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128-609: Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection ( Forsvarets flysamling Gardermoen ) is a military aviation museum located at Gardermoen , north of Oslo in Akershus county , Norway . The founding of the Norwegian Aviation Historical Society in 1967, gave the first boost to the idea of preserving aircraft in Norway. The Collection's Heinkel He 111 and Northrop N-3PB are among the aircraft traced, recovered and restored at

256-703: A breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states, and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians

384-741: A complete close-down. This was also a problem at Fornebu, and reported to be at Hurum as well. On average, there is super cooled rain three times per month during the winter. The use of deicing fluids is restricted since the area underneath the airport contains the Tandrum Delta, one of the country's largest uncontained quaternary aquifers (underground water systems). On 14 December 1998, a combination of freezing fog and supercooled rain caused glaze at Gardermoen. At least twenty aircraft engines were damaged by ice during take-off, and five aircraft needed to make precautionary landings with only one working engine. On 18 January 2006, an Infratek deicing system

512-450: A complex with 55,000 square metres (590,000 sq ft), including a technical base, cabin storage, garages and cargo terminals, for NOK 1.398 billion. This included a technical base for their fleet of Douglas DC-9 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80 -aircraft for NOK 750 million. The cargo handling facility is 21,000 square metres (230,000 sq ft) and was built in cooperation with Posten Norge . SAS also built two lounges in

640-456: A domestic flight is not unique for Oslo Airport, as it is the same process used at international airports in the United States and some other countries. Most passengers whose inbound flight is with SAS, Norwegian or Widerøe and who are connecting on a through ticket can instead use the domestic transfer customs process that avoids this, although certain flight origins are excluded. About half

768-610: A fearsome heavy cavalry force. King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into the Baekje , Gaya confederacy , Buyeo , Later Yan and against Japanese invaders with his cavalry. In the 12th century, Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo Korea. After experiencing invasion by the Jurchen, Korean general Yun Kwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units. He reorganized

896-586: A few incidents where the wrong doors were opened so that passengers who should have gone through the border control did not. A notable feature of the airport is that it is "silent", so announcements for flights are only made in the immediate vicinity of the gate. Many international passengers connecting to domestic flights have to pick up their luggage, show it to customs and check in the luggage again. Some transit passengers avoid Oslo Airport and look for other routing options because of this. The process of clearing customs before connecting from an international to

1024-474: A government report recommended that a new main airport be built at Hobøl , but stated that the time was still not right. The areas were therefore reserved. During the 1970s, it became a political priority by the socialist and center parties to reduce state investments in Eastern Norway to stimulate growth in rural areas. In 1983, parliament voted to keep the divided solution permanently and expand Fornebu with

1152-499: A high-speed railway was to be built to Gardermoen, so the airport would have a 50% public transport market share. The choice of Gardermoen has spurred controversy, also after the matter was settled in parliament. In 1994, Engineer Jan Fredrik Wiborg , who claimed that falsified weather reports had been made, died after falling from a hotel window in Copenhagen. Circumstances about his death were never fully cleared up and documents about

1280-417: A joint venture between the agencies Nordic — Office of Architecture , Niels Torp, Skaarup & Jespersen and Hjellnes Cowi. The main architect was Gudmund Stokke. The terminal building has a light, modern roof that is held up by wooden reefers. The main construction materials are wood, metal and glass. The airlines were required to follow the same design rules for their buildings as the terminal. The new pier

1408-461: A larger terminal. By 1985, traffic had increased so much that it became clear that by 1988 all international traffic would have to move to Gardermoen. The areas at Hobøl had been freed up, and a government report was launched recommending that a new airport be built at Gardermoen, although an airport at Hurum had also been surveyed. However, the report did not look into the need of the Air Force that

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1536-452: A long tradition of intense military exchange between Han Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted nomads or "barbarians" of the north. The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy . In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao , the ruler of the former state of Jin , ordered his commanders and troops to adopt

1664-487: A member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes. Xiongnu , Tujue , Avars , Kipchaks , Khitans , Mongols , Don Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume

1792-474: A relatively large increase in the number of long-distance routes. This growth was largely driven by Norwegian's investment in longer routes. When the coronavirus pandemic came to Norway in March 2020, Norwegian had to close down its long-haul fleets after a short time, because there was not a sufficient customer base. However, companies such as Qatar Airways and Emirates also contributed to the long-distance increase. In

