A frugivore ( / f r uː dʒ ɪ v ɔːr / ) is an animal that thrives mostly on raw fruits or succulent fruit-like produce of plants such as roots, shoots, nuts and seeds. Approximately 20% of mammalian herbivores eat fruit. Frugivores are highly dependent on the abundance and nutritional composition of fruits. Frugivores can benefit or hinder fruit-producing plants by either dispersing or destroying their seeds through digestion. When both the fruit -producing plant and the frugivore benefit by fruit-eating behavior the interaction is a form of mutualism .
26-575: Over 520, see List of Ocotea species Ocotea is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Lauraceae . Many are evergreen trees with lauroid leaves. There are over 520 species currently accepted within the genus, distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas (around 300 species) including the Caribbean and West Indies, but also with some species in Africa, Madagascar and
52-419: A few species of bird may disperse seeds of one plant species. This lack of specialization could be because fruit availability varies by season and year, which tends to discourage frugivore animals from focusing on just one plant species. Furthermore, different seed dispersers tend to disperse seeds to different habitats, at different abundances, and distances, depending on their behavior and numbers. There are
78-717: A fruiting tree in Arkansas . Prior to 1980, most reports of avian frugivory were made in the tropics. From 1979–1981, a number of studies recognized the importance of fruits to fall temperate assemblages of passerine migrants. The earliest of these field studies were conducted in the fall of 1974 in upstate New York by Robert Rybczynski & Donald K. Riker and separately by John W. Baird in New Jersey , each documenting ingestion of fruits in stands of fruit-bearing shrubs by mixed species assemblages dominated by migrant white-throated sparrows . Mammals are considered frugivorous if
104-441: A main focus of frugivory research. An article by Bette A. Loiselle and John G. Blake, "Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest", discusses the important role frugivorous birds have on ecosystems. The conclusions of their research indicate how the extinction of seed-dispersing species could negatively affect seed removal, seed viability, and plant establishment. The article highlights
130-660: A number of fruit characteristics that seem to be adaptive characteristics to attract frugivores. Animal-dispersed fruits may advertise their palatability to animals with bright colors and attractive smells (mimetic fruits). Fruit pulp is generally rich in water and carbohydrates and low in protein and lipids . However, the exact nutritional composition of fruits varies widely. The seeds of animal-dispersed fruits are often adapted to survive digestion by frugivores. For example, seeds can become more permeable to water after passage through an animal's gut. This leads to higher germination rates. Some mistletoe seeds even germinate inside
156-553: Is not the case in the Americas: 89 species have been collected in Venezuela alone. Species of Ocotea can be attacked by various rot-inducing root pathogens, including Loweporus inflexibilis , Phellinus apiahynus and Phytophthora cinnamomi . Some Ocotea species are used as nesting sites by ants, which may live in leaf pockets or in hollowed-out stems. The ants patrol their host plants more frequently in response to disturbance or to
182-551: Is so important in the tropics, many researchers have studied the loss of frugivores and related it to changed plant population dynamics. Several studies have noted that even the loss of only large frugivores, such as monkeys, could have a negative effect, since they are responsible for certain types of long-distance seed dispersal that is not seen with other frugivore types, like birds. However, plant species whose seeds are dispersed by animals may be less vulnerable to fragmentation than other plant species. Frugivores can also benefit from
208-669: Is the fruit of the durian tree, which tastes somewhat like sweet custard. Orangutans discard the skin, eat the flesh, and spit out the seeds. Other examples of mammalian frugivores include fruit bats and the gray-bellied night monkey , also known as the owl monkey: "Owl monkeys are frugivores and supplement their diet with flowers, insects, nectar, and leaves (Wright 1989; 1994). They prefer small, ripe fruit when available and in order to find these, they forage in large-crown trees (larger than ten meters [32.8 ft]) (Wright 1986). Seasonal availability of fruit varies across environments. Aotus species in tropical forests eat more fruit throughout
