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60-486: Offering may refer to: General article: Korban Korban In Judaism , the korban ( קָרְבָּן ‎ , qorbān ), also spelled qorban or corban , is any of a variety of sacrificial offerings described and commanded in the Torah . The plural form is korbanot , korbanoth , or korbanos . The term korban primarily refers to sacrificial offerings given from humans to God for

120-464: A Temple, the only place allowed by halakha for sacrifices. Offering of sacrifices was briefly reinstated during the Jewish–Roman wars of the second century CE. When sacrifices were offered in ancient times, they were offered as a fulfillment of Biblical commandments . According to Orthodox Judaism, the coming of the messiah will not remove the requirement to keep the 613 commandments, and when

180-467: A covenant translates literally as "to cut." Furthermore, to measure the general importance given to animal sacrifice preceding Abram in Genesis, in the story of Cain and Abel the only differentiator mentioned leading God to "[have] not respect [...] unto Cain and to his offering" was Abel's "firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof" as opposed to Cain's "fruit of the ground[.]" Then, starkly contrasting

240-510: A diminutive effect resulting from Abram's altar building and call-outs, animal sacrifice was institutionalized in the era of Moses in the Book of Numbers 28:1-30:1. The schedule of obligatory sacrifices included two daily lamb burnt-offerings. However, the physical participation of God in the consumption of sacrificial offerings is debatable. The seeming all-time peak occurred with his conclusive victory as Yahweh when Elijah challenged worshippers of

300-462: A divorced woman or a convert. Conservative Judaism does, however, believe in the restoration of a Temple in some form, and in the continuation of kohanim and Levites under relaxed requirements, and has retained references to both in its prayer books. Consistent with its stress on the continuity of tradition, many Conservative synagogues have also retained references to Shabbat and Festival korbanot , changing all references to sacrifices into

360-534: A multipurpose nature to the altars, in which Abram was participating in only one: Later, Abram, having entered Canaan, "built" an altar to the Lord at Shechem (Gen. 12:7). The narrative fails to speak of his making a sacrifice there; in fact, the inspiration for building the altar is that the Lord "appeared to [him]." This may suggest that mīzbēaḥ refers not so much to an altar of sacrifice as to some kind of stele or monument marking God's presence there. As we shall see, this

420-675: A new sacrificial center in Jerusalem at the threshing floor of Araunaḥ , adjacent to Jerusalem , to which he moved the Ark. According to the Hebrew Bible, after the building of Solomon's Temple , sacrifices were only to be carried out there. After Solomon's Temple was destroyed, sacrifices were resumed when the Second Temple was built, until the Second Temple was also destroyed in 70 CE. Many of

480-451: A senatorial priestly aristocracy, which like Rome resisted monarchy. Thus, in an attempt to make the Jewish history more palatable to his Greco-Roman audience, the great figures of the biblical stories are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders . In another example, apparently due to his concern with pagan antisemitism, Josephus omitted the entire episode of the golden calf from his account of

540-721: A short account of his personal life, Vita , as an appendix to the Judean Antiquities . Antiquities of the Jews contains a good deal of valuable, sometimes unique, historical material. This applies, for example, to the history of the Hellenistic states, Parthia , Armenia , the Nabatean kingdom , and the Roman Empire . In the Middle Ages and up to modern times the book was considered one of

600-487: A significant development in response to this change; no longer could Judaism revolve around the Temple services. The destruction of the Temple led to a development of Jewish observance in the direction of text study, prayer, and other practices, which were seen to varying extents as substitutes for the Temple service. A range of responses is recorded in classical rabbinic literature on this subject: Once, Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai

660-583: A tyrant. The extant copies of this work contain two passages about Jesus and James the Just . The long one has come to be known as the Testimonium Flavianum . Scholars usually agree on the authenticity of the second passage, while the first one is considered to be authentic, but to have been subjected to Christian interpolation . The earliest Greek manuscript of Books 11–20 of the Antiquities dates from

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720-522: Is an unavoidable preparatory step to the offering of its meat to God; thus, the slaughter may be performed by any Jew, while the other stages of the sacrifice could only be performed by priests. Offerings are mentioned in the Book of Genesis , but further outlined in the later four books of the Torah, including aspects of their origins and history. Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Jacob offered sacrifices, as did

780-632: Is in Berachot : ...at the time that the people of Israel enter the synagogues and houses of study, and respond (in the Kaddish ) "May His great name be blessed", the Holy One, Blessed is He, shakes His head and says: "Fortunate for the king who is praised this way in his house. What is there for the Father who has exiled His children. And woe to the children who have been exiled from their Father's table." Another example

