the cuislenna ( bagpipes – see Great Irish Warpipes ), the stoc and sturgan ( clarions or trumpets), and the cnamha ( castanets ). He also mentions the fiddle as being used in
4400-486: The éraic . Habitual or particularly serious offenders might be expelled from the kin-group and its territory. Such people became outlaws (with no protection from the law) and anyone who sheltered him became liable for his crimes. If he still haunted the territory and continued his crimes there, he was proclaimed in a public assembly and after this anyone might lawfully kill him. Each person had an honour-price, which varied depending on their rank in society. This honour-price
4510-482: The 12th century), they did not wear armour , as they deemed it burdensome to wear and "brave and honourable" to fight without it. Instead, most ordinary soldiers fought semi-naked and carried only their weapons and a small round shield — Spenser wrote that these shields were covered with leather and painted in bright colours. Kings and chiefs sometimes went into battle wearing helmets adorned with eagle feathers. For ordinary soldiers, their thick hair often served as
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4620-440: The 8th century as compliment to Irish music. As mentioned before, Gaelic Ireland was split into many clann territories and kingdoms called túath (plural: túatha ). Although there was no central government or parliament , a number of local, regional and national gatherings were held. These combined features of assemblies and fairs . In Ireland, the highest of these was the feis at Teamhair na Rí (Tara), which
4730-558: The 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding settlements along Ireland's coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels . After the Anglo-Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty over this territory –
4840-545: The Ard-Ollamh was equal to the High King of Ireland . He had his own palace and a large retinue of about thirty ollamhs together with their servants. The sumptuary laws allowed him to wear six colours in his clothes, the same as the king. The ollamh had a gold bell-branch held above him, the anruth had a silver bell-branch and the other poets had a bronze bell-branch. The post was partly hereditary, as Uraicecht na Ríar ("The Primer of
4950-577: The Gaelic Irish in imitation". The Normans gradually replaced wooden motte-and-baileys with stone castles and tower houses . Tower houses are free-standing multi-storey stone towers usually surrounded by a wall (see bawn ) and ancillary buildings. Gaelic families had begun to build their own tower houses by the 15th century. As many as 7000 may have been built, but they were rare in areas with little Norman settlement or contact. They are concentrated in counties Limerick and Clare but are lacking in Ulster, except
5060-522: The Gaelic period, dwellings and farm buildings were circular with conical thatched roofs (see roundhouse ). Square and rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and by the 14th or 15th century they had replaced round buildings completely. In some areas, buildings were made mostly of stone. In others, they were built of timber, wattle and daub , or a mix of materials. Most ancient and early medieval stone buildings were of dry stone construction. Some buildings would have had glass windows. Among
5170-490: The Norman invasion, it was common for priests and monks to have wives. This remained mostly unchanged after the Norman invasion, despite protests from bishops and archbishops. The authorities classed such women as priests' concubines and there is evidence that a formal contract of concubinage existed between priests and their women. However, unlike other concubines, they seem to have been treated just as wives were. In Gaelic Ireland
5280-554: The Ollamh Érenn of a district would preside over sessions of a Cúirt , or Poetic Court. A Munster Cúirt would begin with " bailiffs " delivering often humorously worded " warrants " which summoned local Irish-language poets to a Bardic competition with the Ollamh acting as the "judge". In many cases, two Irish-language poets at the Cúirt would engage in Flyting ; a mixture of debate poetry and
5390-557: The Scholar's Rampart, The first mighty king with grace, Who convened the Festival of Tara . Fifty years, it was tuneful fame, was he in the High Kingship over Ireland so that from him, with lucky freedom, Ulaidh received its name. He died a natural death within its capital." The Irish chiefs and kings were supposed to give food and gifts to these wandering bands of ollamhs which proved
5500-457: The Stipulations", ed. Liam Breatnach, DIAS 1987) states that a poet can only attain ollamh-rank if he stems from a family of poets (that is, if his father and grandfather had been poets). Originally the Ollamh was appointed by the king but by the 6th century AD, it had become an elected post which was voted for by the other ollamhs. An old Irish tale " Immacallam in dá Thuarad " ("The Colloquy of
5610-652: The Two Sages") gives an idea of the type of lofty speech of the chief ollamh. Another old tale called " Tromdámh Guaire " ("The Heavy Company of Guaire") or "Imtheacht na Tromdhaimhe" ("The Proceedings of the Great Bardic Institution") gives a vivid description of the Chief Ollam with his entourage visiting the Irish clan chiefs . In Lebor Gabala Erenn , an Ollamh is mentioned, named Ollamh Fodla . It relates " Ollamh Fodla , fierce in valour , Marked out
