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65-756: The Nooksack ( / ˈ n ʊ k s æ k / ; Nooksack : Noxwsʼáʔaq ) are a federally recognized Native American tribe near the Pacific Northwest Coast . They are a sovereign nation, located in the mainland northwest corner of Washington state in the United States along the Nooksack River near the small town of Deming (in western Whatcom County ), and 12 miles south of the Canadian border. As of 2008, they had more than 1,800 enrolled members. Their terms for citizenship include descent from persons listed in

130-617: A 1942 tribal census. They are part of the Coast Salish people and have traditionally spoken Nooksack , one of the Salishan family of languages. It is closely related to the Halkomelem language of coastal British Columbia, and at one time was considered a dialect of the latter. At the time of European encounter, the Nooksack people occupied territory extending into present-day British Columbia. But

195-443: A 1965 government settlement, or people who appeared on a 1942 tribal census", and their direct descendants. Section H of the Nooksack constitution also allowed the enrollment of “persons who possess at least ¼ Indian blood and who can prove Nooksack ancestry to any degree.” In 2014 Chairman Bob Kelly initiated a referendum removing Section H from the constitution; it passed with 61% of the vote. Like other federally recognized tribes,

260-496: A decade after the tribe was federally recognized. Annie George is known as a daughter of Matsqui George, known leader of a Nooksack village in what is now British Columbia . The ancestral tribal members were considered one people until Canada and the United States established boundaries across former common land. Annie's mother died soon after her birth and her father remarried. He and his family later moved to Washington state. In

325-469: A federally recognized tribe possessed. The bills excluded any splinter groups, political factions, and any groups formed after December 31, 2002. In 2013 the Bureau was greatly affected by sequestration funding cuts of $ 800 million, which particularly affected the already-underfunded Indian Health Service . The Bureau of Indian Affairs has been sued four times in class action overtime lawsuits brought by

390-570: A group of around 500  American Indians with the AIM took over the BIA building, the culmination of their Trail of Broken Treaties walk. They intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards. They occupied the Department of Interior headquarters from November 3 to 9, 1972. The BIA

455-503: A language that was in the same region but distinct from that earlier spoken by the Nooksack people. Nooksack language Linguistically, Nooksack is most closely related to the Squamish , shíshálh and Halkomelem languages, which are all spoken in nearby parts of British Columbia , Canada . Some researchers have questioned whether the Nooksack language is simply a divergent dialect of Halkomelem, but research has proved that Nooksack

520-569: A major class action case related to trust lands, was settled in December 2009. The suit was filed against the U.S. Department of Interior, of which the BIA is a part. A major responsibility has been the management of the Indian trust accounts. This was a class-action lawsuit regarding the federal government's management and accounting of more than 300,000 individual American Indian and Alaska Native trust accounts. A settlement fund totaling $ 3.4 billion

585-570: Is a United States federal agency within the Department of the Interior . It is responsible for implementing federal laws and policies related to Native Americans and Alaska Natives , and administering and managing over 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km ) of reservations held in trust by the U.S. federal government for indigenous tribes . It renders services to roughly 2 million indigenous Americans across 574 federally recognized tribes. The BIA

650-618: Is governed by a director and overseen by the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs, who answers to the Secretary of the Interior . The BIA works with tribal governments to help administer law enforcement and justice; promote development in agriculture, infrastructure, and the economy; enhance tribal governance; manage natural resources; and generally advance the quality of life in tribal communities. Educational services are provided by Bureau of Indian Education —the only other agency under

715-428: Is in fact a distinct language. The Nooksack language has only one fluent speaker as of 2020. In the 1970s, the linguist Brent Galloway worked closely with the last remaining native speaker, Sindick Jimmy, to compile a dictionary of the Nooksack language. His book, Nooksack Place Names: Geography, Culture, and Language , was published in 2011. In 1988, Nooksack became extinct with the death of Sindick Jimmy. Now,

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780-436: Is to be distributed to class members. This is to compensate for claims that prior U.S. officials had mismanaged the administration of Indian trust assets. In addition, the settlement establishes a $ 2 billion fund enabling federally recognized tribes to voluntarily buy back and consolidate fractionated land interests. The bureau is currently trying to evolve from a supervisory to an advisory role. However, this has been

