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125-585: The olive ridley sea turtle ( Lepidochelys olivacea ), also known commonly as the Pacific ridley sea turtle , is a species of turtle in the family Cheloniidae . The species is the second-smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world. L. olivacea is found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but also in the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean. This turtle and

250-769: A flora of his homeland Sweden, Flora Svecica (1745), and in this, he recorded the Swedish common names, region by region, as well as the scientific names. The Swedish common names were all binomials (e.g. plant no. 84 Råg-losta and plant no. 85 Ren-losta); the vernacular binomial system thus preceded his scientific binomial system. Linnaean authority William T. Stearn said: By the introduction of his binomial system of nomenclature, Linnaeus gave plants and animals an essentially Latin nomenclature like vernacular nomenclature in style but linked to published, and hence relatively stable and verifiable, scientific concepts and thus suitable for international use. The geographic range over which

375-443: A burst of speed, usually on a near vertical incline, releasing gametes at the apex, followed by a rapid return to the lake or sea floor or fish aggregation. Sneaking males do not take part in courtship. In salmon and trout, for example, jack males are common. These are small silvery males that migrate upstream along with the standard, large, hook-nosed males and that spawn by sneaking into redds to release sperm simultaneously with

500-511: A critical role in conserving olive ridleys. Lastly, enforcing the use of turtle excluder devices in the shrimp-trawling industry has also proved effective in some areas. Globally, the olive ridley continues to receive less conservation attention than its close relative, Kemp's ridley ( L. kempii ). Also, many schools arrange trips for students to carry out the conservation project, especially in India. Another major project in India involved in preserving

625-462: A female they bite into her skin, releasing an enzyme that digests the skin of their mouths and her body and fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male then slowly atrophies , losing first his digestive organs, then his brain, heart, and eyes, ending as nothing more than a pair of gonads , which release sperm in response to hormones in the female's bloodstream indicating egg release. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that, when

750-493: A female was reported as sex, while anal intercourse with orgasm between males was only [categorized as] 'revolving around' dominance , competition or greetings." In the 21st century, liberal social or sexual views are often projected upon animal subjects of research. Popular discussions of bonobos are a frequently cited example. Current research frequently expresses views such as that of the Natural History Museum at

875-409: A few days and replace the dominant male. This is found amongst coral reef fishes such as groupers , parrotfishes and wrasses . As an example, most wrasses are protogynous hermaphrodites within a haremic mating system. It is less common for a male to switch to a female ( protandry ). A common example of a protandrous species are clownfish —if the larger, dominant female dies, in many cases,

1000-469: A few rare species, the incidence of genetic monogamy is 100%, with all offspring genetically related to the socially monogamous pair. But genetic monogamy is strikingly low in other species. Barash and Lipton note: The highest known frequency of extra-pair copulations are found among the fairy-wrens , lovely tropical creatures technically known as Malurus splendens and Malurus cyaneus . More than 65% of all fairy-wren chicks are fathered by males outside

1125-403: A fight may also have the chance to mate with a larger number of females and will therefore pass on his genes to their offspring. Historically, it was believed that only humans and a small number of other species performed sexual acts other than for reproduction, and that animals' sexuality was instinctive and a simple " stimulus-response " behaviour. However, in addition to homosexual behaviours,

1250-410: A lifelong bond. In contrast, montane voles have a polygamous mating system. When montane voles mate, they form no strong attachments, and separate after copulation. Studies on the brains of these two species have found that it is two neurohormones and their respective receptors that are responsible for these differences in mating strategies. Male prairie voles release vasopressin after copulation with

1375-682: A lifetime, such as in pigeons , or it may occasionally change from one mating season to another, such as in emperor penguins . In contrast with tournament species , these pair-bonding species have lower levels of male aggression, competition and little sexual dimorphism . Zoologists and biologists now have evidence that monogamous pairs of animals are not always sexually exclusive. Many animals that form pairs to mate and raise offspring regularly engage in sexual activities with extra-pair partners . This includes previous examples, such as swans . Sometimes, these extra-pair sexual activities lead to offspring. Genetic tests frequently show that some of

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1500-407: A longer and thicker tail, which is used for copulation , and the presence of enlarged and hooked claws on the male's front flippers allows him to grasp the female's carapace during copulation. The male also has a longer, more tapered carapace than the female, which has a rounded, dome-like carapace. The male also has a more concave plastron, believed to be another adaptation for mating. The plastron of

1625-415: A major role in parent child relationships, it is also found to play a role in adult sexual relationships. Its secretion affects the nature of the relationship or if there will even be a relationship at all. Studies have shown that oxytocin is higher in monkeys in lifelong monogamous relationships compared to monkeys which are single. Furthermore, the oxytocin levels of the couples correlate positively; when

1750-785: A mate to prefer that mate not to have any unusual, peculiar or deviant features. Similarly, animals preferentially choose mates with low fluctuating asymmetry . However, animal sexual ornaments can evolve through runaway selection, which is driven by (usually female) selection for non-standard traits. The field of study of sexuality in non-human species was a long-standing taboo . In the past, researchers sometimes failed to observe, miscategorised or misdescribed sexual behaviour which did not meet their preconceptions —their bias tended to support what would now be described as conservative sexual mores. An example of overlooking behaviour relates to descriptions of giraffe mating: When nine out of ten pairings occur between males, "[e]very male that sniffed

1875-497: A mated pair. This behaviour is an evolutionarily stable strategy for reproduction, because it is favoured by natural selection just like the "standard" strategy of large males. Hermaphroditism occurs when a given individual in a species possesses both male and female reproductive organs, or can alternate between possessing first one, and then the other. Hermaphroditism is common in invertebrates but rare in vertebrates. It can be contrasted with gonochorism , where each individual in

2000-443: A mixed-sex clutch. Hatching success can vary by beach and year, due to changing environmental conditions and rates of nest predation. Most observations are typically within 15 km of mainland shores in protected, relatively shallow marine waters (22–55 m deep). Olive ridleys are occasionally found in open waters. The multiple habitats and geographical localities used by this species vary throughout its lifecycle. The olive ridley