840-504: Is in Sheqalim : Rabbi Akiva said: Shimon Ben Loga related the following to me: I was once collecting grasses, and I saw a child from the House of Avitnas (the incense-makers). And I saw that he cried, and I saw that he laughed. I said to him, "My son, why did you cry?" He said, Because of the glory of my Father's house that has decreased." I asked "And why did you laugh?" He said to me "Because of

900-728: Is presented in the book of Genesis, the evolving philosophical theology that seems to underlie the modes of worship that [he] develops over time [...] is reconstruct[ed.]" Abram's building of a number of altars without mentioning that he sacrificed animals on them, and that for most of these occasions, he "called out in the name of God" is interpreted by Lebens as theologically stating that God's desires are sated without animal sacrifices. Noting that not all these altar building occasions were accompanied by call-outs, and that call-outs also took place on returns, in Everlasting Dominion , American Old Testament scholar Eugene H. Merrill attributes

960-566: The Akkadian language noun aqribtu , meaning ' act of offering ' . In Hebrew it is found in a number of words, such as qarov , ' close ' , qerovim , ' relatives ' , and the hifʕil verb form hiqriv , ' he brought near; offered a sacrifice ' . The noun korban (plural korbanot , קָרְבֳּנוֹת ‎ ) first occurs in the Bible in Leviticus 1:2 and occurs 80 times in

1020-533: The Antiquities and the Wars . This volume amounted to over 800 pages. The first printed edition of Antiquities of the Jews in Greek appeared in 1544. Other publications followed—1553 ( Antwerp ), 1611 and 1634 ( Cologne ), 1687 ( Oxford ), 1691 ( Leipzig ), 1700 (Oxford), 1726 ( Leiden ), and so on. Already in the 15th–16th centuries, Jewish Antiquities was translated into Dutch, French, Italian, German and Spanish. The book

1080-533: The Biblical prophets criticized those Israelites who brought sacrifices while continuing to violate God's will with immoral behavior. This criticism often took the form of scathing denunciations: What need have I for all your sacrifices? says the Lord. Your burnt-offerings are not desirable to Me, nor are your sacrifices pleasing to Me. How shall I come before the Lord, and bow before the exalted God? Shall I approach him with burnt-offerings, with yearling calves? Will

1140-736: The Masoretic Text ; 40 times in Leviticus, 38 in Numbers and twice in Ezekiel . The related form qurban appears only in Nehemiah 10:35 and 13:31 referring to the ' wood offering '. The etymology of the 'offer' sense is traditionally understood as deriving from the verbal sense of 'bringing near', viz. bringing the offering near to the deity, but some theological explanations see it rather as bringing "man back to God". The Septuagint generally translates

1200-578: The Septuagint . Josephus also generally uses other words for 'offering' but uses korban for the vow of the Nazirites ( Antiquities of the Jews 4:73 / 4,4,4) and cites Theophrastus as having cited a korban vow among the Tyrians ( Against Apion 1.167 / 1,22,4). The idea conveyed in most korbanot was that of a "gift" to God. Korbanot served a variety of purposes. Many were brought purely for

1260-564: The Temple in Jerusalem , when the Israelites were in the desert , sacrifices were only to be offered in the Tabernacle . After the invasion of Canaan , sacrifices were also permitted at bamot in any location until the nation's enemies had been defeated and the people lived securely, after which sacrifices were supposed to be centralized again. However, in practice the bamot were still used even in

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1320-451: The intertestamental period and the Jewish war against Rome. Antiquities of the Jews is separated into twenty volumes: In the preface of Antiquities of the Jews , Josephus provides his motivation for composing such a large work. He writes: Now I have undertaken the present work, as thinking it will appear to all the Greeks worthy of their study; for it will contain all our antiquities, and

1380-667: The " Song of the Sea " sung by Moses and the people of Israel after their deliverance at the Red Sea is completely omitted in Josephus's text. He does mention, however, that Moses composed a song to God in hexameter —a rather unusual (and Greek) metrical scheme for an ancient Hebrew. Josephus also writes that Abraham taught science to the Egyptians , who in turn taught the Greeks , and that Moses set up

1440-460: The Canaanite deity Baal to pray for fire to light their respective bull animal sacrifices. Metaphorically, a person's efforts to purify their soul are described as "sacrific[ing one's] animalistic nature", in order to allow them to become close to God (in keeping with the root of the word korban , meaning to draw close). Devotion to God can be described as "sacrificing one's soul to God", as in