234-415: Is usually applied only to this genus, although many names are also applied to this genus and other genera: The common names of some species refer to their similarity to other Lauraceae such as Sassafras (Brazilian sassafras: O. odorifera ) or Laurus (Cape laurel: O. bullata , Sword laurel: O. floribunda , Guaika laurel: O. puberula , etc.). Most species of Ocotea are distributed across
260-528: Is valued for its resistance to fungal decay. O. odorifera (Brazilian sassafras) and O. kuhlmanni are frequently used as honey plants . The following are some of the species of Ocotea . Distinguishing Ocotea species from Nectandra and other close relatives is problematic. Povedadaphne may be better placed in Ocotea . † Ocotea hradekensis from the early Miocene , has been described from fragmentary fossil leaf compressions that have been found in
286-723: The Araucaria moist forests , Yungas , and Talamancan montane forests in the Americas, Afromontane forests including the Knysna-Amatole montane forests in Africa, and Laurisilva in the Macaronesian islands. In Madagascar and Brazil they also occur in lowland forests. Most relatively small fruit species are of great environmental importance because they are the food of many endemic birds and mammals, especially in Islands, and premontane and montane forests. The leaves of Ocotea species are
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#1732855889115312-588: The Mascarene Islands . One species ( O. foetens ) is native to the Macaronesia (in Canary Islands and Madeira ). The genus is suspected to be paraphyletic . They are trees or shrubs, occasionally with adventitious roots ( O. hartshorniana , O. insularis ). Leaves simple, alternate, rarely opposite or whorled. The leaves are lauroid , they are commonly dark green glossy with sometimes brown on
338-457: The three-wattled bellbird (family Cotingidae), quetzal and Cape parrot . Ocotea fruit is also consumed by several Columbiformes such as Columba trocaz , Delegorgue's pigeon , Bolle's pigeon ( Columba bollii ), African wood pigeon, and American doves. Most of the African tree species are ancient paleoendemic species, which in ancient times were widely distributed on the continent. This
364-654: The Kristina Mine at Hrádek nad Nisou in North Bohemia , the Czech Republic . O. foetens from the Canary Islands is its nearest living relative. Fossil † Ocotea heerii leaf impressions of Messinian age (ca. 5.7 Ma) have been uncovered in Monte Tondo, northern Apennines , Italy . List of Ocotea species The following species in the flowering plant genus Ocotea are currently accepted by Plants of
390-559: The World Online . The genus is probably paraphyletic . Frugivore Seed dispersal is important for plants because it allows their progeny to move away from their parents over time. The advantages of seed dispersal may have led to the evolution of fleshy fruits , which entice animals to consume them and move the plant's seeds from place to place. While many fruit-producing plant species would not disperse far without frugivores, their seeds can usually germinate even if they fall to
416-439: The animal. While frugivores and fruit-producing plant species are present worldwide, there is some evidence that tropical forests have more frugivore seed dispersers than the temperate zones. Frugivore seed dispersal is a common phenomenon in many ecosystems. However, it is not a highly specific type of plant–animal interaction. For example, a single species of frugivorous bird may disperse fruits from several species of plants, or
442-679: The appearance of insect pests such as grasshoppers. Ocotea produce essential oils , which are rich in camphor and safrole . East African camphorwood ( O. usambarensis ), Peruvian rosewood ( O. cernua ) and Brazilian sassafras ( O. odorifera ) are traded internationally. Dried fruit cupules of ishpingo ( O. quixos ) are used in Ecuador to flavor beverages, such as colada morada . Some fast growing Ocotea tree species are harvested commercially for timber . These include O. puberula , O. bullata (black or true stinkwood) and O. usambarensis . The timber