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#17328510122495720-532: The area around Strangford Lough . In Gaelic law, a 'sanctuary' called a maighin digona surrounded each person's dwelling. The maighin digona's size varied according to the owner's rank. In the case of a bóaire it stretched as far as he, while sitting at his house, could cast a cnairsech (variously described as a spear or sledgehammer). The owner of a maighin digona could offer its protection to someone fleeing from pursuers, who would then have to bring that person to justice by lawful means. Gaelic Ireland
5830-464: The army was made up of light infantry called ceithern (anglicized 'kern'). The ceithern wandered Ireland offering their services for hire and usually wielded swords, skenes (a kind of long knife), short spears, bows and shields. The cavalry was usually made up of a king or chieftain and his close relatives. They usually rode without saddles but wore armour and iron helmets and wielded swords, skenes and long spears or lances . One kind of Irish cavalry
5940-453: The arrival of Christianity is the supposed lawsuit between Congal Cáech , king of the Ulaid , and Domnall mac Áedo . Congal was supposedly blinded in one eye by Domnall's bees, from whence his byname Cáech (half-blind or squinting), this injury rendering him imperfect and unable to remain High King. The enmity between Domnall and Congal can more prosaically be laid at the door of the rivalry between
6050-463: The dead—suggest a belief in life after death . Some have equated this afterlife with the Otherworld realms known as Magh Meall and Tír na nÓg in Irish mythology. There were four main religious festivals each year, marking the traditional four divisions of the year – Samhain , Imbolc , Bealtaine and Lughnasadh . The mythology of Ireland was originally passed down orally , but much of it
6160-449: The dynasty took a turn—whether by agreement or by force of arms is rarely clear. The king-lists and other early sources reveal little about how and why a particular person became king. To add to the uncertainty, genealogies were often edited many generations later to improve an ancestor's standing within a kingdom, or to insert him into a more powerful kindred. The uncertain practices in local kingship cause similar problems when interpreting
6270-416: The early 700s describe a hierarchy of kings: kings of túath subject to kings of several túatha who again were subject to the regional overkings. Already before the 8th century these overkingdoms had begun to replace the túatha as the basic sociopolitical unit. Before Christianization , the Gaelic Irish were polytheistic or pagan . They had many gods and goddesses , which generally have parallels in
6380-515: The enemy unaware. If this worked they would then seize any valuables (mainly livestock) and potentially valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape. The cattle raid was a social institution and was called a Táin Bó in Gaelic literature. Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred tactic in medieval times, there were also pitched battles . From at least the 11th century, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known as lucht tighe "troops of
6490-799: The exception of brooches , which were likely made and used by both clergy and laity. Examples of Insular art from Ireland include the Book of Kells , Muiredach's High Cross , the Tara Brooch , the Ardagh Hoard the Derrynaflan Chalice , and the late Cross of Cong , which also uses Viking styles. Although Gerald de Barri had an overtly negative view of the Irish, in Topographia Hibernica (1188) he conceded that they were more skilled at playing music than any other nation he had seen. He claimed that
6600-570: The exploits of Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Fianna . There are also a number of tales that do not fit into these cycles – this includes the immrama and echtrai , which are tales of voyages to the ' Otherworld '. The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, with Palladius (later bishop of Ireland) sent by Pope Celestine I in the mid-5th century to preach " ad Scotti in Christum " or in other words to minister to
6710-467: The following century state that he died by the mythic Threefold death appropriate to a sacral king. Adomnán 's Life tells how Saint Columba forecast the same death for Áed Dub. The same Threefold Death is said in a late poem to have befallen Diarmait's predecessor, Muirchertach macc Ercae , and even the usually reliable Annals of Ulster record Muirchertach's death by drowning in a vat of wine. A second sign that sacred kingship did not disappear with
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#17328510122496820-515: The fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important. Like Britain , Gaelic Ireland consisted not of one single unified kingdom, but several. The main kingdoms were Ulaid (Ulster), Mide (Meath), Laigin (Leinster), Muma (Munster, consisting of Iarmuman , Tuadmumain and Desmumain ), Connacht , Bréifne (Breffny), In Tuaiscert (The North), and Airgíalla (Oriel). Each of these overkingdoms were built upon lordships known as túatha (singular: túath ). Law tracts from