1500-537: The Israelites at Mount Sinai. The Torah contains many laws regarding sacrifices. Every regular weekday, Sabbath , and many Jewish holidays had their own unique offerings. Sacrificial procedures were described in detail. Sacrifices were only to be offered by the Kohanim (hereditary priesthood), whom the Hebrew Bible describes as descendants of Aaron who meet certain marital and ritual purity requirements. Sacrifices were offered in varying locations. Before building

1560-582: The Israelites at Mount Sinai. It has been suggested that he was afraid that the biblical account might be employed by Alexandrian antisemites to lend credence to their allegation that the Jews worshiped an ass's head in the Temple (cf. Apion 2:80, 114, 120; Tacitus, Histories 5:4). He also stated that the Ancient Egyptians forced the Jewish slaves to build the pyramids, writing "They [the Egyptian taskmasters] set them also to build pyramids." Josephus also adds

1620-451: The Jews fluttering about the Roman empire, Josephus, set out to provide a Hellenized version of the Jewish history. Such a work is often called an " apologia ," as it pleads the case of a group of people or set of beliefs to a larger audience. In order to accomplish this goal, Josephus omitted certain accounts in the Jewish narrative and even added a Hellenistic "glaze" to his work. For example,

1680-737: The Jews" circulated widely, mainly in Latin translation (e.g Antiquities of the Jews from 1466 in the National Library of Poland ). This work of Joseph Flavius was translated into Old Bulgarian at the Preslav Literary School in the beginning of the 10th century during the time of Simeon the Great . In the 9th–10th centuries, the so-called " Josippon ", written in Hebrew , appeared in Italy. It described

1740-429: The Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, with myriads of rivers of oil?... You, man, have been told what is good, and what the Lord requires of you: only to do justice, to love kindness, and to walk modestly with your God. However, while rejecting the value of sacrifices accompanied by unjust behavior, the same prophets promised an eventual reconciliation between God and a more moral people of Israel, and proclaimed that

1800-493: The Lord of Hosts, for the Lord is Good, for His kindness is forever", and of those who bring thanksgiving sacrifices to the house of the Lord. This is an incomplete list of sacrifices mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. Types of sacrifice include: Sacrifices offered on specific occasions include: Sacrifices connected to one's personal status or situation include: Other sacrifices include: Procedures connected to sacrifices include: According to Maimonides , about one hundred of

1860-674: The Talmud discuss various kinds of sacrifices. Pesachim is largely devoted to a discussion of how to offer the Passover sacrifice . Yoma contains a detailed discussion of the Yom Kippur sacrifices, and there are sections in Seder Moed (Festivals) for the special offerings and Temple ritual for other major Jewish holidays. Shekalim discusses the annual half-shekel offering for Temple maintenance and Temple governance and management, and Nashim discusses

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1920-489: The Temple is destroyed. We can still gain ritual atonement through deeds of loving-kindness. For it is written "Loving kindness I desire, not sacrifice." (Hosea 6:6) In the Babylonian Talmud , a number of sages opined that following Jewish law, doing charitable deeds, and studying Jewish texts is greater than performing animal sacrifices: Rabbi Elazar said: Doing righteous deeds of charity is greater than offering all of

1980-462: The Temple is rebuilt, sacrifices will be offered again. While some korbanot were offered as part of the atonement process for sin , this role was strictly limited, and in Judaism atonement can be achieved through means such as repentance even without sacrifices. The Semitic root qrb ( קרב ) means ' be near ' and is found in a number of related languages in addition to Hebrew, e.g. in

2040-460: The altar still there, he "called on the name of the Lord" (Gen 13:4 NIV). The altar clearly served the purpose of a sacred memorial. Nonetheless, Abram also engaged in the covenant of the pieces which was based on this divine set of promises accompanied by obligations and an animal sacrifice ritual to the extent that it physically symbolized irrevocability. Likewise, in Hebrew, the verb meaning to seal

2100-416: The altar, how to prepare the incense, the regulatory code for the system of taxation that financed the priesthood and public sacrifices, and numerous other details. Maimonides , a medieval Jewish scholar, drew on the early critiques of the need for sacrifice, taking the view that God always held sacrifice inferior to prayer and philosophical meditation. However, God understood that the Israelites were used to

2160-552: The animal sacrifices that the surrounding pagan tribes used as the primary way to commune with their gods. As such, in Maimonides' view, it was only natural that Israelites would believe that sacrifice would be a necessary part of the relationship between God and man. This view is controversial since the Torah also forbids worship of foreign idols and practices of pagan religions as "detestable" before God including their sacrifices. Maimonides concludes that God's decision to allow sacrifices