1920-438: A small thickened cuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance. In the interwar period many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. The cavalry tank or cruiser tank was one designed with a speed and purpose beyond that of infantry tanks and would subsequently develop into

2048-431: A tunnel below the airport facilities, where Gardermoen Station is located. The Flytoget airport express train operates to Oslo Central Station six times per hour in 19 to 22 minutes, with three services continuing onwards via five intermediate stations to Drammen Station . On Saturdays and Sundays, the trains run three times an hour. The Airport Express Train has a 34% ground transport share. Vy also operates from

2176-608: A week to New York - JFK with continuing direct service to Memphis International Airport (MEM) and Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport (MSP). In October 2001, the only remaining intercontinental flight, to Newark Airport (EWR), with Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) operated Boeing 767–300 aircraft, was discontinued, due to a slump in air travel following the 9/11 attacks . In 2004, Scandinavian Airlines and Continental Airlines (now United Airlines ) resumed service on this route using Airbus A330 and Boeing 757-200 respectively. United Airlines suspended winter service on

2304-463: Is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets. This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice. Currently,

2432-419: Is 3,600 by 45 metres (11,811 ft × 148 ft), while the east runway 01R/19L is 2,950 by 45 metres (9,678 ft × 148 ft). Both have taxiways , allowing 80 air movements per hour. The runways are equipped with CAT IIIA instrument landing system and the airport is supervised by a 91-metre (299 ft) tall control tower . Once departing aircraft are 15 kilometres (9 mi) away from

2560-402: Is a list of the 20 busiest routes to and from Gardermoen during 2017. Situated about 47 kilometres (29 mi) from the city center, Oslo Airport offers extensive public transport services. The airport has one of the world's highest levels of public transport usage, with a share of nearly 70%. The 64 kilometres (40 mi) Gardermoen Line opened the same day as the airport, and runs in

2688-651: Is an international airport serving Oslo , the capital and most populous city of Norway . A hub for Scandinavian Airlines and an operating base for Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe , in 2011, it connected to 26 domestic and 158 international destinations. The airport is located 19 nautical miles (35 km; 22 mi) northeast of Oslo, at Gardermoen at the border of municipalities Nannestad and Ullensaker , in Akershus county. It has two parallel roughly north–south runways measuring 3,600 metres (11,811 ft) and 2,950 metres (9,678 ft) and 71 aircraft stands, of which 50 have jet bridges . The airport

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2816-405: Is built so that it can quickly be expanded if necessary, without having to claim areas used by the civilian section. The military also use the civilian terminals for their passenger transport needs, and send 200,000 people with chartered and scheduled flights from the main terminal each year. The air force station serves as the main entering point for VIPs and officials going to Norway. The airport

2944-663: Is cladded with oak from Scandinavian rainforests, and features low-carbon technologies such as district heating and natural thermal energy to improve sustainability. The main art on the landside of the airport is Alexis , consisting of six steel sculptures in stainless steel created by Per Inge Bjørlo . On the airside, Carin Wessel used 30,000 metres (98,000 ft) of thread to make the impression of clouds and webs, named Ad Astra . Anna Karin Rynander and Per-Olof Sandberg cooperated in making two installations: The Marathon Dancers , located in

3072-408: Is connected to the city center by the high-speed railway Gardermoen Line served by mainline trains and Flytoget . The percentage of passengers using public transport to get to and from the airport is one of the highest in the world at nearly 70%. The ground facilities are owned by Oslo Lufthavn AS, a subsidiary of the state-owned Avinor . Also at the premises is Gardermoen Air Station , operated by

3200-586: Is focused on European destinations. SAS, Norwegian and a number of major European network companies fly with high frequency between Gardermoen and the Nordic capitals, as well as the major cities in Western and Eastern Europe. In addition, it flies directly to a larger number of destinations in the Mediterranean countries, although with somewhat lower frequency and variations in the summer months. Until 2020, Gardermoen had