6930-428: The group. For the briugu to fulfill these duties, he was allowed more land and privileges, but this could be lost if he ever refused guests. A freeman could further himself by becoming the client of one or more lords. The lord made his client a grant of property (i.e. livestock or land) and, in return, the client owed his lord yearly payments of food and fixed amounts of work. The clientship agreement could last until
7040-720: The high throne as any Uí Neill and... displayed an ability sadly lacking amongst most of the Uí Néill who had preceded him." Brian was killed in the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. Mael Sechnaill II was restored to the High Kingship but he died in 1022. From 1022 through the Norman take-over of 1171 , the High Kingship was held alongside "Kings with Opposition". Even at the time the law tracts were being written, these petty kingdoms were being swept away by newly emerging dynasties of dynamic overkings. The most successful of these early dynasties were
7150-419: The history and traditions of their people. Later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, the filí continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland. Hospitality, bonds of kinship and
7260-437: The household", who were often given houses and land on the king's mensal land. These were well-trained and equipped professional soldiers made up of infantry and cavalry . By the reign of Brian Boru , Irish kings were taking large armies on campaign over long distances and using naval forces in tandem with land forces . A typical medieval Irish army included light infantry , heavy infantry and cavalry . The bulk of
7370-762: The improvised trading of insults in verse. Also according to Corkery, much of the serious, improvised, and comic poetry in the Irish-language composed for sessions of the Munster Poetic Courts was written down by the Court "Recorders" and still survives. At the beginning of his term, the Chief Poet of a district, similarly to an Irish clan chief, would receive a Staff of Office ( Irish : Bata na Bachaille ), which would later be handed down to his successor. This tradition continued at least until 1792. The social status of
7480-449: The king's own rights and to give him legal advice. Unlike other kingdoms in Europe, Gaelic kings—by their own authority—could not enact new laws as they wished and could not be "above the law". They could, however, enact temporary emergency laws. It was mainly through these emergency powers that the Church attempted to change Gaelic law. The law texts take great care to define social status,
7590-481: The lord's death. If the client died, his heirs would carry on the agreement. This system of clientship enabled social mobility as a client could increase his wealth until he could afford clients of his own, thus becoming a lord. Clientship was also practised between nobles, which established hierarchies of homage and political support. Gaelic law was originally passed down orally, but was written down in Old Irish during
7700-660: The main means of long-distance transport. Although horseshoes and reins were used, the Gaelic Irish did not use saddles , stirrups or spurs . Every man was trained to spring from the ground on to the back of his horse (an ech-léim or "steed-leap") and they urged-on and guided their horses with a rod having a hooked goad at the end. Two-wheeled and four-wheeled chariots (singular carbad ) were used in Ireland from ancient times, both in private life and in war. They were big enough for two people, made of wickerwork and wood, and often had decorated hoods. The wheels were spoked, shod all round with iron, and were from three to four and
7810-467: The noble fine of the petty kingdom). The kings of the Ulster Cycle are kings in this sacred sense, but it is clear that the old concept of kingship coexisted alongside Christianity for several generations. Diarmait mac Cerbaill , king of Tara in the middle of the 6th century, may have been the last king to have "married" the land. Diarmait died at the hands of Áed Dub mac Suibni ; some accounts from
7920-435: The northern branch ruled various kingdoms in what eventually became the province of Ulster. In 1002, the high kingship of Ireland was wrested from Mael Sechnaill II of the southern Uí Néill by Brian "Boruma" mac Cennédig of the Kingdom of Munster . Some historians have called this a "usurpation" of the throne. Others have pointed out that no one had a strict legal right to the kingship and that Brian "had as much right to
8030-453: The offender paying compensation to the victims. Although any such offence required compensation, the law made a distinction between intentional and unintentional harm, and between murder and manslaughter . If an offender did not pay outright, his property was seized until he did so. Should the offender be unable to pay, his family would be responsible for doing so. Should the family be unable or unwilling to pay, responsibility would broaden to
8140-542: The ordinary course of the law so that, in general, every woman had to have a male guardian. However, women had some legal capacity. By the 8th century, the preferred form of marriage was one between social equals, under which a woman was technically legally dependent on her husband and had half his honor price, but could exercise considerable authority in regard to the transfer of property. Such women were called "women of joint dominion". Thus historian Patrick Weston Joyce could write that, relative to other European countries of