2220-586: The constitution of our government, as interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures. Josephan scholar Louis Feldman highlights several of the misconceptions about the Jewish people that were being circulated in Josephus's time. In particular, the Jews were thought to lack great historical figures and a credible history of their people. They were also accused of harboring hostility toward non-Jews, and were thought to be generally lacking in loyalty, respect for authority, and charity. With these harsh accusations against

2280-599: The eleventh century, the Ambrosianus 370 (F 128); preserved in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan . However, the manuscript tradition is complex and many manuscripts are incomplete. The works of Josephus Flavius were popular in late antiquity. Then appeared the translation of "Antiquities of the Jews" into Latin . It is attributed to either Jerome or his contemporary Tyrannius Rufinus . In medieval Europe, "Antiquities of

2340-632: The events of world and Jewish history from the time of the construction of the Tower of Babel to the capture of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD. Essentially, this chronicle was an abbreviated translation of Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish War , but Joseph ben Gorion was named the author. Josippon gained no less popularity than Antiquities of the Jews. With the advent of printing, it was published even before this major work of Josephus Flavius in 1476. In 1602, Thomas Lodge published an English translation of both

2400-427: The fact that the Torah records the practices of animal and other sacrifices from the times of Abraham , Isaac , and Jacob and earlier. Indeed, the purpose of recounting the near sacrifice of Isaac was to illustrate the sublime significance and need of animal sacrifices as supplanting the abomination of human sacrifices. Through a non-all encompassing view of the ritual life of "Abraham [ sic ] as it

2460-466: The glory prepared for the righteous in the future." I asked "And what did you see?" [that brought on these emotions]. "The herb maaleh ashan [used in Temple incense] is growing next to me." Non-Orthodox branches of Judaism ( Conservative , Reform , and Reconstructionist ) regard the korbanot as an ancient ritual that will not return. Conservative Judaism disavows the resumption of korbanot . Consistent with this view, it has deleted prayers for

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2520-472: The history of the Jewish people beyond the biblical text and up to the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE). This work, along with Josephus's other major work, The Jewish War ( De Bello Iudaico ), provides valuable background material for historians wishing to understand 1st-century CE Judaism and the early Christian period . Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews is a vital source for the history of

2580-696: The most important sources in ancient Roman history, along with the works of Titus Livius , Tacitus , Suetonius , and Jerome . Because of this, Josephus is sometimes called the "Titus Livius of the Greeks". The Jewish Encyclopedia speculates that much of Josephus's writings on Herod the Great and his sons draw from the work of Nicolaus of Damascus , a personal friend of Herod's, whose writings remain largely missing; once Nicolaus's narrative on Herod Archelaus ends, Josephus's narrative becomes less detailed. Josephus admitted being familiar with Nicolaus's work but also rebuked Nicolaus for exaggerating Herod's royal claims and benevolence, where Josephus treated Herod as

2640-417: The most serious sins. In addition, korbanot generally had no expiating effect without sincere repentance and restitution to any person who was harmed by the violation. In the absence of sacrifices, atonement can still be achieved through means such as repentance , prayer , or giving tzedakah . The slaughter of an animal sacrifice is not considered a fundamental part of the sacrifice, but rather

2700-476: The offerings made by Nazirites and the suspected adulteress. The Talmud provides extensive details not only on how to perform sacrifices but how to adjudicate difficult cases, such what to do if a mistake was made and whether improperly performing one of the required ritual elements invalidates it or not. The Talmud explains how to roast the Passover offering, how to dash blood from different kinds of sacrifices upon

2760-643: The past tense (e.g. the Orthodox "and there we will sacrifice" is changed to "and there they sacrificed"). Some more liberal Conservative synagogues, however, have removed all references to sacrifices, past or present, from the prayer service. Siddur Sim Shalom , a common siddur in Conservative synagogues in North America, provides both service alternatives. Antiquities of the Jews The second ten volumes continues

2820-663: The permanent 613 commandments based on the Torah, by rabbinical enumeration, directly concern sacrifices, excluding those commandments that concern the actual Temple and the priests themselves of which there are about another fifty. The Mishnah and Talmud devote a very large section, known as a seder , to the study and analysis of this subject known as Qodashim , whereby all the detailed varieties of korbanot are enumerated and analyzed in great logical depth, such as qodshim kalim ( ' of minor degree of sanctity ' ) and qodashei qodashim ( ' of major degree of sanctity ' ). In addition, large parts of every other book of

2880-462: The poem Bilvavi mishkan evneh by Yitzchak Hutner . With the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans, the Jewish practice of offering korbanot stopped for all intents and purposes. Despite subsequent intermittent periods of small Jewish groups offering the traditional sacrifices on the Temple Mount, the practice effectively ended. Rabbinic Judaism was forced to undergo