2125-422: A notable exception being bonobos . Polygyny occurs when one male gets exclusive mating rights with multiple females. In some species, notably those with harem -like structures, only one of a few males in a group of females will mate. Technically, polygyny in sociobiology and zoology is defined as a system in which a male has a relationship with more than one female, but the females are predominantly bonded to

2250-644: A pair of animals socially monogamous does not necessarily make them sexually or genetically monogamous. Social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy can occur in different combinations. Social monogamy is relatively rare in the animal kingdom. The actual incidence of social monogamy varies greatly across different branches of the evolutionary tree. Over 90% of avian species are socially monogamous. This stands in contrast to mammals. Only 3% of mammalian species are socially monogamous, although up to 15% of primate species are. Social monogamy has also been observed in reptiles , fish, and insects . Sexual monogamy

2375-423: A pale yolk scar, but appear all black when wet. Carapace length of hatchlings ranges from 37 to 50 mm (1.5 to 2.0 in). A thin, white line borders the carapace, as well as the trailing edge of the fore and hind flippers. Both hatchlings and juveniles have serrated posterior marginal scutes, which become smooth with age. Juveniles also have three dorsal keels; the central longitudinal keel gives younger turtles

2500-485: A particularly common name is used varies; some common names have a very local application, while others are virtually universal within a particular language. Some such names even apply across ranges of languages; the word for cat , for instance, is easily recognizable in most Germanic and many Romance languages . Many vernacular names, however, are restricted to a single country and colloquial names to local districts. Some languages also have more than one common name for

2625-422: A partner, and an attachment to their partner then develops. Female prairie voles release oxytocin after copulation with a partner, and similarly develop an attachment to their partner. Neither male nor female montane voles release high quantities of oxytocin or vasopressin when they mate. Even when injected with these neurohormones, their mating system does not change. In contrast, if prairie voles are injected with

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2750-491: A period scientifically described as oestrus but commonly described as being "in season" or "in heat". Sexual behaviour may occur outside oestrus, and such acts as do occur are not necessarily harmful. Some mammals (e.g. domestic cats, rabbits and camelids) are termed "induced ovulators" . For these species, the female ovulates due to an external stimulus during, or just prior to, mating, rather than ovulating cyclically or spontaneously. Stimuli causing induced ovulation include

2875-500: A range of species masturbate and may use objects as tools to help them do so. Sexual behaviour may be tied more strongly to the establishment and maintenance of complex social bonds across a population which support its success in non-reproductive ways. Both reproductive and non-reproductive behaviours can be related to expressions of dominance over another animal or survival within a stressful situation (such as sex due to duress or coercion). In sociobiology and behavioural ecology ,

3000-428: A rank in the hierarchy. Various neurohormones stimulate sexual wanting in animals. In general, studies have suggested that dopamine is involved in sexual incentive motivation, oxytocin and melanocortins in sexual attraction, and noradrenaline in sexual arousal. Vasopressin is also involved in the sexual behaviour of some animals. The mating system of prairie voles is monogamous ; after mating, they form

3125-577: A serrated profile, which remains until sexual maturity is reached. The olive ridley sea turtle rarely weighs over 50 kg (110 lb). Adults studied in Oaxaca , Mexico , ranged from 25 to 46 kg (55 to 101 lb); adult females weighed an average of 35.45 kg (78.2 lb) (n=58), while adult males weighed significantly less, averaging 33.00 kg (72.75 lb) (n=17). Hatchlings usually weigh between 12.0 and 23.3 g (0.42 and 0.82 oz). Adults are sexually dimorphic. The mature male has

3250-463: A single male. Should the active male be driven out, killed, or otherwise removed from the group, in a number of species the new male will ensure that breeding resources are not wasted on another male's young. The new male may achieve this in many different ways, including: Von Haartman specifically described the mating behaviour of the European pied flycatcher as successive polygyny. Within this system,

3375-425: A species is either male or female, and remains that way throughout their lives. Most fish are gonochorists, but hermaphroditism is known to occur in 14 families of teleost fishes. Usually hermaphrodites are sequential , meaning they can switch sex , usually from female to male ( protogyny ). This can happen if a dominant male is removed from a group of females. The largest female in the harem can switch sex over

3500-678: A third arribada beach seems to be emerging at Corozalito. Two active arribada beaches are located in Nicaragua, Chacocente and La Flor, with a smaller arribada beach of unknown status on the Pacific coast of Panama. Historically, arribadas happened at several beaches in Mexico, but in the present arribadas are only observed at Playa Escobilla and Morro Ayuda in Oaxaca, and Ixtapilla in Michoacan. Although olive ridleys are famed for their arribadas , most of

3625-499: Is a signatory nation to all these conventions. The homing characteristics of the ridley sea turtles make them more prone to mass casualty. The voyage to the natal nesting beaches is the dooming factor for them. Since Gahirmatha coast serves as the natal nesting beach for millions of turtles, it has immense importance on turtle conservation. Olive ridleys generally begin to aggregate near nesting beaches about two months before nesting season, although this may vary throughout their range. In

3750-648: Is about one month. Mean clutch size varies throughout its range and decreases with each nesting attempt. A mean clutch size of 116 (30–168 eggs) was observed in Suriname , while nesting females from the eastern Pacific were found to have an average of 105 (74–126 eggs). The incubation period is usually between 45 and 51 days under natural conditions, but may extend to 70 days in poor weather conditions. Eggs incubated at temperatures of 31 to 32 °C produce only females; eggs incubated at 28 °C or less produce solely males; and incubation temperatures of 29 to 30 °C produce