8250-412: The past. John T. Koch explains: "Although the kingship of Tara was a special kingship whose occupants had aspirations towards supremacy among the kings of Ireland, in political terms it is unlikely that any king had sufficient authority to dominate the whole island before the 9th century". The concept of national kingship is first articulated in the 7th century, but only became a political reality in
8360-653: The period 600–900 AD. This collection of oral and written laws is known as the Fénechas or, in English, as the Brehon Law(s). The brehons (Old Irish: brithem , plural brithemain ) were the jurists in Gaelic Ireland. Becoming a brehon took many years of training and the office was, or became, largely hereditary. Most legal cases were contested privately between opposing parties, with the brehons acting as arbitrators. Offences against people and property were primarily settled by
8470-433: The property she had brought her husband during their marriage. Trial marriages seem to have been popular among the rich and powerful, and thus it has been argued that cohabitation before marriage must have been acceptable. It also seems that the wife of a chieftain was entitled to some share of the chief's authority over his territory. This led to some Gaelic Irish wives wielding a great deal of political power. Before
8580-500: The retreating plunderers with a "moving line of defence from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind which they could retreat when pursued". As their armor made them less nimble, they were sometimes planted at strategic spots along the line of retreat. The kern , horsemen and gallóglaigh had lightly armed servants to carry their weapons into battle. Warriors were sometimes rallied into battle by blowing horns and warpipes . According to Gerald de Barri (in
8690-412: The rights and duties that went with that status, and the relationships between people. For example, ceann finte had to take responsibility for members of their fine , acting as a surety for some of their deeds and making sure debts were paid. He would also be responsible for unmarried women after the death of their fathers. Ancient Irish culture was patriarchal . The Brehon law excepted women from
8800-430: The same derbfine and he was elected by other members of the derbfine . Tanistry meant that the kingship usually went to whichever relative was deemed to be the most fitting. Sometimes there would be more than one tanist at a time and they would succeed each other in order of seniority. Some Anglo-Norman lordships later adopted tanistry from the Irish. Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by
8910-462: The sciences to the men of Ireland, as many as desired to become learned in seanchus and in the other sciences that were in vogue in Ireland at that time. The ardollamh of Ireland at that time was Eochaidh Eigeas, son of Oilill, son of Earc, and it was he who was called Dallán Forgaill , and he sent out ollamh s and set them over the provinces of Ireland, namely, Aodh Eigeas over the district of Breagh and over Meath, Urmhaol chief eigeas over
9020-430: The succession to the high kingship. The High King of Ireland was essentially a ceremonial, pseudo-federal overlord (where his over-lordship was even recognised), who exercised actual power only within the realm of which he was actually king. In the case of the southern branch of the Uí Néill , this would have been the Kingdom of Meath (now the counties of Meath , Westmeath and part of County Dublin ). High Kings from
9130-528: The time, free women in Gaelic Ireland "held a good position" and their social and property rights were "in most respects, quite on a level with men". Gaelic Irish society was also patrilineal , with land being primarily owned by men and inherited by the sons. Only when a man had no sons would his land pass to his daughters, and then only for their lifetimes. Upon their deaths, the land was redistributed among their father's male relations. Under Brehon law, rather than inheriting land, daughters had assigned to them
9240-432: The train of an ollamh , and fifteen in that of an anroth , and so on for the other grades of the filé down to the lowest.' Each of them used to have a separate train of attendants according to his degree, so that nearly the third of the men of Ireland followed the bardic profession. Columcille said to the king that it was right to set aside many of the filés, as they were so numerous. But he advised him to maintain
9350-419: The two main instruments were the " harp " and " tabor " (see also bodhrán ), that their music was fast and lively, and that their songs always began and ended with B-flat . In A History of Irish Music (1905), W. H. Grattan Flood wrote that there were at least ten instruments in general use by the Gaelic Irish. These were the cruit (a small harp) and clairseach (a bigger harp with typically 30 strings),
9460-506: The two provinces of Munster, Sanchan, son of Cuairfheartach, over the province of Connaught, and Fear Firb, son of Muireadhach, son of Mongan, in the ollamhship of Ulster; and, moreover, an ollamh in every cantred in Ireland under these high ollamhs, and they were to have free land from their territorial chiefs, as well as sanctuary, as we have said; and each of them was to get certain rewards for their poems and compositions." Gaelic Ireland Gaelic Ireland ( Irish : Éire Ghaelach )