3328-412: Is located in front of the international concourse, taking up a large part of the terminal's width. The airport has attempted to funnel all passengers through the duty-free shop. Signs put up to hinder passengers from walking outside the duty-free were removed after criticism in 2008. Arriving passengers have access to a smaller duty-free shop in the baggage claim area. In addition to the main terminal,

3456-463: Is modeled partially on Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport , with two parallel runways and a single terminal with two piers on a single line. Oslo Airport is located 19 nautical miles (35 km; 22 mi) north-northeast of Oslo city centre. The passenger terminal covers 265,000 square metres (2,850,000 sq ft). The airport has 72 gates, of which 44 are bridge-connected and 28 are remote stands. The original west wing of

3584-415: Is owned by Oslo Lufthavn AS, a limited company wholly owned by Avinor , a state-owned company responsible for operating 46 Norwegian airports. In 2010, Oslo Lufthavn had a revenue of NOK 3,693 million, giving an income of NOK 1,124 million before tax. The profit from the airport is largely paid to Avinor, which uses it to cross- subsidise operating deficits from smaller primary and regional airport throughout

3712-598: The Battle of Carrhae , the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians . At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome. These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach

3840-632: The Dayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized – Greek region of Fergana (established slightly earlier by Alexander the Great ). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by

3968-617: The Hellas . Similarly, the men of the Mountain Land from north of Kabul -River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela , providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen ( asva-yuddha-Kushalah ). On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas , i.e.

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4096-545: The Huns of Attila and the later Mongol armies . In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mounted knights of the medieval period. During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained

4224-450: The Ippiko (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and

4352-573: The Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry. In the army of the late Roman Empire , cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha , the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By

4480-523: The Jaina work Parishishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta 's ( c.  320 BC – c.  298 BC ) alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka . The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat

4608-690: The Kambojas . These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander ( c.  326 BC ) during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians. These highlanders, designated as "parvatiya Ayudhajivinah" in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord. The Sanskrit drama Mudra-rakashas by Visakha Dutta and

4736-530: The Royal Norwegian Air Force . An expansion with a new terminal building and a third pier opened in late April 2017. The airport location was first used by the Norwegian Army from 1940, with the first military airport facilities being built during the 1940s. The airport remained a secondary reserve and airport for chartered flights to Oslo Airport, Fornebu , until 8 October 1998, when the latter

4864-619: The Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians . The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt from 1550 BC as well as the Assyrian army and Babylonian royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units

4992-903: The main battle tank . Nonetheless, some cavalry still served during World War II (notably in the Red Army , the Mongolian People's Army , the Royal Italian Army , the Royal Hungarian Army , the Romanian Army , the Polish Land Forces , and German light reconnaissance units within the Waffen SS ). Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of

5120-431: The samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units. An example

5248-566: The trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills. The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot -riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang dynasty ( c.  1600 –1050 BC). By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force. The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow

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5376-656: The "horsemen" and their land was known as "Home of Horses". They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Pāṇini 's Ashtadhyayi . The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of

5504-458: The 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns. Other specialist weapons during this period included javelins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the Parthians and their Persian Sasanian successors. Both, but especially

5632-454: The Air Force. It was the state that expropriated and bought all the land and remained land owner, while Oslo Lufthavn leases the ground from the state. The first two years were used to demolish and rebuild the air station. This reduced the building area from 120,000 to 41,000 square metres (1,290,000 to 440,000 sq ft), but gave a more functional design. Construction of the new main airport started on 13 August 1994. The western runway

5760-562: The Civil Airport Administration (Avinor). This model was chosen to avoid having to deal with public trade unions and to ensure that the construction was not subject to annual grants. This company was founded in 1992 as Oslo Hovedflyplass AS, but changed its name in 1996 to Oslo Lufthavn. From 1 January 1997, it also took over the operation of Oslo Airport, Fornebu. The company was established with NOK 200 million in share capital. The remaining assets were NOK 2 billion from

5888-535: The F-gates for the non-Schengen area are at the easternmost end of the terminal. An expansion to the non-Schengen end of the east pier was opened during the summer of 2022. Four gates near the end of the east pier are flexigates where doors can be opened or closed to switch between Schengen and non-Schengen flights. EU controllers have been somewhat skeptical of the Schengen/non-Schengen flexigates, and there were

6016-520: The Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units. In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Kwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北 九城). The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of

6144-605: The Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars". J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e.