3875-552: Is also rare among animals. Many socially monogamous species engage in extra-pair copulations , making them sexually non-monogamous. For example, while over 90% of birds are socially monogamous, "on average, 30% or more of the baby birds in any nest [are] sired by someone other than the resident male." Patricia Adair Gowaty has estimated that, out of 180 different species of socially monogamous songbirds, only 10% are sexually monogamous. The incidence of genetic monogamy, determined by DNA fingerprinting, varies widely across species. For

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4000-413: Is an umbrella term used to refer generally to non-monogamous matings. As such, polygamous relationships can be polygynous, polyandrous or polygynandrous. In a small number of species, individuals can display either polygamous or monogamous behaviour depending on environmental conditions. An example is the social wasp Apoica flavissima . In some species, polygyny and polyandry is displayed by both sexes in

4125-514: Is credited as the binomial authority or taxon author in the valid name Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829). The parentheses indicate that the species was originally described in a different genus. The generic name , Lepidochelys , is derived from the Greek words lepidos , meaning scale, and chelys , which translates to turtle. This could possibly be a reference to the supernumerary costal scutes characteristic of this genus. The etymology of

4250-409: Is found at the top. Only two clownfish, a male and a female, in a group reproduce through external fertilisation. Clownfish are sequential hermaphrodites, meaning that they develop into males first, and when they mature, they become females. If the female clownfish is removed from the group, such as by death, one of the largest and most dominant males will become a female. The remaining males will move up

4375-461: Is in these remarks from a book on marine fish: In scientific binomial nomenclature, names commonly are derived from classical or modern Latin or Greek or Latinised forms of vernacular words or coinages; such names generally are difficult for laymen to learn, remember, and pronounce and so, in such books as field guides, biologists commonly publish lists of coined common names. Many examples of such common names simply are attempts to translate

4500-579: Is listed as a major threat for this species. Coastal development, natural disasters, climate change , and other sources of beach erosion have also been cited as potential threats to nesting grounds. Additionally, coastal development also threatens newly hatched turtles through the effects of light pollution. Hatchlings which use light cues to orient themselves to the sea are now misled into moving towards land, and die from dehydration or exhaustion, or are killed on roads. The greatest single cause of olive ridley egg loss, though, results from arribadas , in which

4625-704: Is predominantly carnivorous. Common prey items include tunicates ( salps and sea squirts ), starfish , sea urchins , bryozoans , squid , bivalves , snails, barnacles, shrimp, crabs, rock lobsters, and sipunculid worms. Additionally, consumption of jellyfish and both adult fish (e.g. Sphoeroides ) and fish eggs may be indicative of pelagic (open ocean) feeding. The olive ridley is also known to feed on filamentous algae in areas devoid of other food sources. Captive studies have indicated some level of cannibalistic behavior in this species. Known predators of olive ridley eggs include raccoons, coyotes, feral dogs and pigs, opossums , coatimundi, caimans , ghost crabs , and

4750-458: Is proving to be false as, "most hormones don't influence behaviour directly. Rather, they affect thinking and emotions in variable ways (Azar, 40)." There is much more involved in sexual behaviour in the mammalian animal than oxytocin and vasopressin can explain. It is often assumed that animals do not have sex for pleasure, or alternatively that humans , pigs , bonobos (and perhaps dolphins and one or two more species of primates) are

4875-491: Is reproductively motivated, it is often termed mating or copulation ; for most non-human mammals , mating and copulation occur at oestrus (the most fertile period in the mammalian female's reproductive cycle), which increases the chances of successful impregnation . Some animal sexual behaviour involves competition , sometimes fighting, between multiple males. Females often select males for mating only if they appear strong and able to protect themselves. The male that wins

5000-650: Is the Cape dikkop (or "gewone dikkop", not to mention the presumably much older Zulu name "umBangaqhwa"); Burhinus vermiculatus is the "water dikkop". The thick joints in question are not even, in fact, the birds' knees, but the intertarsal joints —in lay terms the ankles. Furthermore, not all species in the genus have "thick knees", so the thickness of the "knees" of some species is not of clearly descriptive significance. The family Burhinidae has members that have various common names even in English, including " stone curlews ", so

5125-691: Is the largest breeding ground for these turtles. The Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, which bounds the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary to the east, was created in September 1997, and encompasses Gahirmatha Beach and an adjacent portion of the Bay of Bengal. Bhitarkanika mangroves were designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance in 2002. It is the world's largest known rookery of olive ridley sea turtles. Apart from Gahirmatha rookery, two other mass nesting beaches have been located, which are on

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5250-418: Is the most common form of polygamy among vertebrates (including humans), it has been studied far more extensively than polyandry or polygynandry. Polyandry occurs when one female gets exclusive mating rights with multiple males. In some species, such as redlip blennies , both polygyny and polyandry are observed. The males in some deep sea anglerfishes are much smaller than the females. When they find

5375-413: Is unique in that it can have variable and asymmetrical lateral scute counts, ranging from five to nine plates on each side, with six to eight being most commonly observed. Each side of the carapace has 12–14 marginal scutes. The carapace is flattened dorsally and highest anterior to the bridge. it has a medium-sized, broad head that appears triangular from above. The head's concave sides are most obvious on

5500-415: Is unknown, but this can be somewhat inferred from data on minimum breeding size. For example, the average carapace length of nesting females (n = 251) at Playa Nancite, Costa Rica, was determined to be 63.3 cm, with the smallest recorded at 54.0 cm. Females can lay up to three clutches per season, but most only lay one or two clutches. The female remains near shore for the internesting period, which

5625-624: The Coromandel Coast and Sri Lanka , but in scattered locations. However, olive ridleys are considered a rarity in most areas of the Indian Ocean. Some nesting populations exist in islands of Bangladesh near Cox's Bazar . They are also rare in the western and central Pacific, with known arribadas occurring only within the tropical eastern Pacific, in Central America and Mexico. In Costa Rica, they occur at Nancite and Ostional beach, and