468-985: The disperser's intestine. Many seed-dispersing animals have specialized digestive systems to process fruits, which leave seeds intact. Some bird species have shorter intestines to rapidly pass seeds from fruits, while some frugivorous bat species have longer intestines. Some seed-dispersing frugivores have short gut-retention times, and others can alter intestinal enzyme composition when eating different types of fruits. Since plants invest considerable energy into fruit production, many have evolved to encourage mutualist frugivores to consume their fruit for seed dispersal. Some have also evolved mechanisms to decrease consumption of fruits when unripe and from non-seed-dispersing predators. Predators and parasites of fruit include seed predators, insects, and microbial frugivores. Plants have developed both chemical and physical adaptations : Physical deterrents: Chemical deterrents: Examples of secondary chemical defenses in fruit: Birds are
494-407: The food source for the caterpillars of several species of endemic Lepidoptera , including several species of Memphis . Some Memphis caterpillars feed solely on the leaves of one species of Ocotea ; for example M. mora feeds only on O. cernua , and M. boisduvali feeds only on O. veraguensis Seed distribution of some Ocotea species is performed by frugivorous birds such as toucans ,
520-462: The fruit covered by a cup-shaped, occasionally flat, cupule , giving them an appearance similar to an acorn . The fruit is dark green, gradually darkening with maturity. The cupule at the base of the berry, can be more brightly colored. The fruit has a single seed wrapped in a hard coat and can be slightly lignified. The genus has no standard common name. Names often refer to the aroma of the wood, which can be strong and not always pleasant. Sweetwood
546-421: The ground directly below their parent. Many types of animals are seed dispersers. Mammal and bird species represent the majority of seed-dispersing species. However, frugivorous tortoises, lizards, amphibians, and even fish also disperse seeds. For example, cassowaries are a keystone species because they spread fruit through digestion, many of the seeds of which will not grow unless they have been digested by
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#1732855889115572-750: The importance that seed-dispersing birds have on the deposition of plant species. Examples of seed-dispersing birds are the hornbill , the toucan , the aracari , the cotinga (ex. Guianan cock-of-the-rock ), and some species of parrots . Frugivores are common in the temperate zone , but mostly found in the tropics . Many frugivorous birds feed mainly on fruits until nesting season, when they incorporate protein-rich insects into their diet. Facultatively-baccivorous birds may also eat bitter berries, such as juniper, in months when alternative foods are scarce. In North America, red mulberry ( Morus rubra ) fruits are widely sought after by birds in spring and early summer; as many as 31 species of birds were recorded visiting
598-585: The seed is dispersed and able to establish. One example of a mammalian frugivore is the maned wolf , or Chrysocyon brachyurus , which is found in South America. A study by José Carlos Motta-Junior and Karina Martins found that the maned wolf is probably an important seed disperser. The researchers found that 22.5–54.3% of the diet was fruit. 65% of the diet of orangutans consists of fruit. Orangutans primarily eat fruit, along with young leaves, bark, flowers, honey, insects, and vines. One of their preferred foods
624-823: The tropical Americas , from Mexico to Northern Argentina including the West Indies. Species are also found in eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia , in Gabon and Republic of the Congo in Central Africa, and on Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands . One species, Ocotea foetens , is native to the Canary Islands and Madeira in the North Atlantic. Ocotea species are distributed in subtropical and tropical regions, often at higher elevations. They are characteristic plants of many tropical and subtropical montane forests such as
650-464: The underside and fragrant oil cells. The African and Madagascan species all have bisexual flowers (possessing both male and female parts), whereas many of the American species have flowers that are unisexual (either male or female). The apetalous flowers are in small panicles. The fruits are globose or oblong berries, 3–5 cm in length, hard and fleshy and at the junction of the peduncle part with
676-441: The year because it is more readily available compared to the dry forests where fruit is limited in the dry season and owl monkeys are more dependent on leaves." Some species of fish are frugivorous, such as the tambaqui . Since seed dispersal allows plant species to disperse to other areas, the loss of frugivores could change plant communities and lead to the local loss of particular plant species. Since frugivore seed dispersal
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