6272-680: The Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province. Ancient Kambojas organised military sanghas and shrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata record. They are described as Ayuddha-jivi or Shastr-opajivis (nations-in-arms), which also means that

6400-661: The Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen". The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas , all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj . Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being ashva.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalrymen). In

6528-706: The Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura . Herodotus ( c.  484 – c.  425 BC ) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e. Gandharans/Kambojans of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids ) from the 20th strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486–465 BC), which he led against

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6656-585: The ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did however remain secondary to that of the hoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states. Cavalry played a relatively minor role in ancient Greek city-states , with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, Thebes produced Pelopidas , their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by Philip II of Macedon when Philip

6784-554: The advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly valued and exploited in warfare during the Ancient and Medieval eras. Some hosts were mostly cavalry, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia , notably

6912-593: The airport opened a new 650-square-meter (7,000 sq ft) VIP terminal exclusively used for the royal family, the prime minister and foreign heads of state and government. According to EUROCONTROL , Gardermoen had the most delays per flight of all airports in Europe in July 2012. As a consequence of the delays, which apparently were caused by a lack of air traffic controllers, several airlines received NOK 100 million in compensation from Avinor . The airport covers an area of 13 square kilometres (5.0 sq mi) and

7040-549: The airport operates a VIP lounge for the Norwegian royal family , members of the Norwegian government and members of foreign royal families and governments. The General aviation terminal , located on the west side of the airport, services GA-aircraft, executive jets and ambulance aircraft. The cargo terminal is located just southwest of the main terminal and has seven gates for cargo aircraft. The airport's architects were Aviaplan,

7168-402: The airport operator's income is from retail revenue. There are 20 restaurants providing food or drink service, stores and other services including banks and a post office. In all, 8,000 square metres (86,000 sq ft) are used for restaurants, stores and non-aviation services. The departure duty-free shop is 1,530 square metres (16,500 sq ft) and the largest in Europe. The shop

7296-399: The airport, both a commuter train service to Eidsvoll and Kongsberg , and a regional service north to Innlandet and south to Vestfold og Telemark . Both offer services to Oslo, and the latter allows direct service to Sandefjord Airport, Torp . Five daily express trains operated by SJ Norge to Trondheim stop at the airport, including one night train . Cavalry Cavalry had

7424-408: The airport, responsibility is taken over by Oslo Air Traffic Control Center , which supervises the airspace with Haukåsen Radar . The airport has two ground radars, on the far sides of each of the runways. Both at the gates and along the taxiways, there is an automatic system of lights that guide the aircraft. On the tarmac, these are steered by the radar, while they are controlled by motion sensors at

7552-621: The appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in Eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as

7680-596: The authorities to move all charter traffic from Fornebu to Gardermoen. However, SAS and Braathens SAFE were allowed to keep their charter services from Fornebu, so they would not have to operate from two bases. A former hangar was converted to a terminal building and in 1974 passenger numbers were at 269,000 per year. In 1978, SAS started a weekly flight to New York. In 1983, further restrictions were enforced, and also SAS and Braathens SAFE had to move their charter operations to Gardermoen, increasing passenger numbers that year to 750,000. Several expansions of runway were made after

7808-474: The back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC

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7936-407: The baggage claim area, is a set of two electronic boards that show a dancing person. Sound Refreshment Station , of which six are located in the departure areas, are sound "showers" that make refreshing sounds when a person is immediately under them. Sidsel Westbø etched the glass walls. In the check-in area, there are small boxes under the floor with glass ceilings that contain curiosities. As well as

8064-457: The base had eleven camps and groups of buildings. The first flight at Gardermoen happened in 1912, and Gardermoen became a station for military flights. During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , the Luftwaffe took over Gardermoen, and built the first proper airport facilities with hangars and two crossing runways, both 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) long. After World War II , the airport

8192-593: The best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations. Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping

8320-551: The character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the Russian Empire . In Eastern Europe , and out onto the steppes , cavalry remained important much longer and dominated