5750-515: The ICZN has formal rules for biological nomenclature and convenes periodic international meetings to further that purpose. The form of scientific names for organisms, called binomial nomenclature , is superficially similar to the noun-adjective form of vernacular names or common names which were used by non-modern cultures. A collective name such as owl was made more precise by the addition of an adjective such as screech . Linnaeus himself published

5875-481: The sunbeam snake . Hatchlings are preyed upon as they travel across the beach to the water by vultures, frigate birds , crabs, raccoons , coyotes , iguanas , and snakes. In the water, hatchling predators most likely include oceanic fishes , sharks , and crocodiles. Adults have relatively few known predators, other than sharks and crocodiles , and killer whales are responsible for occasional attacks. On land, nesting females may be attacked by jaguars . Notably,

6000-419: The English vernacular name "olive" is somewhat easier to resolve, as its carapace is olive green in color. However, the origin of "ridley" is unknown, perhaps derived from "riddle". Lepidochelys is the only genus of sea turtles containing more than one extant species: L. olivacea and the closely related L. kempii (Kemp's ridley). Growing to about 61 cm (2 ft) in carapace length (measured along

6125-582: The Harvest , offers a glimpse into this world and the debate surrounding it. The olive ridley is classified as vulnerable according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources , and is listed in Appendix I of CITES . These listings were largely responsible for halting the large-scale commercial exploitation and trade of olive ridley skins. The Convention on Migratory Species and

6250-1002: The Hebrew Language publish from time to time short dictionaries of common name in Hebrew for species that occur in Israel or surrounding countries e.g. for Reptilia in 1938, Osteichthyes in 2012, and Odonata in 2015. Animal sexual behavior Animal sexual behaviour takes many different forms, including within the same species . Common mating or reproductively motivated systems include monogamy , polygyny , polyandry , polygamy and promiscuity . Other sexual behaviour may be reproductively motivated (e.g. sex apparently due to duress or coercion and situational sexual behaviour ) or non-reproductively motivated (e.g. homosexual sexual behaviour , bisexual sexual behaviour, cross-species sex , sexual arousal from objects or places , sex with dead animals , etc.). When animal sexual behaviour

6375-753: The Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea near Honavar in Karnataka , the majority of Olive Ridleys nest in two or three large assemblies near Gahirmatha in Odisha . The coast of Odisha in India is one of the largest mass nesting sites for the Olive Ridley, along with the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica. In 1991, over 600,000 turtles nested along the coast of Odisha in one week. Solitary nesting also occurs in Lothian Island Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal & along

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6500-750: The Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles have also provided olive ridleys with protection, leading to increased conservation and management for this marine turtle. National listings for this species range from endangered to threatened , yet enforcing these sanctions on a global scale has been unsuccessful for the most part. Conservation successes for the olive ridley have relied on well-coordinated national programs in combination with local communities and nongovernment organizations, which focused primarily on public outreach and education. Arribada management has also played

6625-683: The SSAR switched to an online version with a searchable database. Standardized names for the amphibians and reptiles of Mexico in Spanish and English were first published in 1994, with a revised and updated list published in 2008. A set of guidelines for the creation of English names for birds was published in The Auk in 1978. It gave rise to Birds of the World: Recommended English Names and its Spanish and French companions. The Academy of

6750-524: The Secretariat for the AFNC. SSA is an accredited Standards Australia (Australia's peak non-government standards development organisation) Standards Development The Entomological Society of America maintains a database of official common names of insects, and proposals for new entries must be submitted and reviewed by a formal committee before being added to the listing. Efforts to standardize English names for

6875-472: The University of Oslo , which in 2006 held an exhibition on animal sexuality: Many researchers have described homosexuality as something altogether different from sex. They must realise that animals can have sex with who they will, when they will and without consideration to a researcher's ethical principles. Other animal activities may be misinterpreted due to the frequency and context in which animals perform

7000-461: The act. This assumption is confirmed by the behaviour of males, who in the case of many species are prepared to work to get access to female animals, especially if the female animal is in oestrus, and males who for breeding purposes are used to having sperm collected become very eager, when the equipment they associate with the collection is taken out. . . . There is nothing in female mammals ' anatomy or physiology that contradicts that stimulation of

7125-405: The amount of promiscuity is particularly striking because bonobos use sex to alleviate social conflict as well as to reproduce. This mutual promiscuity is the approach most commonly used by spawning animals, and is perhaps the "original fish mating system." Common examples are forage fish , such as herrings , which form huge mating shoals in shallow water. The water becomes milky with sperm and

7250-501: The amphibians and reptiles of North America (north of Mexico) began in the mid-1950s. The dynamic nature of taxonomy necessitates periodical updates and changes in the nomenclature of both scientific and common names. The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles (SSAR) published an updated list in 1978, largely following the previous established examples, and subsequently published eight revised editions ending in 2017. More recently

7375-618: The area, 34, was in 2008. Common name In chemistry , IUPAC defines a common name as one that, although it unambiguously defines a chemical, does not follow the current systematic naming convention, such as acetone , systematically 2-propanone , while a vernacular name describes one used in a lab, trade or industry that does not unambiguously describe a single chemical, such as copper sulfate , which may refer to either copper(I) sulfate or copper(II) sulfate. Sometimes common names are created by authorities on one particular subject, in an attempt to make it possible for members of

7500-509: The author introduced into it so many new English names, that are to be found in no dictionary, and that do not preclude the necessity of learning with what Latin names they are synonymous. A tolerable idea may be given of the danger of too great a multiplicity of vulgar names, by imagining what geography would be, or, for instance, the Post-office administration, supposing every town had a totally different name in every language. Various bodies and

7625-493: The authors of many technical and semi-technical books do not simply adapt existing common names for various organisms; they try to coin (and put into common use) comprehensive, useful, authoritative, and standardised lists of new names. The purpose typically is: Other attempts to reconcile differences between widely separated regions, traditions, and languages, by arbitrarily imposing nomenclature, often reflect narrow perspectives and have unfortunate outcomes. For example, members of

