108-428: Northern Sumatra may refer to: The northern portion of the island of Sumatra Aceh , the northernmost province of Sumatra North Sumatra , the province south of Aceh Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Northern Sumatra . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
216-552: A wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention . Sumatra has lost almost 50% of its tropical rainforest since 1980. Many species are now critically endangered , such as the Sumatran ground cuckoo , the Sumatran tiger , the Sumatran elephant , the Sumatran rhinoceros , and the Sumatran orangutan . Deforestation on the island has also resulted in serious seasonal smoke haze over neighbouring countries, such as
324-486: A 9.2 earthquake shook Bengkulu and Western Sumatra. Both events caused large tsunamis . Earthquakes are very common throughout the coastal area of the west and center of the island, and tsunamis are common due to the high seismicity in the area. By population, Medan is the largest city in Sumatra. Medan is also the most visited and developed city in Sumatra. Sumatra supports a wide range of vegetation types that are home to
432-503: A Sumatran rhino in 112 years. A female calf, named "Suci" (Indonesian for "pure"), followed on 30 July 2004. On 29 April 2007, Emi gave birth a third time, to her second male calf, named Harapan (Indonesian for "hope") or Harry. In 2007, Andalas, who had been living at the Los Angeles Zoo , was returned to Sumatra to take part in breeding programs with healthy females, leading to the siring and 23 June 2012 birth of male calf Andatu,
540-580: A calf, but calves stay close to their mothers, and the frequency of such killings is unknown. Although the rhino's range overlaps with elephants and tapirs , the species do not appear to compete for food or habitat. Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) and Sumatran rhinos are even known to share trails, and many smaller species, such as deer, boars, and wild dogs, will use the trails the rhinos and elephants create. The Sumatran rhino maintains two types of trails across its range. Main trails will be used by generations of rhinos to travel between important areas in
648-455: A day. Primarily by measuring dung samples, researchers have identified more than 100 food species consumed by the Sumatran rhinoceros. The largest portion of the diet is tree saplings with a trunk diameter of 1–6 cm (0.39–2.36 in). The rhinoceros typically pushes these saplings over with its body, walking over the sapling without stepping on it, to eat the leaves. Many of the plant species
756-523: A diagonal northwest–southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the northwest, west, and southwest coasts of Sumatra, with the island chain of Simeulue , Nias , Mentawai , and Enggano off the western coast. In the northeast, the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula , which is an extension of the Eurasian continent. In the southeast, the narrow Sunda Strait , containing
864-684: A general trend of decline over the course of the Middle to Late Pleistocene with an estimated peak effective population size of 57,800 individuals 950,000 years ago, declining to around 500–1,300 individuals at the start of the Holocene, with a slight rebound during the Eemian Interglacial . This was likely due to climate change causing limiting suitable habitat for the Rhinoceros, causing severe population fluctuations as well as population fragmentation due to
972-401: A great distance, even in the dense brush in which the Sumatran rhino lives. A vocalization of similar volume from elephants has been shown to carry 9.8 km (6.1 mi) and the whistle-blow may carry as far. The Sumatran rhinoceros will sometimes twist the saplings they do not eat. This twisting behavior is believed to be used as a form of communication, frequently indicating a junction in
1080-415: A particular wallow, the rhino will abandon it. Typically, the rhino will wallow around midday for two to three hours at a time before venturing out for food. Although in zoos the Sumatran rhino has been observed wallowing less than 45 minutes a day, the study of wild animals found 80–300 minutes (an average of 166 minutes) per day spent in wallows. There has been little opportunity to study epidemiology in
1188-410: A program that brought 40 Sumatran rhinos into captivity with the goal of preserving the species. There was little or no information about procedures that would assist in ex situ breeding. Though a number of rhinos died once at the various destinations and no offspring were produced for nearly 20 years, the rhinos were all doomed in their soon-to-be-logged forest. In March 2016, a Sumatran rhinoceros (of
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#17328485801301296-528: A rich variety of species, including 17 endemic genera of plants. Unique species include the Sumatran pine which dominates the Sumatran tropical pine forests of the higher mountainsides in the north of the island and rainforest plants such as Rafflesia arnoldii (the world's largest individual flower), and the titan arum (the world's largest unbranched inflorescence ). The island is home to 201 mammal species and 580 bird species. There are nine endemic mammal species on mainland Sumatra and 14 more endemic to
1404-654: A stiff economic decline as the heritage of the Srivijaya empire was superseded by the economic policy of the Singhasari and Majapahit . The Palembang sultanate experienced a terminal decline in the early 19th century. With the coming of the Dutch Empire , the many Sumatran princely states gradually fell under their control. Aceh posed major obstacles, as the Dutch were involved in the long and costly Aceh War (1873–1903). During
1512-711: A tail of 35–70 cm (14–28 in). The weight is reported to range from 500–1,000 kg (1,100–2,200 lb), averaging 700–800 kg (1,540–1,760 lb). Like both African species, it has two horns; the larger is the nasal horn, typically 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in), while the other horn is typically a stub. A coat of reddish-brown hair covers most of the Sumatran rhino's body. The Sumatran rhinoceros once inhabited rainforests , swamps and cloud forests in India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and southwestern China, particularly in Sichuan . It