845-617: The American Indian Movement  (AIM) worried the U.S. government; the FBI responded both overtly and covertly (by creating COINTELPRO and other programs) to suppress possible uprisings among native peoples. As a branch of the U.S. government with personnel on Indian reservations , BIA police were involved in political actions such as: The occupation of BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1972 : On November 3, 1972,

910-490: The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) on behalf of The 306. Opponents of Kelly's position have said the disenrollment decision was political, and that Kelly was trying to get rid of critics before the next council election. Votes were very close among candidates in the primary election in the spring of 2014. In March 2014, the disenrollment case was pending in tribal court, which, a KUOW reporter noted, usually decided in alliance with

975-647: The Federation of Indian Service Employees , a union which represents the federal civilian employees of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Indian Education, the assistant secretary of Indian affairs and the Office of the Special Trustee for Indian Affairs. The grievances allege widespread violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act and claim tens of millions of dollars in damages. Cobell vs. Salazar ,

1040-432: The Salishan family of Native American languages, and is most similar to the Halkomelem language of British Columbia, of which it was once considered a dialect. Until the mid-20th century, Halkomelem had become the dominant indigenous language of the Nooksack in the United States. This demonstrated how closely the people were related on each side of the border. As of 2016, the last fluent speaker of Nooksack and its dialects

1105-521: The United States Government Fur Trade Factory System . The post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822. The government licensed traders to have some control in Indian territories and gain a share of the lucrative trade. The abolition of the factory system left a vacuum within the U.S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs

1170-569: The 1831 court case Cherokee Nation v. Georgia . The Supreme Court originally refused to hear the case, because the Cherokee nation was not an independent state and could not litigate in the federal court. It was not until the court case Worcester v. Georgia , when Chief Justice John Marshall allowed Native American tribes to be recognized as "domestic dependent nations." These court cases set precedent for future treaties, as more Native tribes were recognized as domestic and dependent nations. This period

1235-599: The 1910 federal census Annie's half-brother Louis George was recorded as living with his mother (the second wife) and his and Annie's father Matsqui George in Washington state, and all are identified as Nooksack. Over time descendants of the three daughters' families, known as the Rabang, Rapada, and Narte-Gladstone, gained political power in the tribe. By the 21st century, some were elected to office. Some other tribal members resented their power, as well as worrying because some members of these families were prosecuted for drug trade. In

1300-534: The 1970s, including what is known as the Boldt decision , have affirmed Native American rights in Washington state to fish and gather food in their traditional ways from their historic territories. The tribe created a constitution conforming to the model of elected government as proposed under the Indian Reorganization Act. Under its constitution, tribal members elect representatives to an 8-person council. Half

1365-638: The 21st century, the now 306 living descendants comprise about 15 percent of the tribe. According to Kelly (and current chair Ross Cline Sr.), Annie George's descendants had been mistakenly enrolled in the 1980s under Section H of the constitution. Kelly believed he had to correct the situation. In February 2013, the tribal council sent notices to the 306 individuals, informing them that their citizenship would be revoked within 30 days. This would result in their losing status as members, losing their community and formal identity as Nooksack, and affecting access to federal education and health benefits. Opponents protested

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1430-485: The 306 are officially disenrolled." After a close primary, four tribal council positions were up for election in March 2014. The council refused to call elections until action was finished on disenrollment of the Nooksack 306. As the delay continued into 2016, Tribal Elder George Adams, the tribe's election superintendent, believed the council had gone too far. He "invoked the right of General Council, an ancient tradition meaning

1495-425: The 306 members could still vote in tribal elections. Because the tribal council refused to schedule an election, Tribal Elder George Adams on July 14, 2016, called a General Council meeting in order to conduct a 'special election' of the four open council seats. More than 200 attendees met off the reservation to ensure they did not have tribal interference. They elected four interim council members and also invalidated

1560-430: The 306. These were interim positions, and the tribal council said they wanted the federal government to supervise an election for the four open positions. Chairman Bob Kelly said he would not recognize this General Council election as valid. His supporters on the council include Secretary Nadene Rapada and member Bob Solomon. A new 'supreme court' was created by the tribal council with Kelly as chief justice, an action that