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7750-463: The behaviour. For example, domestic ruminants display behaviours such as mounting and head-butting. This often occurs when the animals are establishing dominance relationships and are not necessarily sexually motivated. Careful analysis must be made to interpret what animal motivations are being expressed by those behaviours. Copulation is the union of the male and female sex organs , the sexual activity specifically organized to transmit male sperm into

7875-407: The body of the female. Alternative male strategies which allow small males to engage in cuckoldry can develop in species such as fish where spawning is dominated by large and aggressive males. Cuckoldry is a variant of polyandry , and can occur with sneak spawners . A sneak spawner is a male that rushes in to join the spawning rush of a spawning pair. A spawning rush occurs when a fish makes

8000-448: The bottom is draped with millions of fertilised eggs. Female and male sexual behaviour differ in many species. Often, males are more active in initiating mating, and bear the more conspicuous sexual ornamentation like antlers and colourful plumage. This is a result of anisogamy , where sperm are smaller and much less costly (energetically) to produce than eggs . This difference in physiological cost means that males are more limited by

8125-511: The breeding season is typically concentrated to a few short days in the spring. Some species, such as the Rana clamitans (green frog), spend from June to August defending their territory. In order to protect these territories, they use five vocalizations. Like many coral reef dwellers, the clownfish spawn around the time of the full moon in the wild. In a group of clownfish, there is a strict dominance hierarchy. The largest and most aggressive female

8250-408: The choice of the name "thick-knees" is not easy to defend but is a clear illustration of the hazards of the facile coinage of terminology. For collective nouns for various subjects, see a list of collective nouns (e.g. a flock of sheep, pack of wolves). Some organizations have created official lists of common names, or guidelines for creating common names, hoping to standardize

8375-431: The curve), the olive ridley sea turtle gets its common name from its olive-colored carapace, which is heart-shaped and rounded. Males and females grow to the same size, but females have a slightly more rounded carapace as compared to males. The heart-shaped carapace is characterized by four pairs of pore-bearing inframarginal scutes on the bridge, two pairs of prefrontals, and up to nine lateral scutes per side. L. olivacea

8500-478: The density of nesting females is so high, previously laid nests are inadvertently dug up and destroyed by other nesting females. In some cases, nests become cross-contaminated by bacteria or pathogens of rotting nests. For example, in Playa Nancite, Costa Rica, only 0.2% of the 11.5 million eggs produced in a single arribada successfully hatched. Although some of this loss resulted from predation and high tides,

8625-517: The eastern Pacific Ocean from the Galápagos Islands and Chile north to the Gulf of California , and along the Pacific coast to at least Oregon. Migratory movements have been studied less intensely in olive ridleys than other species of marine turtles, but they are believed to use the coastal waters of over 80 countries. Historically, this species has been widely regarded as the most abundant sea turtle in

8750-418: The eastern Pacific, nesting occurs throughout the year, with peak nesting events ( arribadas ) occurring between September and December. Nesting beaches can be characterized as relatively flat, midbeach zone, and free of debris. Beach fidelity is common, but not absolute. Nesting events are usually nocturnal, but diurnal nesting has been reported, especially during large arribadas . Exact age of sexual maturity

8875-400: The evolution-related purpose of mating can be said to be reproduction, it is not actually the creating of offspring which originally causes them to mate. It is probable that they mate because they are motivated for the actual copulation, and because this is connected with a positive experience. It is therefore reasonable to assume that there is some form of pleasure or satisfaction connected with

9000-504: The female function. In the grey slug , the sharing of cost leads to a spectacular display, where the mates suspend themselves high above the ground from a slime thread, ensuring none of them can refrain from taking on the cost of egg-bearer. Many animal species have specific mating (or breeding) periods e.g. ( seasonal breeding ) so that offspring are born or hatch at an optimal time. In marine species with limited mobility and external fertilisation like corals , sea urchins and clams ,

9125-592: The female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. A single anglerfish female can "mate" with many males in this manner. Polygynandry occurs when multiple males mate indiscriminately with multiple females. The numbers of males and females need not be equal, and in vertebrate species studied so far, there are usually fewer males. Two examples of systems in primates are promiscuous mating chimpanzees and bonobos . These species live in social groups consisting of several males and several females. Each female copulates with many males, and vice versa. In bonobos,

9250-553: The form of monogamous marriage. Sexual monogamy is defined as an exclusive sexual relationship between a female and a male based on observations of sexual interactions. Finally, the term genetic monogamy is used when DNA analyses can confirm that a female-male pair reproduce exclusively with each other. A combination of terms indicates examples where levels of relationships coincide, e.g., sociosexual and sociogenetic monogamy describe corresponding social and sexual, and social and genetic monogamous relationships, respectively. Whatever makes

9375-464: The general public (including such interested parties as fishermen, farmers, etc.) to be able to refer to one particular species of organism without needing to be able to memorise or pronounce the scientific name. Creating an "official" list of common names can also be an attempt to standardize the use of common names, which can sometimes vary a great deal between one part of a country and another, as well as between one country and another country, even where

9500-517: The genus Burhinus occur in Australia, Southern Africa, Eurasia, and South America. A recent trend in field manuals and bird lists is to use the name " thick-knee " for members of the genus. This, in spite of the fact that the majority of the species occur in non-English-speaking regions and have various common names, not always English. For example, "Dikkop" is the centuries-old South African vernacular name for their two local species: Burhinus capensis

9625-461: The global population within only one generation (i.e., 20 years). Olive ridley sea turtles are considered the most abundant, yet globally they have declined by more than 30% from historic levels. These turtles are considered endangered because of their few remaining nesting sites in the world. The eastern Pacific turtles have been found to range from Baja California , Mexico, to Chile. Pacific olive ridleys nest around Costa Rica, Mexico, Nicaragua, and