1620-474: A trail. Cows become sexually mature at the age of six to seven years, while bulls become sexually mature at about 10 years old. The gestation period is around 15–16 months. The calf, which typically weighs 40–60 kg (88–132 lb), is weaned after about 15 months and stays with its mother for the first two to three years of its life. In the wild, the birth interval for this species is estimated to be four to five years; its natural offspring-rearing behavior
1728-479: A variety of reasons until the first successful captive birth in 2001; studies of these failures at the Cincinnati Zoo discovered the Sumatran rhino's ovulation is induced by mating and it had unpredictable progesterone levels. Breeding success was finally achieved in 2001, 2004, and 2007 by providing a pregnant rhino with supplementary progestin . In 2016, a calf was born in captivity in western Indonesia, only
1836-414: Is a cause for concern, due to the high market price of its horns. This species has been overhunted for many centuries, leading to the current greatly reduced and still declining population. The rhinos are difficult to observe and hunt directly (one field researcher spent seven weeks in a treehide near a salt lick without ever observing a rhino directly), so poachers make use of spear traps and pit traps. In
1944-490: Is also an area in the archipelago that received the spread of Islam first compared to other islands or other areas. The island of Sumatra became the first area to receive the spread of Islam because of the position of the island of Sumatra which is close to the Malacca strait. The initial process of Islamization related to trade and also the formation of the kingdom. Islam entered Sumatra through pious Arabs and Tamil traders in
2052-521: Is also used as an inter-ethnic means of communication in some parts of Aceh province. Religion in Sumatra (2023) The majority of people in Sumatra are Muslims (87.12%), while 10.69% are Christians, and less than 2.19% are Buddhists and Hindus. Sumatra is one of seven geographical regions of Indonesia , which includes its adjacent smaller islands. Sumatra was one of the eight original provinces of Indonesia between 1945 and 1948. Including adjacent archipelagoes normally included with Sumatra (such as
2160-740: Is being used in an attempt to revitalize the rhino's population and reverse extinction in the country. As of 2023, there has been two births at the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia. Sumatran rhinos are solitary creatures except for pairing before mating and during offspring rearing. Individuals have home ranges; bulls have territories as large as 50 km (19 sq mi), whereas cows' ranges are 10–15 km (3.9–5.8 sq mi). The ranges of cows appear to be spaced apart; bulls' ranges often overlap. No evidence indicates Sumatran rhinos defend their territories through fighting. Marking their territories
2268-641: Is believed to be closely related to the extinct woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ) and Stephanorhinus , with the split between their last common ancestors estimated to be around 9.5 million years ago. The woolly rhinoceros, so named for the coat of hair it shares with the Sumatran rhinoceros, first appeared in China; by the Upper Pleistocene , it ranged across the Eurasian continent from Korea to Spain. The woolly rhinoceros survived until its extinction near
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#17328485801302376-446: Is classed as critically endangered (primarily due to illegal poaching) while the last survey in 2008 estimated that around 250 individuals survived. From the early 1990s, the population decline was estimated at more than 50% per decade, and the small, scattered populations now face high risks of inbreeding depression . Most remaining habitat is in relatively inaccessible mountainous areas of Indonesia. Poaching of Sumatran rhinos
2484-412: Is done by scraping soil with their feet, bending saplings into distinctive patterns, and leaving excrement. The Sumatran rhino is usually most active when eating, at dawn, and just after dusk. During the day, they wallow in mud baths to cool down and rest. In the rainy season , they move to higher elevations; in the cooler months, they return to lower areas in their range. When mud holes are unavailable,
2592-593: Is fast and agile; it climbs mountains easily and comfortably traverses steep slopes and riverbanks. The Sumatran rhinoceros lives in both lowland and highland secondary rainforest , swamps, and cloud forests . It inhabits hilly areas close to water, particularly steep upper valleys with copious undergrowth. The Sumatran rhinoceros once inhabited a continuous range as far north as Myanmar , eastern India , and Bangladesh . Unconfirmed reports also placed it in Cambodia , Laos , and Vietnam . All known living animals occur in
2700-521: Is named after Tom Harrisson , who worked extensively with Bornean zoology and anthropology in the 1960s. The Bornean subspecies is markedly smaller in body size than the other two subspecies. The captive population consisted of one bull and two cows at the Borneo Rhinoceros Sanctuary in Sabah; the bull died in 2019 and the cows died in 2017 and 2019 respectively. D. s. lasiotis , known as
2808-433: Is not known. Rhinoceros horn was once believed to be widely used as an aphrodisiac ; in fact traditional Chinese medicine never used it for this purpose. Nevertheless, hunting in this species has primarily been driven by a demand for rhino horns with unproven medicinal properties. The rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia, which the Sumatran rhino inhabits, are also targets for legal and illegal logging because of
2916-635: Is noted between the western Sumatran and Bornean rhinos. The rhinos in Peninsular Malaysia were once known as D. s. niger , but were later recognized to be a synonym of D. s. sumatrensis . Three bulls and five cows currently live in captivity at the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas, the youngest bull having been bred and born there in 2012. Another calf, a female, was born at the sanctuary in May 2016. The sanctuary's two bulls were born at