1625-558: The Assistant Secretary for Indian affairs—while health care is the responsibility of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through its Indian Health Service . The BIA is one of the oldest federal agencies in the U.S., with roots tracing back to the Committee on Indian Affairs established by Congress in 1775. First headed by Benjamin Franklin , the committee oversaw trade and treaty relations with various indigenous peoples, until

1690-495: The BIA is headed by a bureau director who reports to the assistant secretary for Indian affairs. The current assistant secretary is Bryan Newland . The BIA oversees 574 federally recognized tribes through four offices: Agencies related to Native Americans originated in 1775, when the Second Continental Congress created a trio of Indian-related agencies. Benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among

1755-429: The BIA. In particular, problems in enforcing treaties, handling records and trust land incomes were disputed. In 2002 Congress worked with the Bureau to prepare bill S.1392, which established procedures for tribal recognition. A separate bill S. 1393 ensured full and fair participation in decision-making processes at the Bureau via grants. Both bills addressed what services, limitations, obligations, and responsibilities

1820-529: The Biden administration to immediately take steps to halt the evictions." UN rapporteurs, or monitors, traveled to Whatcom County to review the issues and also consulted with related US agencies. "Balakrishnan Rajagopal is the special rapporteur on adequate housing, and Francisco Cali Tzay is the special rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples." In early February 2022 they called on the US government to prevent eviction of

1885-600: The Nooksack Indian Tribe has offered classes in the language. As of 2020, one fluent speaker remained, a Nooksack tribal member who has been part of the Lhéchelesem Teacher Training Language Immersion Project. In the project, students will spend mornings in language immersion , and afternoons working on special projects, focusing on the language use in one aspect of local native culture such as fishing or crafts. After two years,

1950-468: The Nooksack Indian Tribe. The following table includes all the vowel sounds found in the Nooksack language. The following table includes all the consonant sounds found in the Nooksack language. In addition, the diacritic "ː" indicates that the preceding sound is long (e.g. oː , aː ). An acute accent (´) is placed on the accented syllable. Bureau of Indian Affairs The Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ), also known as Indian Affairs ( IA ),

2015-424: The Nooksack set their own membership qualifications. Since 2012 the tribe has been embroiled in a bitter political controversy, in part related to determining membership. That year the tribe refused enrollment of several young children of Terry St. Germain, although they had enrolled his two oldest children. Claiming descent from Annie George, he had become an enrolled member as a teenager. His brother Rudy St. Germain

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2080-570: The Senate Committee on the Indian Affairs made the final settlement in 1850. This settlement, "supported the position of the Cherokee that the cost of maintaining the tribesman during their removal and the years upkeep after their arrival West should be paid by the federal government, and the expense of the removal agents should be paid as well." In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs . In 1849 Indian Affairs

2145-533: The U.S. government in the 19th century, they were not recognized as a tribe at the time by the Bureau of Indian Affairs . In the 1930s the Nooksack tribe voted to accept the Wheeler-Howard Act and began working on a tribal constitution to establish an elected government under its model. They took a census in 1942 of persons considered members of the tribal community. Their constitution also provided for other forms of documentation and identity recognition. During

2210-534: The U.S. government's prevailing policy of forced assimilation of native peoples and the annexation of their land; beginning with the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, the BIA has increasingly emphasized tribal self-determination and peer-to-peer relationships between tribal governments and federal government. Between 1824 and 1977, the BIA was led by a total of 42 commissioners, of whom six were of indigenous descent. Since

2275-568: The confusing records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Everett, concluding the Annie George descendants were insufficiently documented. In 2013, the tribal council sent out a notice of disenrollment to 306 living descendants of ancestor Annie George (born 1875) and her three daughters. Thirty-seven were elders. Annie George's name did not appear in a 1942 tribal census, which has been the basis required for documenting descent for tribal membership, nor

2340-570: The creation of the position of Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs in 1977, all thirteen occupants up to the present day have been Indigenous, including Bay Mills Indian Community's Bryan Newland, appointed and confirmed to the position in 2021. As of 2020, the majority of BIA employees are American Indian or Alaska Native, the most at any time in the agency's history. Headquartered in the Main Interior Building in Washington, D.C. ,