2940-423: The purpose of communing with God and becoming closer to God, or in order to express thanks, gratitude, and love to God . While some korbanot were offered as part of the atonement process for sin , this role was strictly limited. Standard sin-offerings could only be offered for unintentional sins; according to the rabbis, they could not be offered for all sins, but only for unintentional violations of some of

3000-406: The purpose of doing homage, winning favor, or securing pardon. The object sacrificed was usually an animal that was ritually slaughtered and then transferred from the human to the divine realm by being burned on an altar. Other sacrifices include grain offerings made of flour and oil, not meat. After the destruction of the Second Temple , sacrifices were prohibited because there was no longer

3060-481: The reestablishment of sacrifices would be a sign of this reconciliation. Thus sacrifices have a place in their visions of eventual redemption: I will bring them to My holy mountain; I will gladden them in My house of prayer. Their burnt-offerings and sacrifices will find favor on My altar, for My house will be a house of prayer for all the nations. Again will be heard in this place... the voice of those who say "Give thanks to

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3120-477: The resumption of sacrifices from the Conservative siddur , including the morning study section from the sacrifices and prayers for the restoration of qorbanot in the Amidah , and various mentions elsewhere. Consistent with its view that priesthood and sacrificial system will not be restored, Conservative Judaism has also lifted certain restrictions on kohanim , including limitations on marriage prohibiting marrying

3180-441: The sacrifices, as it is written: "Doing charity and justice is more desirable to the Lord than sacrifice" (Proverbs 21:3). Nonetheless, numerous texts of the Talmud stress the importance of and hope for eventual re-introduction of sacrifices, and regard their loss as a tragedy. Partaking of sacrificial offerings was compared to eating directly at one's Father's table, whose loss synagogue worship does not entirely replace. One example

3240-497: The secure monarchic period, and the Bible sometimes criticizes Israelite kings for allowing this. Sacrifices outside the main sanctuary are recorded at Beit Shemesh , Mizpah , Ramah, Gilgal , and Bethlehem , among other locations. After the entry to Canaan, the main sacrificial centre was initially at Shiloh . Under Saul the main center of sacrifice was Nob , though private offerings continued to be made at Shiloh. David created

3300-501: The term in Koine Greek as δῶρον , ' gift ' , θυσία , ' sacrifice ' , or προσφορά , ' offering up ' . By the Second Temple period , Hellenistic Jewish texts use korban specifically to mean a vow. The New Testament preserves korban once as a transliterated loan-word for a vow, once also a related noun, κορβανάς ( ' temple treasury ' ), otherwise using δῶρον , θυσία or προσφορά and other terms drawn from

3360-713: The wisdom and plan of God...that God did not command us to give up and to discontinue all these manners of service. For to obey such a commandment would have been contrary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to which he is used; it would in those days have made the same impression as a prophet would make at present [the 12th century] if he called us to the service of God and told us in His name, that we should not pray to God nor fast, nor seek His help in time of trouble; that we should serve Him in thought, and not by any action. In contrast, many others such as Nahmanides (in his commentary on Leviticus 1:9) disagreed. Nahmanides cites

3420-470: Was a concession to human psychological limitations. It would have been too much to have expected the Israelites to leap from pagan worship to prayer and meditation in one step. In The Guide for the Perplexed , he writes: But the custom which was in those days general among men, and the general mode of worship in which the Israelites were brought up consisted in sacrificing animals... It was in accordance with

3480-470: Was not an uncommon thing even among the Israelites (e.g., Judg. 6:24; Josh. 22.21-34; 2 Kings 16:15b). Future generations of Abram's offspring would see the altar at Shechem and remember the promises the Lord had made to their ancestors and to them. The same was true at Bethel (v. 8), and though there is no reference to the appearance of the Lord at that place, there is likewise no record of a sacrifice being made there. Abram himself returned to Bethel; and seeing

3540-540: Was published both in modern languages and in Latin. The first Russian translation of Jewish Antiquities appeared in 1781. First Italian translation dates to 1549 in Venice. One of the best known translations of this work was provided by William Whiston in 1737, which has been in print continuously since then. The Loeb Classical Library published a 1926 translation by Henry St. John Thackeray and Ralph Marcus, normally preferred academically. A cross-reference apparatus for

3600-411: Was walking with his disciple, Rabbi Yehoshua , near Jerusalem after the destruction of the Temple. Rabbi Yehoshua looked at the Temple ruins and said "Alas for us! The place that atoned for the sins of the people Israel lies in ruins!" Then Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai spoke to him these words of comfort: 'Be not grieved, my son. There is another equally meritorious way of gaining ritual atonement, even though

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