9570-414: The wealthy, it was common for women to have their own 'apartment' called a grianan (anglicized "greenan") in the sunniest part of the homestead. The dwellings of freemen and their families were often surrounded by a circular rampart called a " ringfort ". There are two main kinds of ringfort. The ráth is an earthen ringfort, averaging 30m diameter, with a dry outside ditch. The cathair or caiseal
9680-641: The wider dynasty, but succession was now confined to a series of father/son, brother/brother and uncle/nephew successions within a small royal fine marked by an exclusive surname. These compact families (the Uí Briain of Munster, the Meic Lochlainn of the North, the Uí Conchubhair of Connacht) intermarried and competed against each other on a national basis so that on the eve of the Anglo-Norman incursion of 1169
9790-533: The wider kin-group. Hence, it has been argued that "the people were their own police". Acts of violence were generally settled by payment of compensation known as an éraic fine; the Gaelic equivalent of the Welsh galanas and the Germanic weregild . If a free person was murdered, the éraic was equal to 21 cows, regardless of the victim's rank in society. Each member of the murder victim's agnatic kin-group received
9900-417: Was "the main element in the Irish pastoral economy" and the main form of wealth , providing milk , butter , cheese , meat , fat , hides , and so forth. They were a "highly mobile form of wealth and economic resource which could be quickly and easily moved to a safer locality in time of war or trouble". The nobility owned great herds of cattle that had herdsmen and guards. Sheep, goats and pigs were also
10010-455: Was (in general) their main item of clothing. Gaelic clothing does not appear to have been influenced by outside styles. Women invariably grew their hair long and, as in other European cultures, this custom was also common among the men. It is said that the Gaelic Irish took great pride in their long hair —for example, a person could be forced to pay the heavy fine of two cows for shaving a man's head against his will. For women, very long hair
10120-409: Was a "patchwork" hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs, who were chosen or elected through tanistry . Warfare between these territories was common. Traditionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged as High King of Ireland . Society was made up of clans and, like the rest of Europe , was structured hierarchically according to class . Throughout this period, the economy
10230-417: Was called a derbfine (modern form dearbhfhine ), lit. "close clan". The cland (modern form clann ) referred to the children of the nuclear family. Succession to the kingship was through tanistry . When a man became king, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist' (Irish: tánaiste , plural tanaistí ). When the king died, his tanist would automatically succeed him. The tanist had to share
10340-613: Was eventually written down by Irish monks , who Christianized and modified it to an extent. This large body of work is often split into three overlapping cycles: the Mythological Cycle , the Ulster Cycle , and the Fenian Cycle . The first cycle is a pseudo-history that describes how Ireland, its people and its society came to be. The second cycle tells of the lives and deaths of Ulaidh heroes and villains such as Cúchulainn , Queen Medb and Conall Cernach . The third cycle tells of
10450-401: Was fifteen for girls and eighteen for boys, the respective ages at which fosterage ended. Upon marriage, the families of the bride and bridegroom were expected to contribute to the match. It was custom for the bridegroom and his family to pay a coibche (modern spelling: coibhche ) and the bride was allowed a share of it. If the marriage ended owing to a fault of the husband then the coibche
10560-523: Was granted. It is unclear what political reality was behind this title. By the twelfth century, the dual process of agglomeration of territory and consolidation of kingship saw the handful of remaining provincial kings abandoning the traditional royal sites for the cities, employing ministers and governors, receiving advice from an oireacht (a body of noble counsellors), presiding at reforming synods, and maintaining standing armies. Early royal succession had been by alternation between collateral branches of
10670-539: Was held by historical kings and was later sometimes assigned anachronously or to legendary figures. Medieval and early modern Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken line of High Kings, ruling from the Hill of Tara over a hierarchy of lesser kings, stretching back thousands of years. Modern historians believe this scheme was crafted in the 8th century from the various genealogical traditions of powerful dynasties, and intended to justify their status by projecting it far into
10780-416: Was held every third Samhain . This was a gathering of the leading men of the whole island – kings , lords , chieftains , druids , judges etc. Below this was the óenach (modern spelling: aonach ). These were regional or provincial gatherings open to everyone. Examples include that held at Tailtin each Lughnasadh , and that held at Uisneach each Bealtaine . The main purpose of these gatherings