2405-695: The disenrollment, saying that it was an effort by Kelly to gain more power before a competitive tribal election. People opposed to the disenrollment marched in protest in March 2013 in Seattle , the largest city in the state. The families hired Gabriel S. Galanda ( Round Valley Indian Tribes ) to represent them. Born and raised in Port Angeles, Washington , he became an attorney and set up his own practice in Seattle, specializing in Native American issues. He consulted with

2470-583: The early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War . In 1789, the U.S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade , or " Office of Indian Trade " within the War Department, who was charged with maintaining

2535-502: The establishment of the Bureau of Indian Affairs by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun in 1824. The BIA gained statutory authority in 1832, and in 1849 was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior. Until the formal adoption of its current name in 1947, the BIA was variably known as the Indian office, the Indian bureau, the Indian department, and the Indian Service. The BIA's mission and mandate historically reflected

2600-697: The families. Galanda said this was the first case he knew of in which UN monitors reviewed a dispute within an indigenous tribe. As of the 2000 census , the Nooksack Indian Reservation, at 48°53′03″N 122°20′54″W  /  48.88417°N 122.34833°W  / 48.88417; -122.34833 in Whatcom County, had a resident population of 547 persons living on 2,720 acres (11 km)) of land. Of these residents, 373 persons, or 68.2 percent, identified as being solely of Native American ancestry. The Nooksack language ( Lhéchalosem ) belongs to

2665-487: The later decades of the 20th century, the people worked to organize their community and gain federal recognition as a tribe. In this period many Nooksack and other Coastal Salish worked and lived away from Whatcom County, further south in the Puget Sound area where there were more jobs. The Nooksack acquired a one-acre (4,000m) parcel of land in 1970, as their reservation, and gained full federal recognition in 1973. That land

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2730-425: The majority on the tribal council. This would have been the largest mass disenrollment by any tribe within Washington state. Kelly allegedly fired tribal employees who supported or were members of the Nooksack 306. In addition, "the tribal council allegedly fired a judge who was about to rule against them, disbarred the attorney representing the 306, and by most accounts refused to hold new tribal elections until after

2795-610: The mountains to the coast of present-day northwest Washington state in the watershed of the Nooksack River, and into British Columbia , Canada . They set up seasonal camps for hunting or fishing, such as timing when they could harvest salmon runs. European exploration and colonization of the Pacific Northwest resulted in social disruption, high death rates from infectious disease, and their losing access to much of their historic territory. The surviving Nooksack continued to live near

2860-468: The newly elected tribal council, with a majority of Kelly supporters, voted to proceed with disenrolling the George descendants. Several families continued to live on tribal land in tribal housing. In 2019 the council passed a new rule requiring a ground sublease with the tribe for underlying Tribal Trust Land. Eligibility for such subleases were limited to enrolled tribal members. The council said that growth in

2925-403: The positions are elected in alternating years. The tribal chairman is elected as one of the eight, as are the vice-chairman, treasurer, and secretary. All terms are for two years. The tribal council approves policy and passes laws affecting members. The tribe also has a judicial branch, a tribal court. The tribe set its rules for membership as: "recipients of early land allotments, recipients of

2990-464: The recall of Carmen Tageant from the Tribal Council, returning her to office. Elected as vice chairman was Bob Doucette, who had served on the council in the 1970s; Bernadine Roberts, also a former council member, was elected treasurer. Jeremiah Johnny and Ron Roberts were elected to the two council positions, and Tageant was returned to her seat. A majority of the council now opposed disenrollment of

3055-495: The river by which they are known. In 1934 Congress and President Franklin D. Roosevelt passed the Wheeler-Howard Act, also known as the Indian Reorganization Act . It was intended to help improve the condition of indigenous peoples by enabling them to revive and restore Indian self-government, which had been largely reduced, especially on Indian reservations. Because the Nooksack had not been granted reservation land by