8448-704: The country, especially since it was the original intention to transfer all objects at Gardermoen to Bodø. After some years a compromise was found, and in 1997 funds were allocated for a new building at Gardermoen to house a military aviation museum. The new building was inaugurated in May 2000. From 1 January 2015 the collection is part of the Norwegian Air Force Museum/Armed Forces Museums. 60°11′20.95″N 11°4′10.39″E  /  60.1891528°N 11.0695528°E  / 60.1891528; 11.0695528 Gardermoen Oslo Airport ( Norwegian : Oslo lufthavn ) ( IATA : OSL , ICAO : ENGM ), alternatively referred to as Oslo Gardermoen Airport or simply Gardermoen ,

8576-428: The country. At the end of 2010, Oslo Lufthavn had 439 employees. The company has a subsidiary, Oslo Lufthavn Eiendom AS, which is responsible for developing commercial real estate around the airport. It owns one airport hotel run by the Radisson Blu chain, the office building and conference center Flyporten, which along with the hotel features 60 conference rooms, and the employee parking lot. A second hotel, Park Inn,

8704-411: The custom-made art, several existing sculptures and paintings were bought. At the National Road 35 and European Route E6 junction, Vebjørn Sand built a 14-metre (46 ft) statue named the Kepler Star . It consists of two internally illuminated Kepler–Poinsot polyhedrons , appearing like a giant star in the sky after dark. The airport has two parallel runways, aligned 01/19. The west runway 01L/19R

8832-461: The former, were famed for the cataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers . The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman–Persian Wars . At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match

8960-483: The future. Following the 1972 decision to move charter traffic to Gardermoen, politicians were forced to choose between a "divided solution" that planners stated would eventually force all international traffic to move to Gardermoen, or to build a new airport. Gardermoen had been proposed as the main airport for Oslo and Eastern Norway as early as 1946, both by the local newspaper Romerikes Blad and by Ludvig G. Braathen , who had just founded Braathens SAFE. In 1970,

9088-524: The gate. There are three deicing platforms. Both fire stations each have three fire cars, and is part of the municipal fire department. Meteorological services are operated by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute , which has 12 weather stations and 16 employees at the airport. This includes Norway's first aeronautic information service and a self-briefing room, in addition to briefings from professionals. Restrictions on air movements apply overnight from 23:00 to 06:00, although landing and taking off on

9216-468: The horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery. In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe- stirrups . Indian literature contains numerous references to

9344-586: The instigation of the NAHS. From the latter part of the 1970s onwards, a considerable number of historical aircraft were assembled in an old ex-Luftwaffe hangar at Gardermoen and from the mid-1980s the public were admitted to the hangar during summer. Most of the activities were - and still are - based on voluntary effort. The establishment of the Norwegian Aviation Museum in Bodø in 1992 created in intense debate in

9472-436: The invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD. The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure. The horse warfare of Korea

9600-491: The main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as

9728-471: The mount and rider . Heavy cavalry, such as Byzantine cataphracts and knights of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, were used as shock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term battle cavalry . Light cavalry, such as horse archers , hussars , and Cossack cavalry, were assigned all

9856-600: The mounted warriors of the Central Asian horse nomads, notably the Sakas , Kambojas , Yavanas , Pahlavas and Paradas . Numerous Puranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC) in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" ( pañca.ganan ) or Kṣatriya hordes ( Kṣatriya ganah ), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic King Bahu The Mahabharata , Ramayana , numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that

9984-450: The north side is permitted. The Royal Norwegian Air Force has an air base at Gardermoen, located at the north side of the passenger terminal at Oslo Airport. The base dates from 1994 and houses the 335-Squadron that operates three Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport planes. The airbase also handles nearly all military freight going abroad. The Air Force has a compact 41,000 square metres (440,000 sq ft) building space. The station

10112-506: The north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the hetairoi ( Companion cavalry ) of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great . In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry . There were also

10240-425: The numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces. This includes scouting , deterring enemy scouts, foraging , raiding , skirmishing , pursuit of retreating enemy forces, screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles. Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare , but armor

10368-439: The opening of Gressholmen. In 1939, a new combined sea and land airport opened at Fornebu . It was gradually expanded, with a runway capable of jet aircraft opening in 1962 and a new terminal building in 1964. But due to its location on a peninsula about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from the city center and close to large residential areas, it would not be possible to expand the airport sufficiently to meet all foreseeable demands in