9750-425: The inner genitals are seen e.g. also during orgasm for women. It is therefore reasonable to assume that sexual intercourse may be linked with a positive experience for female animals. Koinophilia is the love of the "normal" or phenotypically common (from the Greek κοινός , koinós , meaning "usual" or "common"). The term was introduced to scientific literature in 1990, and refers to the tendency of animals seeking

9875-412: The internal organs or other muscles. In recent years, increased predation on turtles by jaguars has been noted, perhaps due to habitat loss and fewer alternative food sources. Sea turtles are comparatively defenseless in this situation, as they cannot pull their heads into their shells like freshwater and terrestrial turtles. Females are often plagued by mosquitos during nesting. Humans are still listed as

10000-511: The jaguar is the only cat with a strong enough bite to penetrate a sea turtle's shell, thought to be an evolutionary adaption from the Holocene extinction event. In observations of jaguar attacks, the cats consumed the neck muscles of the turtle and occasionally the flippers, but left the remainder of the turtle carcass for scavengers as most likely, despite the strength of its jaws, a jaguar still cannot easily penetrate an adult turtle's shell to reach

10125-464: The known nesting beaches are only frequented by solitarily nesting females and support a relatively small quantity of nests (100 to 3,000 nests). The overall contribution and importance of solitary nesting females to the population may be underestimated by the scientific community as the hatching success rate of nests at arribada beaches is generally low, but high at solitary nesting beaches. Isolated, irregular nesting events also sporadically occur within

10250-726: The leading threat to L. olivacea , responsible for unsustainable egg collection, slaughtering nesting females on the beach, and direct harvesting adults at sea for commercial sale of both the meat and hides. Other major threats include mortality associated with boat collisions, and incidental takes in fisheries. Trawling , gill nets , ghost nests, longline fishing , and pot fishing have significantly affected olive ridley populations, as well as other species of marine turtles. Between 1993 and 2003, more than 100,000 olive ridley turtles were reported dead in Odisha, India from fishery-related practices. In addition, entanglement and ingestion of marine debris

10375-565: The majority was attributed to conspecifics unintentionally destroying existing nests. The extent to which arribadas contribute to the population status of olive ridleys has created debate among scientists. Many believe the massive reproductive output of these nesting events is critical to maintaining populations, while others maintain the traditional arribada beaches fall far short of their reproductive potential and are most likely not sustaining population levels. In some areas, this debate eventually led to legalizing egg collection. Historically,

10500-456: The male may also be softer than that of the female. The olive ridley turtle has a circumtropical distribution, living in tropical and warm waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans from India, Arabia, Japan, and Micronesia south to southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. In the Atlantic Ocean, it has been observed off the western coast of Africa and the coasts of northern Brazil, Suriname , Guyana , French Guiana , and Venezuela. Additionally,

10625-428: The males leave their home territory once their primary female lays her first egg. Males then create a second territory, presumably in order to attract a secondary female to breed. Even when they succeed at acquiring a second mate, the males typically return to the first female to exclusively provide for her and her offspring. Polygynous mating structures are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammal species. As polygyny

10750-706: The modern (now binding) International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants contains the following: Art. 68. Every friend of science ought to be opposed to the introduction into a modern language of names of plants that are not already there unless they are derived from a Latin botanical name that has undergone but a slight alteration. ... ought the fabrication of names termed vulgar names, totally different from Latin ones, to be proscribed. The public to whom they are addressed derives no advantage from them because they are novelties. Lindley's work, The Vegetable Kingdom, would have been better relished in England had not

10875-422: The mother rat is given injections of an oxytocin receptor antagonist , they no longer experience these maternal motivations. Prolactin influences social bonding in rats. Oxytocin plays a similar role in non-human primates as it does in humans. Grooming, sex, and cuddling frequencies correlate positively with levels of oxytocin. As the level of oxytocin increases so does sexual motivation. While oxytocin plays

11000-451: The mouth of rivers Rushikulya and Devi. The spectacular site of mass congregation of olive ridley sea turtles for mating and nesting enthralls both the scientists and the nature lovers throughout the world. Olive ridley sea turtles migrate in huge numbers from the beginning of November, every year, for mating and nesting along the coast of Orissa. Gahirmatha coast has the annual nesting figure between 100,000 and 500,000 each year. A decline in

11125-479: The nearest beach. Research from Costa Rica revealed the number of copulating pairs observed near the beach could not be responsible for the fertilization of the tens of thousands of gravid females, so a significant amount of mating is believed to have occurred elsewhere at other times of the year. The Gahirmatha Beach in Kendrapara district of Odisha (India), which is now a part of the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary,

11250-457: The nesting period, as many of these eggs would be destroyed by later nesting females. Over 27 million eggs are left unharvested, and villagers have played a large role in protecting these nests from predators, thereby increasing hatching success. Most participating households reported egg harvesting as their most important activity, and profits earned were superior to other forms of available employment, other than tourism. The price of Ostional eggs

11375-414: The neurohormones, they may form a lifelong attachment, even if they have not mated. The differing response to the neurohormones between the two species is due to a difference in the number of oxytocin and vasopressin receptors. Prairie voles have a greater number of oxytocin and vasopressin receptors compared to montane voles, and are therefore more sensitive to those two neurohormones. It's believed that it's

11500-599: The northern Indian Ocean; the breeding colony in Mexico was listed as endangered in the US on July 28, 1978. Olive ridley turtles exhibit two different nesting behaviours: solitary nesting (the most prevalent) and synchronized mass nesting, termed arribadas . They are unique among sea turtle species in the latter behaviour, for which they are best known. Females return to the same beach from where they hatched, to lay their eggs. They lay their eggs in conical nests about 1.5 ft deep, which they laboriously dig with their hind flippers. In

11625-439: The number of mates they can secure, while females are limited by the quality of genes of her mates, a phenomenon known as Bateman's principle . Many females also have extra reproductive burdens in that parental care often falls mainly, or exclusively, on them. Thus, females are more limited in their potential reproductive success . In species where males take on more of the reproductive costs, such as sea horses and jacanas ,