3024-700: Is now critically endangered , with only five substantial populations in the wild: four in Sumatra and one in Borneo , with an estimated total population of fewer than 80 mature individuals. The species was extirpated in Malaysia in 2019, and one of the Sumatran populations may already be extinct. In 2015, researchers announced that the Bornean rhinoceros had become extinct in the northern part of Borneo in Sabah , Malaysia. A tiny population
3132-562: Is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia . It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km (182,812 mi. ), including adjacent islands such as the Simeulue , Nias , Mentawai , Enggano , Riau Islands , Bangka Belitung and Krakatoa archipelago . Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning
3240-577: Is the largest producer of Indonesian coffee . Small-holders grow Arabica coffee ( Coffea arabica ) in the highlands, while Robusta ( Coffea canephora ) is found in the lowlands. Arabica coffee from the regions of Gayo, Lintong and Sidikilang is typically processed using the Giling Basah (wet hulling) technique, which gives it a heavy body and low acidity. Sumatra is a highly seismic island. Huge earthquakes have been recorded throughout history. In 1797, an 8.9 earthquake shook Western Sumatra, and in 1833,
3348-434: Is the most vocal of the rhinoceros species. Observations of the species in zoos show the animal almost constantly vocalizing, and it is known to do so in the wild, as well. The rhino makes three distinct noises: eeps, whales , and whistle-blows. The eep, a short, one-second-long yelp, is the most common sound. The whale, named for its similarity to vocalizations of the humpback whale , is the most song-like vocalization and
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3456-520: Is unstudied. The reproductive habits of the Sumatran rhinoceros have been studied in captivity. Sex relationships begin with a courtship period characterized by increased vocalization, tail raising, urination , and increased physical contact, with both bull and cow using their snouts to bump the other in the head and genitals. The pattern of courtship is most similar to that of the black rhinoceros . Young Sumatran rhino bulls are often too aggressive with cows, sometimes injuring and even killing them during
3564-418: Is usually a reddish brown. In the wild, this hair is hard to observe because the rhinos are often covered in mud. In captivity, however, the hair grows out and becomes much shaggier, likely because of less abrasion from walking through vegetation. The rhino has a patch of long hair around its ears and a thick clump of hair at the end of its tail. Like all rhinos, they have very poor vision. The Sumatran rhinoceros
3672-505: The northern Sumatran rhinoceros or Chittagong rhinoceros , which once roamed India and Bangladesh, has been declared extinct in these countries. Unconfirmed reports suggest a small population may still survive in Myanmar, but the political situation in that country has prevented verification. The name lasiotis is derived from the Greek for "hairy-ears". Later studies showed that their ear hair
3780-531: The western Sumatran rhinoceros , which has only 75 to 85 rhinos remaining, mostly in the national parks of Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci Seblat , Gunung Leuser in Sumatra, but also in Way Kambas National Park in small numbers. They have recently gone extinct in Peninsular Malaysia . The main threats against this subspecies are habitat loss and poaching . A slight genetic difference
3888-518: The 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake and the 2010 Mentawai earthquake and tsunami . Lake Toba is the site of a supervolcanic eruption that occurred around 74,000 years ago, representing a climate-changing event. The most important rivers in Sumatra belong to the catchment area of the South China Sea . Heading north to south, the Asahan , Rokan , Siak , Kampar , Indragiri , Batanghari flow into
3996-404: The 2013 Southeast Asian haze which caused considerable tensions between Indonesia and affected countries Malaysia and Singapore . The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Several unconnected railway networks built during Netherlands East Indies exist in Sumatra, such as
4104-522: The Barisan Mountains along the length of Sumatra, for rhinos in eastern Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia are more closely related than the rhinos on the other side of the mountains in western Sumatra. In fact, the eastern Sumatra and Malaysia rhinos show so little genetic variance, the populations were likely not separate during the Pleistocene , when sea levels were much lower and Sumatra formed part of
4212-713: The Barisan Mountains in the west and swampy plains in the east. Sumatra is the closest Indonesian island to mainland Asia. To the southeast is Java , separated by the Sunda Strait . To the north is the Malay Peninsula (located on the Asian mainland), separated by the Strait of Malacca . To the east is Borneo , across the Karimata Strait . West of the island is the Indian Ocean . The Great Sumatran fault (a strike-slip fault), and
4320-601: The Cincinnati Zoo have been observed copulating for 30–50 minutes, similar in length to other rhinos; observations at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre in Malaysia have shown a briefer copulation cycle. As the Cincinnati Zoo has had successful pregnancies, and other rhinos also have lengthy copulatory periods, a lengthy rut may be the natural behavior. Though researchers observed successful conceptions, all these pregnancies ended in failure for
4428-658: The Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden . A third calf female was born in March 2022. D. s. harrissoni , known as the Bornean rhinoceros or eastern Sumatran rhinoceros , which was once common throughout Borneo; now only about 15 individuals are estimated to survive. The known population lives in East Kalimantan , with them having recently gone extinct in Sabah . Reports of animals surviving in Sarawak are unconfirmed. This subspecies