10496-430: The opening of the airport, National Road 35 was reconstructed west of the airport as a two-lane toll road. Also Norwegian National Road 120 and Norwegian National Road 174 were reconstructed. The first new airline to start scheduled flights was Color Air operating Boeing 737-300 jets. The low-cost airline took advantage of the increased capacity that Gardermoen created to start competing with SAS and Braathens on

10624-489: The opening of the new airport. The main road corridor northwards from Oslo to Gardermoen is European Route E6 . The E6 was widened to six lanes north to Hvam, and to four lanes north to Gardermoen. The E6 runs about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) east of the airport, so 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of Norwegian National Road 35 was widened to a four-lane motorway to connect the E6 to the airport. This connection cost NOK 1 billion. After

10752-482: The passenger terminal. Since Braathens had its technical base at Stavanger Airport, Sola , it used NOK 200 million to build facilities. This included a 9,000 square metres (97,000 sq ft) hangar for six aircraft for NOK 100 million. Parliament decided to build a high-speed airport rail link from Oslo to Gardermoen. The 64-kilometre (40 mi) Gardermoen Line connects Oslo Central Station (Oslo) to Gardermoen and onwards to Eidsvoll . This line

10880-460: The pier permanent. In 2024, the airport started using the south pier for early morning international Schengen area flights. When configured for international flights, the gates are numbered G1 to G8 and accessed by shuttle bus from the international area of the terminal. The north pier, containing 11 gates, was opened in 2017. It was also the first terminal in the world to receive an "excellent" BREEAM rating. This terminal uses recycled snow from

11008-633: The rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Eurasian Steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Iranic Parthians and Sarmatians . Together with a core of armoured lancers, these were predominantly horse archers using the Parthian shot tactic. The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no spurs , saddles , saddle cloths , or stirrups . Fighting from

11136-890: The route in 2015, then discontinued the service completely in 2017. Scandinavian Airlines also started a direct service from Oslo to Miami in 2016. Also in 1999, Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) became the first Asian airline to touchdown in Oslo, commencing its first flights to the city to and from Karachi , Lahore and Islamabad . The return flights had a stopover at Copenhagen Airport before continuing onward to Pakistan. Norwegian Air Shuttle launched flights to Bangkok, New York – JFK, Los Angeles , Fort Lauderdale , Oakland (San Francisco) , and Orlando with Boeing 787 Dreamliner jetliners and Dubai, Agadir and Marrakech with Boeing 737-800 jets. Three more airlines began service. Thai Airways launched service to Bangkok , Qatar Airways to Doha , and Fly Emirates to Dubai . In 2012,

11264-561: The routes to Bergen, Trondheim and Ålesund. This lasted until October 1999, when Color Air filed for bankruptcy. During this time, all three airlines lost large amounts of money, mainly due to low passenger counts. To win the business market, all three wanted to have the most possible departures per day to other cities, which proved to be a financially poor decision, instead of waiting more days in between flights to increase passenger counts per flight. Gardermoen has had considerable problems with fog and freezing rain , and has several times had

11392-515: The ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India. The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poet Kalidasa . Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II ( Vikaramaditya ) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta dynasty . As late as the mediaeval era,

11520-474: The runways to recover energy for heating and cooling. Nine of the gates are configurable as either domestic C-gates or international Schengen area D-gates. The two northernmost gates are international D-gates only. Passengers using the north pier are directed to the top floor for domestic flights or the lower floor for international flights. The east pier of the original terminal is for international flights. The gates for Schengen area flights are E-gates while

11648-494: The sale of Fornebu and NOK 900 million in responsible debt. The remaining funding would come from debt from the state. Total investments for the airport, railways and roads were NOK 22 billion, of which Oslo Lufthavn would have a debt of NOK 11 billion after completion. At Gardermoen there was both an air station and about 270 house owners that had their real estate expropriated following parliament's decision. NOK 1.7 billion were used to purchase land, including

11776-457: The scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led. Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Further east, the military history of China , specifically northern China , held

11904-834: The southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC , but by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia. The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius , in 84 AD. During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed with javelins , could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry, whose troopers, using lances , had