11750-518: The offspring raised by a monogamous pair come from the female mating with an extra-pair male partner. These discoveries have led biologists to adopt new ways of talking about monogamy. According to Ulrich Reichard (2003): Social monogamy refers to a male and female's social living arrangement (e.g., shared use of a territory, behaviour indicative of a social pair, and/or proximity between a male and female) without inferring any sexual interactions or reproductive patterns. In humans, social monogamy takes

11875-564: The olive ridley has been exploited for food, bait, oil, leather, and fertilizer . The meat is not considered a delicacy; the egg, however, is esteemed everywhere. Egg collection is illegal in most of the countries where olive ridleys nest, but these laws are rarely enforced. Harvesting eggs has the potential to contribute to local economies, so the unique practice of allowing a sustainable (legal) egg harvest has been attempted in several localities. Numerous case studies have been conducted in regions of arribadas beaches to investigate and understand

12000-565: The olive ridley has been recorded in the Caribbean Sea as far north as Puerto Rico. A female was found alive on an Irish Sea beach on the Isle of Anglesey , Wales, in November 2016, giving this species its northernmost appearance. It was taken in by the nearby Anglesey Sea Zoo , while its health was assessed. A juvenile female was found off the coast of Sussex in 2020. The olive ridley is also found in

12125-618: The olive ridley sea turtle population was carried out in Chennai, where the Chennai wildlife team collected close to 10,000 eggs along the Marina coast, of which 8,834 hatchlings were successfully released into the sea in a phased manner. In March 2023, in Honnavar , India, local fishers sighted 86 sea turtle nests, with over 5,000 eggs in them, along a 3-km stretch of beach between Apsarakonda and Pavinkorava. The highest number of nests previously recorded in

12250-425: The olive ridleys in these areas, where more oil and gasoline will be released into these sensitive habitats. Another threat to these turtles is power plants, which have documented juvenile and subadult turtles becoming entrained and entrapped within the saltwater cooling intake systems. Mating is often assumed to occur in the vicinity of nesting beaches, but copulating pairs have been reported over 1,000 km from

12375-424: The only species that do. This is sometimes stated as "animals mate only for reproduction". This view is considered a misconception by some scholars. Jonathan Balcombe argues that the prevalence of non-reproductive sexual behaviour in certain species suggests that sexual stimulation is pleasurable. He also points to the presence of the clitoris in some female mammals, and evidence for female orgasm in primates. On

12500-445: The other hand, it is impossible to know the subjective feelings of animals, and the notion that non-human animals experience emotions similar to humans is a contentious subject. A 2006 Danish Animal Ethics Council report, which examined current knowledge of animal sexuality in the context of legal queries concerning sexual acts by humans, has the following comments, primarily related to domestically common animals: Even though

12625-470: The other to be female, thus carrying the majority of the cost of reproduction. Post mating, banana slugs will some times gnaw off their partners penis as an act of sperm competition called apophallation. This is costly as they must heal, and spend more energy courting conspecifics that can act as male and female. A hypothesis suggests these slugs may be able to compensate the loss of the male function by directing energy that would have been put towards it to

12750-419: The oxytocin secretion of one increases, the other one also increases. Higher levels of oxytocin are related to monkeys expressing more behaviours such as cuddling, grooming and sex, while lower levels of oxytocin reduce motivation for these activities. Research on oxytocin's role in the animal brain suggests that it plays less of a role in behaviours of love and affection than previously believed. "When oxytocin

12875-466: The population of these turtles has occurred in the recent past due to mass mortality. The olive ridley sea turtle has been listed on Schedule – I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (amended 1991). The species is listed as vulnerable under IUCN. The sea turtles are protected under the 'Migratory Species Convention' and Convention of International Trade on Wildlife Flora and Fauna (CITES). India

13000-570: The population. Polygamy in both sexes has been observed in red flour beetle ( Tribolium castaneum ). Polygamy is also seen in many Lepidoptera species including Mythimna unipuncta (true armyworm moth). A tournament species is one in which "mating tends to be highly polygamous and involves high levels of male-male aggression and competition." Tournament behaviour often correlates with high levels of sexual dimorphism , examples of species including chimpanzees and baboons . Most polygamous species present high levels of tournament behaviour, with

13125-455: The practice of allowing legal egg harvests continues to attract criticism from conservationists and sea turtle biologists. Plotkin's Biology and Conservation of Ridley Sea Turtles , particularly the chapter by Lisa Campbell titled "Understanding Human Use of Olive Ridleys", provides further research on the Ostional harvest (as well as other harvesting projects). Scott Drucker's documentary, Between

13250-445: The quantity of receptors, rather than the quantity of the hormones, that determines the mating system and bond-formation of either species. Mother rats experience a postpartum estrus which makes them highly motivated to mate. However, they also have a strong motivation to protect their newly born pups. As a consequence, the mother rat solicits males to the nest but simultaneously becomes aggressive towards them to protect her young. If

13375-408: The related Kemp's ridley sea turtle are best known for their unique synchronised mass nestings called arribadas , where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs. The olive ridley sea turtle may have been first described as Testudo mydas minor by Georg Adolf Suckow in 1798. It was later described and named Chelonia multiscutata by Heinrich Kuhl in 1820. Still later, it

13500-411: The role is reversed, and the females are larger, more aggressive and more brightly coloured than the males. In hermaphroditic animals, the costs of parental care can be evenly distributed between the sexes, e.g. earthworms . In some species of planarians , sexual behaviour takes the form of penis fencing . In this form of copulation, the individual that first penetrates the other with the penis, forces

13625-484: The same animal. For example, in Irish, there are many terms that are considered outdated but still well-known for their somewhat humorous and poetic descriptions of animals. w/ literal translations of the poetic terms Common names are used in the writings of both professionals and laymen . Lay people sometimes object to the use of scientific names over common names, but the use of scientific names can be defended, as it