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4536-527: The IUCN 's Asian rhino specialist group, which once endorsed the program, declared it had failed "even maintaining the species within acceptable limits of mortality", noting that, in addition to the lack of births, 20 of the captured rhinos had died. In 2004, a surra outbreak at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre killed all the captive rhinos in Peninsular Malaysia, reducing the population of captive rhinos to eight. Seven of these captive rhinos were sent to
4644-644: The Krakatoa Archipelago , separates Sumatra from Java . The northern tip of Sumatra is near the Andaman Islands , while off the southeastern coast lie the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait and the Java Sea . The Bukit Barisan mountains, which contain several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeastern area contains large plains and lowlands with swamps, mangrove forest and complex river systems. The equator crosses
4752-521: The Malacca Strait , while the island's largest river, the Musi , flows into the sea at Bangka Strait in the south. To the east, big rivers carry silt from the mountains, forming the vast lowland interspersed by swamps. Even if mostly unsuitable for farming, the area is currently of great economic importance for Indonesia. It produces oil from both above and below the soil – palm oil and petroleum . Sumatra
4860-569: The Second World War , Japan invaded Sumatra in 1942. The Free Aceh Movement fought against Indonesian government forces in the Aceh Insurgency from 1976 to 2005. Security crackdowns in 2001 and 2002 resulted in several thousand civilian deaths. The island was heavily impacted by both the 1883 Krakatoa eruption and the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami . Sumatra’s population as of 2023 was estimated to be about 60,795,669 ; it has about
4968-509: The Sumatran elephant , the Sumatran rhinoceros , and the Sumatran orangutan . Deforestation on the island has also resulted in serious seasonal smoke haze over neighbouring countries, such as the 2013 Southeast Asian haze which caused considerable tensions between Indonesia and affected countries Malaysia and Singapore . The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Sumatra
5076-469: The Sumatran rhino , hairy rhinoceros or Asian two-horned rhinoceros , is a rare member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant species of rhinoceros ; it is the only extant species of the genus Dicerorhinus . It is the smallest rhinoceros, although it is still a large mammal; it stands 112–145 cm (44–57 in) high at the shoulder, with a head-and-body length of 2.36–3.18 m (7 ft 9 in – 10 ft 5 in) and
5184-569: The Sunda megathrust (a subduction zone ), run the entire length of the island along its west coast. On 26 December 2004, the western coast and islands of Sumatra, particularly Aceh province, were struck by a tsunami following the Indian Ocean earthquake . This was the longest earthquake recorded, lasting between 500 and 600 seconds (8.33–10 minutes). More than 170,000 Indonesians were killed, primarily in Aceh. Other recent earthquakes to strike Sumatra include
5292-475: The 13th century. In terms of economic development the port of Banda Aceh only started to face competition in the 18th century when more ports were constructed in Sumatra for maritime transport . Nevertheless, major pepper suppliers used the port of Banda Aceh at the beginning of the 19th century. The port in Medan grew swiftly in the late 19th and early 20th century. Meanwhile the medium sized port of Palembang faced
5400-482: The 1970s, uses of the rhinoceros's body parts among the local people of Sumatra were documented, such as the use of rhino horns in amulets and a folk belief that the horns offer some protection against poison. Dried rhinoceros meat was used as medicine for diarrhea , leprosy , and tuberculosis . "Rhino oil", a concoction made from leaving a rhino's skull in coconut oil for several weeks, may be used to treat skin diseases. The extent of use and belief in these practices
5508-1216: The 2010 census (including Riau Islands , Bangka Belitung , Nias , Mentawai , Simeulue and islands around it) There are over 52 languages spoken, all of which (except Chinese and Tamil) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. Within Malayo-Polynesian, they are divided into several sub-branches: Chamic (which are represented by Acehnese in which its closest relatives are languages spoken by Ethnic Chams in Cambodia and Vietnam), Malayic ( Malay , Minangkabau and other closely related languages), Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands ( Batak languages , Gayo and others), Lampungic (includes Proper Lampung and Komering ) and Bornean (represented by Rejang in which its closest linguistic relatives are Bukar Sadong and Land Dayak spoken in West Kalimantan and Sarawak ( Malaysia )). Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands and Lampungic branches are endemic to
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#17328485801305616-472: The 6th and 7th centuries AD. At the beginning and end of the 13th century the formation of the kingdom, the king of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and his fellow Italian Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. Aceh in the north of Sumatra became known in the 16th century as trading centre for the pepper trade by shipping quality piperaceae ( pepper ). Aceh became
5724-717: The Bornean rhinoceros subspecies) was spotted in Indonesian Borneo . The Indonesian ministry of Environment, began an official counting of the Sumatran rhino in February 2019, planned to be completed in three years. Malaysia's last known bull and cow Sumatran rhinos died in May and November 2019, respectively. The species is now considered to be locally extinct in that country, and only survives in Indonesia. There are fewer than 80 left in existence. The first documented Sumatran rhinoceros
5832-496: The Indonesian government announced a plan to protect Sumatra's remaining forests. The island includes more than 10 national parks, including three which are listed as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra World Heritage Site – Gunung Leuser National Park , Kerinci Seblat National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park . The Berbak National Park is one of three national parks in Indonesia listed as