12032-516: The speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and clibanarii . The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by

12160-504: The spring of 2019, Hainan Airlines opened a direct route between Oslo and Beijing. As of 2019, a number of charter flights were also offered from Gardermoen under the auspices of various travel operators, distributed throughout the year. Among these operators were Ving, Apollo and TUI. During the summer months, destinations around the Mediterranean were best represented until 2020 (especially holiday destinations in Spain, Greece and Turkey), while in

12288-500: The state, and repay with the profits from operation. During construction of the Romerike Tunnel , a leak was made that started draining the water from the lakes above. The time and cost to repair the leaks meant that the whole railway line budget was exceeded, and the tunnel would not be taken into use until 1 August 1999. Since the rest of the railway was finished, two trains (instead of the intended six), operated using more time from

12416-472: The status of being a cavalryman. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry. The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these

12544-462: The surveys. Since Hurum could no longer be used, the government again recommended Gardermoen as the location. The Conservative Party instead wanted to build at Hobøl, but chose to support the Labour Party government's proposal to get a new airport as quickly as possible. Parliament passed legislation to build the new main airport at Gardermoen on 8 August 1992. At the same time, it was decided that

12672-455: The term cavalry is still used, referring in modern times to units continuing to fulfill the traditional light cavalry roles, employing fast armored cars , light tanks , and infantry fighting vehicles instead of horses, while air cavalry employs helicopters . Before the Iron Age , the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots . The chariot originated with

12800-400: The term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry). Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry . The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by

12928-415: The terminal contains the domestic A-gates. The west wing also connects to the south pier that contains the eight B-gates, all of which lack jet bridges. This south pier was constructed in 2012 to compensate for the gates lost while the north pier was being built, and was intended for demolition after five years, but in 2018 a moving walkway to the pier was installed and Avinor expressed its intention to make

13056-630: The tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with

13184-504: The unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion . For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion. The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that

13312-409: The use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots . The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC. However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph , or for racing. Outside of mainland Europe,

13440-442: The utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia . After defeats such as

13568-409: The war, and by the 1985-extension the north–south runway was 3,050 metres (10,010 ft). The first airports to serve Oslo were Kjeller Airport which opened in 1912 and Gressholmen Airport which served seaplanes after its opening in 1926. Norway's first airline, Det Norske Luftfartrederi , was founded in 1918 and the first scheduled flights were operated by Deutsche Luft Hansa to Germany with

13696-444: The weather case disappeared. The Standing Committee on Scrutiny and Constitutional Affairs held a hearing about the planning process trying to identify any irregularities. An official report was released in 2001. To minimize the effect of using state grants to invest in Eastern Norway, parliament decided that the construction and operation of the airport was to be done by an independent limited company that would be wholly owned by

13824-498: The winter, direct flights is offered to intercontinental destinations, for example Cuba, Gambia, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Mexico and Thailand. Oslo Airport has a catchment area of 2.5 million people, including most of Eastern Norway and 0.3 million people in Sweden. In 2017, Oslo Airport served 27,482,315 passengers, 181,265 tonnes (178,402 long tons; 199,810 short tons) of cargo and 242,555 aircraft movements. In 2017, Oslo Airport

13952-612: Was a guest-hostage in Thebes. Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The Macedonian kingdom in

14080-547: Was already in place, and had been renovated by the Air Force in 1989. A new, eastern runway needed to be built. A hill at the airport was blown away, and the masses used to fill in where needed. The construction of the airport and railway required 13,000 man-years. 220 subcontractors were used, and working accidents were at a third of the national average, without any fatalities. The last flights to Fornebu took place on 7 October 1998. That night, 300 people and 500 truckloads transported equipment from Fornebu to Gardermoen. Oslo Airport

14208-410: Was called Fredericksfeldt until 1788. It was first used by the cavalry , then by the dragoons and in 1789 by the riding marines. The base was also taken into use by the infantry from 1834 and by the artillery from 1860. Tents were solely used until 1860, when the first barracks and stalls were taken into use. Insulated buildings were built around 1900, allowing the camp to be used year-round. By 1925,