13750-576: The same language is spoken in both places. A common name intrinsically plays a part in a classification of objects, typically an incomplete and informal classification, in which some names are degenerate examples in that they are unique and lack reference to any other name, as is the case with say, ginkgo , okapi , and ratel . Folk taxonomy , which is a classification of objects using common names, has no formal rules and need not be consistent or logical in its assignment of names, so that say, not all flies are called flies (for example Braulidae ,

13875-402: The scientific name into English or some other vernacular. Such translation may be confusing in itself, or confusingly inaccurate, for example, gratiosus does not mean "gracile" and gracilis does not mean "graceful". The practice of coining common names has long been discouraged; de Candolle's Laws of Botanical Nomenclature , 1868, the non-binding recommendations that form the basis of

14000-445: The sexual behaviour of coitus, sperm and pheromones. Domestic cats have penile spines . Upon withdrawal of a cat's penis , the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina , which may cause ovulation. For many amphibians, an annual breeding cycle applies, typically regulated by ambient temperature, precipitation, availability of surface water and food supply. This breeding season is accentuated in temperate regions, in boreal climate

14125-494: The sexual organs and mating is able to be a positive experience. For instance, the clitoris acts in the same way as with women, and scientific studies have shown that the success of reproduction is improved by stimulation of clitoris on (among other species) cows and mares in connection with insemination, because it improves the transportation of the sperm due to contractions of the inner genitalia. This probably also applies to female animals of other animal species, and contractions in

14250-407: The so-called "bee lice") and not every animal called a fly is indeed a fly (such as dragonflies and mayflies ). In contrast, scientific or biological nomenclature is a global system that attempts to denote particular organisms or taxa uniquely and definitively , on the assumption that such organisms or taxa are well-defined and generally also have well-defined interrelationships; accordingly

14375-401: The socioeconomic, cultural, and political issues of egg collection. Of these, the legal egg harvest at Ostional, Costa Rica, has been viewed by many as both biologically sustainable and economically viable. Since egg collection became legal in 1987, local villagers have been able to harvest and sell around three million eggs annually. They are permitted to collect eggs during the first 36 hours of

14500-481: The species' range. Some of the olive ridley's foraging grounds near Southern California are contaminated due to sewage, agricultural runoff, pesticides, solvents, and industrial discharges. These contaminants have been shown to decrease the productivity of the benthic community, which negatively affects these turtles, which feed from these communities. The increasing demand to build marinas and docks near Baja California and Southern California are also negatively affecting

14625-461: The supposed breeding group. Such low levels of genetic monogamy have surprised biologists and zoologists, forcing them to rethink the role of social monogamy in evolution. They can no longer assume social monogamy determines how genes are distributed in a species. The lower the rates of genetic monogamy among socially monogamous pairs, the less of a role social monogamy plays in determining how genes are distributed among offspring. The term polygamy

14750-479: The term "mating system" is used to describe the ways in which animal societies are structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The mating system specifies which males mate with which females, and under what circumstances. There are four basic systems: Monogamy occurs when one male and one female mate exclusively with each other. A monogamous mating system is one in which individuals form long-lasting pairs and cooperate in raising offspring. These pairs may last for

14875-789: The timing of the common spawning is the only externally visible form of sexual behaviour. In areas with continuously high primary production , some species have a series of breeding seasons throughout the year. This is the case with most primates (who are primarily tropical and subtropical animals). Some animals ( opportunistic breeders ) breed dependent upon other conditions in their environment aside from time of year. Mating seasons are often associated with changes to herd or group structure, and behavioural changes, including territorialism amongst individuals. These may be annual (e.g. wolves ), biannual (e.g. dogs ) or more frequently (e.g. horses). During these periods, females of most mammalian species are more mentally and physically receptive to sexual advances,

15000-418: The upper part of the short snout. It has paddle-like fore limbs, each having two anterior claws. The upper parts are grayish-green to olive in color, but sometimes appear reddish due to algae growing on the carapace. The bridge and hingeless plastron of an adult vary from greenish white in younger individuals to a creamy yellow in older specimens (maximum age is up to 50 years). Hatchlings are dark gray with

15125-800: The use of common names. For example, the Australian Fish Names List or AFNS was compiled through a process involving work by taxonomic and seafood industry experts, drafted using the CAAB (Codes for Australian Aquatic Biota) taxon management system of the CSIRO , and including input through public and industry consultations by the Australian Fish Names Committee (AFNC). The AFNS has been an official Australian Standard since July 2007 and has existed in draft form (The Australian Fish Names List) since 2001. Seafood Services Australia (SSA) serve as

15250-433: The world. More than one million olive ridleys were commercially harvested off the coasts of Mexico in 1968 alone. The population of Pacific Mexico was estimated to be at least 10 million prior to the era of mass exploitation. More recently, the global population of annual nesting females has been reduced to about two million by 2004, and was further reduced to 852,550 by 2008. This indicated a dramatic decrease of 28 to 32% in

15375-404: Was described and named Chelonia olivacea by Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz in 1829. The species was placed in the subgenus Lepidochelys by Leopold Fitzinger in 1843. After Lepidochelys was elevated to full genus status, the species was called Lepidochelys olivacea by Charles Frédéric Girard in 1858. Because Eschscholtz was the first to propose the specific epithet olivacea , he

15500-402: Was first discovered in 1909, it was thought mostly to influence a mother's labour contractions and milk let-down. Then, in the 1990s, research with prairie voles found that giving them a dose of oxytocin resulted in the formation of a bond with their future mate (Azar, 40)." Oxytocin has since been treated by the media as the sole player in the "love and mating game" in mammals. This view, however,

15625-410: Was intentionally kept low to discourage illegal collection of eggs from other beaches. The Ostional project retained more local profits than similar egg-collection projects in Nicaragua, but evaluating egg-harvesting projects such as this suffers from the short timeline and site specificity of findings. In most regions, illegal poaching of eggs is considered a major threat to olive ridley populations, thus

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