5940-511: The Indonesian island where the rhinos were first discovered. Carl Linnaeus originally classified all rhinos in the genus, Rhinoceros ; therefore, the species was originally identified as Rhinoceros sumatrensis or sumatranus . Joshua Brookes considered the Sumatran rhinoceros with its two horns a distinct genus from the one-horned Rhinoceros , and gave it the name Didermocerus in 1828. Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger proposed
6048-611: The Indonesian part of Borneo . The last time there was a Sumatran rhino in the Kalimantan area was approximately 40 years ago. This optimism was met with despair as the same rhino named Najaq was found dead several weeks after the sighting. The cause of death was infection on the wound caused by snare. Sumatran rhinos do not thrive outside of their ecosystem. London Zoo acquired a bull and cow in 1872 that had been captured in Chittagong in 1868. The female named "Begum" survived until 1900,
6156-659: The Portuguese throughout the 16th and 17th century. When the Dutch were weakened in the 18th century the British empire began to actively intervene in Aceh, establishing close relations between Banda Aceh and Penang . In the 17th and 18th century the Aceh Sultanate battled the Siak sultanate in the south of Sumatra. The port city of Banda Aceh was recorded in European historical writings since
6264-698: The Rhinocerotidae, first appeared in the Late Eocene in Eurasia , and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the Miocene . Although the relationships of modern rhinoceros species to each other were long controversial, modern genetic evidence has placed the Sumatran rhinoceros as more closely related to the Asian one-horned rhinoceroses (the Indian rhinoceros and Javan rhinoceros ) belonging to
6372-550: The Riau Islands, Nias and the Bangka-Belitung group), it now covers ten of Indonesia's 38 provinces , which are set out below with their areas and populations. The longest axis of the island runs approximately 1,790 km (1,110 mi) northwest–southeast, crossing the equator near the centre. At its widest point, the island spans 435 km (270 mi). The interior of the island is dominated by two geographical regions:
6480-597: The Sumatran rhinoceros. Ticks and gyrostigma were reported to cause deaths in captive animals in the 19th century. The rhino is also known to be vulnerable to the blood disease surra , which can be spread by horse-flies carrying parasitic trypanosomes ; in 2004, all five rhinos at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Center died over an 18-day period after becoming infected by the disease. The Sumatran rhino has no known predators other than humans. Tigers and wild dogs may be capable of killing
6588-416: The Sumatran rhinoceros. Between 1984 and 1996, this ex situ conservation program transported 40 Sumatran rhinos from their native habitats to zoos and reserves across the world. While hopes were initially high, and much research was conducted on the captive specimens, by the late 1990s, not a single rhino had been born in the program, and most of its proponents agreed the program had been a failure. In 1997,
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#17328485801306696-675: The United States, and three to Port Lympne Zoo in the United Kingdom (the other was kept in Southeast Asia), but by 1997, their numbers had dwindled to three: a cow in the Los Angeles Zoo , a bull in the Cincinnati Zoo , and a cow in the Bronx Zoo . In a final effort, the three rhinos were united in Cincinnati. After years of failed attempts, the cow from Los Angeles, Emi, became pregnant for
6804-439: The courtship. In the wild, the cow could run away from an overly aggressive bull, but in their smaller captive enclosures, they cannot; this inability to escape aggressive bulls may partly contribute to the low success rate of captive-breeding programs. The period of oestrus itself, when the cow is receptive to the bull, lasts about 24 hours, and observations have placed its recurrence between 21 and 25 days. Sumatran rhinos in
6912-416: The desirability of their hardwoods. Rare woods such as merbau , meranti and semaram are valuable on the international markets, fetching as much as $ 1,800 per m ($ 1,375 per cu yd). Enforcement of illegal-logging laws is difficult because humans live within or near many of the same forests as the rhino. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake has been used to justify new logging. Although
7020-505: The end of the last ice age , around 14,000 years ago. Stephanorhinus species are well known in Europe from the Late Pliocene through the Pleistocene, and China from the Pleistocene, with two species, Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis and the Stephanorhinus hemitoechus surviving into the last glacial period , until at least 40,000 years ago and possibly later. Although historically many fossil species were assigned to Dicerorhinus today only two fossil species are confidently placed in
7128-400: The fifth such birth in a breeding facility. In March 2022, and 1 October 2023, female calves were born at the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary (SRS), as well as a male calf born on November 25, 2023. Way Kambas National Park , Lampung province, Indonesia . Sumatran rhinos were once quite numerous throughout Southeast Asia . Fewer than 100 individuals are now estimated to remain. The species
7236-492: The flooding of Sundaland . Human induced habitat change and hunting may have played a role in the Late Pleistocene. The study was later criticised for not including DNA from extinct mainland populations, which would have provided a holistic account. A Bayesian skyline plot of complete Mitochondrial genomes from multiple individuals from across the range of the species suggested that the population had been relatively stable with an effective population size of 40,000 individuals over