14336-460: Was closed, and an all-new Oslo Airport opened at Gardermoen, costing 11.4 billion Norwegian kroner (NOK). Oslo is additionally served by the much smaller Sandefjord Airport, Torp , in Sandefjord , which is situated 119 km (74 mi) to the south of downtown Oslo and primarily used by leisure and low-cost carriers . The Norwegian army started using Gardermoen as a camp in 1740, although it

14464-488: Was constructed for 210 kilometres per hour (130 mph) and allows the Flytoget train to operate from Oslo Central station to Gardermoen in nineteen minutes. Just like the airport, the railway was to be financed by the users. The Norwegian State Railways (NSB) established a subsidiary, NSB Gardermobanen , which would build and own the railway line, as well as operate the airport trains. The company would borrow money from

14592-460: Was first started during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon . Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors. The cavalry of Goguryeo , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as

14720-438: Was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. With the development of armored warfare , the heavy cavalry role of decisive shock troops had been taken over by armored units employing medium and heavy tanks , and later main battle tanks . Despite horse-borne cavalry becoming obsolete,

14848-497: Was invented in China in the fourth century BC; it was written by the Song dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited

14976-509: Was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of Persia , Bactria , and northwestern India. The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the equites —men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions . Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with

15104-451: Was moved to Gardermoen. Gardermoen grew up as a training field for the commercial airlines and as local airport for general aviation . Some commercial traffic returned again in 1960, when SAS received its first Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft, that could not use the runway at Fornebu until it was extended again in 1962. SAS introduced a direct flight to New York in 1962, but it was quickly terminated. In 1972, capacity restraints forced

15232-402: Was officially opened on 8 October 1998, with the name Gardermoen. Gardermoen is a compound of the farm name Garder and the finite form of mo 'moor; drill ground' (thus 'the moor belonging to the farm Garder'). The farm is first mentioned in 1328 ( Garðar ), and the name is the plural of Norse garðr ' fence '. The airlines needed to build their own facilities at Gardermoen. SAS built

15360-542: Was opened in September 2010. Gardermoen has direct connections to just over 160 destinations. In addition, there are up to several charter destinations, depending on the season. The domestic network is dominated by Norwegian and SAS, which mainly fly commercially on the main airport network. In addition, Widerøe operates tender routes on a contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications. The international route network

15488-464: Was ranked the 19th busiest airport in Europe. It is the second-busiest Nordic airport after Copenhagen Airport . The busiest route is to Trondheim, with over 2 million passengers. Along with the domestic routes to Bergen and Stavanger, and the international routes to Copenhagen and Stockholm, Oslo Airport serves five of the 25 busiest routes in the EEA , all with more than one million passengers. The following

15616-556: Was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor . Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in Egypt , Assyria , the Hittite Empire , and Mycenaean Greece . Cavalry techniques, and

15744-408: Was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection from firearms . By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former

15872-431: Was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. Military conservatism

16000-510: Was set up, that uses infrared heat in large hangar tents. It was hoped that it could reduce chemical deicers by 90%, but the technique has proved unsuccessful. In 1999, Northwest Airlines briefly operated a flight between Oslo and Minneapolis / St. Paul, MN , United States, for several months, before the flight was cancelled due to poor load factors. Northwest had previously served the airport in 1987 with nonstop flights operated with McDonnell Douglas DC-10-40 wide body jetliners several days

16128-567: Was stationed at Gardermoen and was therefore rejected by the parliament the following year. In 1988, a majority of the government chose Hurum as their preferred location, and the Minister of Transport Kjell Borgen withdrew from his position. In 1989, new weather surveys from Hurum showed unfavorable conditions. There were large protests from meteorologists and pilots who stated that the surveys were manipulated. Two government committees were appointed, and both concluded that there were no irregularities in

16256-508: Was taken over by the Norwegian Air Force and made the main air station. Three fighter and one transport squadron were stationed at Gardermoen. Braathens SAFE established their technical base at the airport in 1946, but left two years later. Gardermoen also became the reserve airport for Oslo Airport, Fornebu, when the latter was closed due to fog. From 1946 to 1952, when a longer runway was built at Fornebu, all intercontinental traffic

16384-570: Was the Battle of Cannae , where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls , Iberians , and Numidians , the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see Numidian cavalry ). Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the Cohortes Equitatae . Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until

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