10890-503: Was involved in trade with Britain and mainland Europe from ancient times , and this trade increased over the centuries. Tacitus , for example, wrote in the 1st century that most of Ireland's harbours were known to the Romans through commerce. There are many passages in early Irish literature that mention luxury goods imported from foreign lands, and the fair of Carman in Leinster included
11000-503: Was kept by the wife and her family, but if the fault lay with the wife then the coibche was to be returned. It was custom for the bride to receive a spréid (modern spelling: spréidh ) from her family (or foster family) upon marriage. This was to be returned if the marriage ended through divorce or the death of the husband. Later, the spréid seems to have been converted into a dowry . Women could seek divorce/separation as easily as men could and, when obtained on her behalf, she kept all
11110-413: Was mainly pastoral and money was generally not used . A Gaelic Irish style of dress , music , dance , sport and art can be identified, with Irish art later merging with Anglo-Saxon styles to create Insular art . Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture maintained by traditional Gaelic storytellers/historians, the seanchaidhthe . Writing, in the form of inscription in
11220-460: Was often a thin and flexible band of burnished gold, silver or findruine. When the Anglo-Normans and the English colonized Ireland, hair length came to signify one's allegiance. Irishmen who cut their hair short were deemed to be forsaking their Irish heritage. Likewise, English colonists who grew their hair long at the back were deemed to be giving in to the Irish life. Gaelic men typically wore
11330-464: Was possible to rise or sink from one rank to another. Rising upward could be achieved a number of ways, such as by gaining wealth, by gaining skill in some department, by qualifying for a learned profession, by showing conspicuous valour, or by performing some service to the community. An example of the latter is a person choosing to become a briugu (hospitaller). A briugu had to have his house open to any guests, which included feeding no matter how big
11440-498: Was ruled by a rí cóicid or rí ruirech (provincial king). In the early Middle Ages the túatha was the main political unit, but over time they were subsumed into bigger conglomerate territories and became much less important politically. Gaelic society was structured hierarchically, with those further up the hierarchy generally having more privileges, wealth and power than those further down. Although distinct, these ranks were not utterly exclusive castes like those of India. It
11550-412: Was seen as a mark of beauty. Sometimes, wealthy men and women would braid their hair and fasten hollow golden balls to the braids. Another style that was popular among some medieval Gaelic men was the glib (short all over except for a long, thick lock of hair towards the front of the head). A band or ribbon around the forehead was the typical way of holding one's hair in place. For the wealthy, this band
11660-460: Was the crannóg , which were roundhouses built on artificial islands in lakes. There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century some monasteries became the heart of small "monastic towns". By the 10th century the Norse-Gaelic ports of Dublin , Wexford , Cork and Limerick had grown into substantial settlements, all ruled by Gaelic kings by 1052. In this era many of
11770-509: Was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the late prehistoric era until the 17th century. It comprised the whole island before Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland in the 1170s. Thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time (i.e. the part beyond The Pale ). For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland
11880-541: Was the hobelar . After the Norman invasion there emerged a kind of heavy infantry called gallóglaigh (anglicized 'gallo[w]glass'). They were originally Scottish mercenaries who appeared in the 13th century, but by the 15th century most large túatha had their own hereditary force of Irish gallóglaigh . Some Anglo-Norman lordships also began using gallóglaigh in imitation of the Irish. They usually wore mail and iron helmets and wielded sparth axes , claymores , and sometimes spears or lances. The gallóglaigh furnished
11990-436: Was to be paid to them if their honour was violated by certain offences. Those of higher rank had a higher honour-price. However, an offence against the property of a poor man (who could ill afford it), was punished more harshly than a similar offence upon a wealthy man. The clergy were more harshly punished than the laity . When a layman had paid his fine he would go through a probationary period and then regain his standing, but
12100-493: Was to promulgate and reaffirm the laws – they were read aloud in public that they might not be forgotten, and any changes in them carefully explained to those present. High King of Ireland High King of Ireland ( Irish : Ardrí na hÉireann [ˈaːɾˠd̪ˠˌɾˠiː n̪ˠə ˈheːɾʲən̪ˠ] ) was a royal title in Gaelic Ireland held by those who had, or who are claimed to have had, lordship over all of Ireland . The title
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