7344-412: The fourth captive-born calf of the era; Andalas had been mated with Ratu, a wild-born cow living in the Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas National Park . Despite the recent successes in Cincinnati, the captive-breeding program has remained controversial. Proponents argue that the zoos have not only aided the conservation effort by studying the reproductive habits, raising public awareness and education about
7452-406: The genus Rhinoceros than to living African rhinoceros species, with the split between Rhinoceros and Dicerorhinus estimated to have occurred around 14.8 million years ago, shortly after the split between the ancestors of Dicerorhinus and Rhinoceros and African rhinoceroses, which is placed around 15.6 million years ago. Based on morphological and genetic evidence, the Sumatran rhinoceros
7560-436: The genus. These include Dicerorhinus fusuiensis from the Early Pleistocene of South China, and Dicerorhinus gwebinensis from the Pliocene -Early Pleistocene of Myanmar. Fossils of the modern Sumatran rhinoceros are known from the Early Pleistocene onwards. Pairwise sequential Markovian coalescent (PSMC) analysis of a complete nuclear genome of a Sumatran specimen suggested strong fluctuations in population size, with
7668-460: The hardwoods in the rainforests of the Sumatran rhino are destined for international markets and not widely used in domestic construction, the number of logging permits for these woods has increased dramatically because of the tsunami. However, while this species has been suggested to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance, apparently it is of little importance compared to hunting, as it can withstand more or less any forest condition. Nevertheless,
7776-468: The island at its centre in West Sumatra and Riau provinces. The climate of the island is tropical , hot, and humid. Lush tropical rain forest once dominated the landscape. Sumatra has a wide range of plant and animal species but has lost almost 50% of its tropical rainforest in the last 35 years. Many species are now critically endangered , such as the Sumatran ground cuckoo , the Sumatran tiger ,
7884-515: The island of Sumatra . Some conservationists hope Sumatran rhinos may still survive in Burma, though it is considered unlikely. Political turmoil in Burma has prevented any assessment or study of possible survivors. The last reports of stray animals from Indian limits were in the 1990s. Remains of Sumatran rhinoceros have been found in Chinese Neolithic sites of Zhejiang , Henan , Fujian , and
7992-663: The island. Like all parts of Indonesia, Indonesian (which was based on Riau Malay) is the official language and the main lingua franca. Although Sumatra has its own local lingua franca, variants of Malay like Medan Malay and Palembang Malay are popular in North and South Sumatra, especially in urban areas. Minangkabau (Padang dialect) is popular in West Sumatra, some parts of North Sumatra, Bengkulu, Jambi and Riau (especially in Pekanbaru and areas bordered with West Sumatra ) while Acehnese
8100-732: The last 400,000 years, with a sharp decline starting around 25,000 years ago. Cladogram showing the relationships of recent and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros species (minus Stephanorhinus hemitoechus) based on whole nuclear genomes, after Liu et al, 2021: † Elasmotherium sibiricum Black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis ) White Rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum ) Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) Javan rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ) Sumatran rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) † Woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ) † Merck's rhinoceros ( Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis ) A mature Sumatran rhino stands about 112–145 cm (3.67–4.76 ft) high at
8208-411: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Sumatra&oldid=933021157 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Sumatra Sumatra ( / s ʊ ˈ m ɑː t r ə / )
8316-602: The main cause of drastic reduction of the species is likely caused by the Allee effect . The Bornean rhino in Sabah was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in April 2015, with only 3 individuals left in captivity. The mainland Sumatran rhino in Malaysia was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in August 2015. In March 2016 there was a rare sighting of a Sumatran rhino in East Kalimantan ,
8424-620: The main commercial centre of the Aceh Sultanate and trading routes were established to the Mediterranean via the Red Sea to rival the Portuguese shipping lanes . The reign of Iskandar Muda is known as the golden age of Sumatra because he extended the cultural influence of the Aceh Sultanate to Padang and Johor . The Aceh Sultanate sustained the rivalry with the Johor sultanate , the Dutch, and
8532-555: The mainland. Both populations of Sumatra and Malaysia, however, are close enough genetically that interbreeding would not be problematic. The rhinos of Borneo are sufficiently distinct that conservation geneticists have advised against crossing their lineages with the other populations. Conservation geneticists have recently begun to study the diversity of the gene pool within these populations by identifying microsatellite loci . The results of initial testing found levels of variability within Sumatran rhino populations comparable to those in
8640-453: The milestone of Kepaksian Sekala Brak in the 13th century AD with the Dalom building. At the same time, the spread of Islam in Indonesia occurred gradually and indirectly, starting from the western regions such as the Sumatra area which became the first place for the spread of Islam in the archipelago, then Java, then to the eastern regions of Indonesia, Sulawesi and Maluku. The island of Sumatra
8748-615: The name Dicerorhinus in 1841. In 1868, John Edward Gray proposed the name Ceratorhinus . Normally, the oldest name would be used, but a 1977 ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature established the proper genus name as Dicerorhinus . Dicerorhinus comes from the Greek terms di ( δι , meaning "two"), cero ( κέρας , meaning "horn"), and rhinos ( ρινος , meaning " nose "). The three subspecies are: D. s. sumatrensis , known as
8856-598: The name for the entire island. By the year 692 , the Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya . Srivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century, specifically in the year 1025, after suffering defeat at the hands of the Chola Empire in southern India By the end of the 12th century, Srivijaya had been reduced to a kingdom, and its dominant role in South Sumatra ended with the last king, Ratu Sekekhummong, who founded
8964-416: The nearby Mentawai Islands . There are about 300 freshwater fish species in Sumatra. There are 93 amphibian species in Sumatra, 21 of which are endemic to Sumatra. The Sumatran tiger , Sumatran rhinoceros , Sumatran elephant , Sumatran ground cuckoo , Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli orangutan are all critically endangered, indicating the highest level of threat to their survival. In October 2008,
9072-508: The northeastern Tibetan Plateau . The Sumatran rhino is widely scattered across its range, much more so than the other Asian rhinos, which has made it difficult for conservationists to protect members of the species effectively. Only four areas are known to contain Sumatran rhinoceros: Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park , Gunung Leuser National Park , and Way Kambas National Park on Sumatra; and on Indonesian Borneo west of Samarindah. The Kerinci Seblat National Park , Sumatra's largest,
9180-511: The nutrition of the rhino. These licks can be small hot springs, seepages of salty water, or mud-volcanoes . The salt licks also serve an important social purpose for the rhinos—bulls visit the licks to pick up the scent of cows in oestrus . Some Sumatran rhinos, however, live in areas where salt licks are not readily available, or the rhinos have not been observed using the licks. These rhinos may get their necessary mineral requirements by consuming plants rich in minerals. The Sumatran rhinoceros
9288-632: The ones connecting Banda Aceh - Lhokseumawe - Besitang - Medan - Tebingtinggi - Pematang Siantar - Rantau Prapat in Northern Sumatra (the Banda Aceh-Besitang section was closed in 1971, but is currently being rebuilt). Padang - Solok - Bukittinggi in West Sumatra , and Bandar Lampung - Palembang - Lahat - Lubuklinggau in Southern Sumatra. Sumatran rhinoceros The Sumatran rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ), also known as
9396-526: The population of the less endangered African rhinos, but the genetic diversity of Sumatran rhinos is an area of continuing study. Although the rhino had been thought to be extinct in Kalimantan since the 1990s, in March 2013 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) announced that the team when monitoring orangutan activity found in West Kutai Regency , East Kalimantan , several fresh rhino foot trails, mud holes, traces of rhino-rubbed trees, traces of rhino horns on
9504-468: The record lifetime for a captive rhino. Begum was one of at least seven specimens of the extinct subspecies D. s. lasiotis that were held in zoos and circuses. In 1972, Subur, the only Sumatran rhino remaining in captivity, died at the Copenhagen Zoo . Despite the species' persistent lack of reproductive success, in the early 1980s, some conservation organizations began a captive-breeding program for
9612-503: The relationship between India and the Indonesian archipelago. In the late 13th century, Marco Polo referred to the kingdom as Samara , while his contemporary fellow Italian traveller Odoric of Pordenone used the form Sumoltra . Later in the 14th century the local form "Sumatra" became popular abroad due to the rising power of the kingdom of Samudera Pasai and the subsequent Sultanate of Aceh . From then on, subsequent European writers mostly used Sumatra or similar forms of
9720-521: The rhino consumes exist in only small portions, which indicates the rhino is frequently changing its diet and feeding in different locations. Among the most common plants the rhino eats are many species from the Euphorbiaceae , Rubiaceae , and Melastomataceae families. The most common species the rhino consumes is Eugenia . The vegetal diet of the Sumatran rhinoceros is high in fiber and only moderate in protein . Salt licks are very important to
9828-409: The rhino is a strong swimmer. A relative absence of wallows near rivers in the range of the Sumatran rhinoceros indicates they may occasionally bathe in rivers in lieu of wallowing. Most feeding occurs just before nightfall and in the morning. The Sumatran rhino is a folivore, with a diet of young saplings, leaves, twigs, and shoots. The rhinos usually consume up to 50 kg (110 lb) of food
9936-510: The rhino will deepen puddles with its feet and horns. The wallowing behaviour helps the rhino maintain its body temperature and protect its skin from ectoparasites and other insects. Captive specimens, deprived of adequate wallowing, have quickly developed broken and inflamed skins, suppurations , eye problems, inflamed nails, and hair loss, and have eventually died. One 20-month study of wallowing behavior found they will visit no more than three wallows at any given time. After two to 12 weeks using
10044-435: The rhino's range, such as between salt licks , or in corridors through inhospitable terrain that separates ranges. In feeding areas, the rhinos will make smaller trails, still covered by vegetation, to areas containing food the rhino eats. Sumatran rhino trails have been found that cross rivers deeper than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) and about 50 m (160 ft) across. The currents of these rivers are known to be strong, but
10152-467: The rhinos, helping raise financial resources for conservation efforts in Sumatra but, moreover, to have established a small captive breeding group. Opponents of the captive breeding program argue that the losses are too great; the program is too expensive; removing rhinos from their habitat, even temporarily, alters their ecological role; and captive populations cannot match the rate of recovery seen in well-protected native habitats. In October 2015, Harapan,
10260-473: The same number of inhabitants as South Africa , making it the fifth-most populous island in the world . Yet because it is such a large island, it is not densely populated: it has an average of about 126 people per km . The largest indigenous ethnic groups in Sumatra are Malays, Minangkabaus, Bataks, Acehnese, and Lampungs. Other major non-indigenous ethnic groups are Javanese , Sundanese , and Chinese . Below are 11 largest ethnic groups in Sumatra based on
10368-554: The second-most common. The whale varies in pitch and lasts from four to seven seconds. The whistle-blow is named because it consists of a two-second-long whistling noise and a burst of air in immediate succession. The whistle-blow is the loudest of the vocalizations, loud enough to make the iron bars in the zoo enclosure where the rhinos were studied vibrate. The purpose of the vocalizations is unknown, though they are theorized to convey danger, sexual readiness, and location, as do other ungulate vocalizations. The whistle-blow could be heard at
10476-403: The shoulder, has a body length of around 236–318 cm (7.74–10.43 ft), and weighs 500–800 kg (1,100–1,760 lb), though the largest individuals in zoos have been known to weigh as much as 2,000 kg (4,410 lb). Like the two African species, it has two horns. The larger is the nasal horn, typically only 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in), though the longest recorded specimen
10584-477: The sixth time, with the zoo's bull Ipuh. All five of her previous pregnancies ended in failure. Reproductive physiologist at the Cincinnati Zoo, Terri Roth , had learned from previous failures, though, and with the aid of special hormone treatments, Emi gave birth to a healthy male calf named Andalas (an Indonesian literary word for Sumatra) in September 2001. Andalas's birth was the first successful captive birth of
10692-530: The tenth through thirteenth centuries, in reference to a kingdom near modern-day Banda Aceh which was the first landfall for traders. The island has also been known by other names, including Andalas or Percha Island . Scholars suggest that mention of Suwarnadwipa in the Hindu Epic the Ramayana may be a reference to Sumatra. According to experts on The Ramayana , the epic is one of the first sources to document
10800-555: The video evidence "very important" and mentioned Indonesia's "target of rhino population growth by three percent per year". On 22 March 2016 it was announced by the WWF that a live Sumatran rhino was found in Kalimantan; it was the first contact in over 40 years. The rhino, a female, was captured and transported to a nearby sanctuary to ensure her survival. Iman, the last known Sumatran rhino in Malaysia, died in November 2019; stem cell technology
10908-555: The walls of mud holes, and rhino bites on small branches. The team also identified that rhinos ate more than 30 species of plants. On 2 October 2013, video images made with camera traps showing the Sumatran rhino in Kutai Barat, Kalimantan, were released by the World Wildlife Fund. Experts assume the videos show two different animals, but aren't quite certain. According to the Indonesia's Minister of Forestry, Zulkifli Hasan called
11016-555: The wild, while the record time in captivity is a female D. lasiotis , which lived for 32 years and 8 months before dying in the London Zoo in 1900. Two thick folds of skin encircle the body behind the front legs and before the hind legs. The rhino has a smaller fold of skin around its neck. The skin itself is thin, 10–16 mm (0.39–0.63 in), and in the wild, the rhino appears to have no subcutaneous fat . Hair can range from dense (the most dense hair in young calves) to scarce, and
11124-400: Was discovered in East Kalimantan in early 2016. The Sumatran rhino is a mostly solitary animal except for courtship and offspring-rearing. It is the most vocal rhino species and also communicates through marking soil with its feet, twisting saplings into patterns, and leaving excrement. The species is much better studied than the similarly reclusive Javan rhinoceros , in part because of
11232-404: Was estimated to contain a population of around 500 rhinos in the 1980s, but due to poaching, this population is now considered extinct. The survival of any animals in Peninsular Malaysia is extremely unlikely. Genetic analysis of Sumatran rhino populations has identified three distinct genetic lineages. The channel between Sumatra and Malaysia was not as significant a barrier for the rhinos as
11340-501: Was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Svarṇadvīpa ('Island of Gold') and Svarṇabhūmi ('Land of Gold'), because of the gold deposits in the island's highlands . The earliest known mention of the current form "Sumatra" was in 1017, when the local king Haji Sumatrabhumi ("king of the land of Sumatra") sent an envoy to China . Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri ( Lamuri , Lambri or Ramni ) in
11448-477: Was much longer at 81 cm (32 in). The posterior horn is much smaller, usually less than 10 cm (3.9 in) long, and often little more than a knob. The larger nasal horn is also known as the anterior horn; the smaller posterior horn is known as the frontal horn. The horns are dark grey or black in color. The bulls have larger horns than the cows, though the species is not otherwise sexually dimorphic . The Sumatran rhino lives an estimated 30–45 years in
11556-453: Was not longer than other Sumatran rhinos, but D. s. lasiotis remained a subspecies because it was significantly larger than the other subspecies. Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other perissodactyls in the Early Eocene . Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests the ancestors of modern rhinos split from the ancestors of Equidae around 50 million years ago. The extant family,
11664-499: Was shot 16 km (9.9 mi) outside Fort Marlborough , near the west coast of Sumatra, in 1793. Drawings of the animal, and a written description, were sent to the naturalist Joseph Banks , then president of the Royal Society of London , who published a paper on the specimen that year. In 1814, the species was given a scientific name by Johann Fischer von Waldheim . The specific epithet sumatrensis signifies "of Sumatra",
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