3120-430: The setting of the border between Canada and the United States split the people into two territories. Halkomelem was still dominant in the Nooksack watershed in the US. Like most Northwest Coast indigenous peoples, the Nooksack long occupied a watershed area where they relied on fishing, hunting, and clamming, as well as gathering root vegetables and berries, and processing these for sustenance. Their territory extended from

3185-402: The southern, midwestern and western United States. These superindenents were authorized to negotiate with tribes and oversaw Indian agents in their assigned region. The bureau was eventually reorganized in 1878, with superintendencies removed. These were eventually replaced with regional offices, which continue today. The BIA's goal to protect domestic and dependent nations, was reaffirmed by

3250-524: The students will obtain a certificate similar to an Associate Degree, and after four years they will be fully qualified language teachers, with the equivalent of a Bachelor of Arts. The aim is to revive the use of the Lhéchelesem language in all aspects of daily life. The program has an annual budget of $ 110,000, with 60 percent funded by the Administration for Native Americans (ANA) and 40 percent funded by

3315-488: The tribe for this housing. Despite appeals, in December 2021 the tribe was set to evict 61 former members, and two of their children who were enrolled members. Ross Cline Sr., serves as the current tribal chairman. In December 2021, the Nooksack 306 through Galanda appealed to the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights , "seeking to have that organization intervene, review the situation and ask

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3380-427: The tribe meant these houses were needed for Nooksack members. They notified 61 former members (of the 306 disenrolled) that they would have to leave this housing. Twenty-one homes had been federally funded under a program with the Department of Housing and Urban Development . Many George descendants had occupied such housing for more than a decade, and some had nearly completed a lease-to-own program, making payments to

3445-467: The tribe. Galanda, who continues to dispute the legality of the disenrollment of the 306, has suggested that the tribe violated due process in proposing eviction. The tribe had to comply with federal civil rights law for units built with federal funding. The case has gained renewed federal attention from both the Department of Interior and HUD. They initiated an investigation in fall 2021 related to civil rights issues and accounting for payments from tenants to

3510-511: The voice of the people. According to tradition, the tribe gives authority to its leaders, but in extreme cases of misuse this authority can be revoked by the tribe, which acts together as a single unit, the General Council." In March 2016, Tribal Judge Susan Alexander ruled that the tribe could not disbar Galanda from representing the 306 clients in tribal court. Alexander was later removed from her post. In March 2016 an appeals court ruled that

3575-437: Was George Adams, a 70-year-old elder of the tribe. In the late 20th century, observers thought the language had become extinct around 1988. In the 1970s American linguist Brent Galloway had worked closely with another fluent native speaker. He was trying to create a dictionary of the Nooksack language but it is unclear if that work was published before his death. Galloway's book Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem (2009) covers

3640-497: Was also enrolled and in 2012 was serving on the tribal council, as was their cousin Michelle Roberts, another George descendant. The enrollment office said the family had insufficient documentation of Nooksack descent. Following rejection of St. Germain's application for his children, under the leadership of Chairman Bob Kelly, the tribe conducted a review of membership and descent across several families. Kelly personally reviewed

3705-416: Was designed by its agents to decrease the power of American Indian leaders. The bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947. With the rise of American Indian activism in the 1960s and 1970s and increasing demands for enforcement of treaty rights and sovereignty, the 1970s were a particularly turbulent period of BIA history. The rise of activist groups such as

3770-527: Was encompassed by westward expansion and the removal of Native Nations. In 1833 Georgians fought for the removal of the Cherokee Nation from the state of Georgia. Despite the rulings of Worcester v. Georgia, President Jackson and John C. Calhoun created a plan for removal. The removal of the Cherokee Nation occurred in 1838 and was accompanied by the Treaty of 1846. When reparations from the treaty were unfulfilled,

3835-591: Was formed on March 11, 1824, by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun , who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress . He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names. McKenney preferred to call it the " Indian Office ", whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun. The Bureau was initially organized by region, with commissions for Superintendents of Indian Affairs granted to prominent citizens in each region of

3900-530: Was implicated in supporting controversial tribal presidents, notably Dick Wilson , who was charged with being authoritarian; using tribal funds for a private paramilitary force, the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (or "GOON squad"), which he employed against opponents; intimidation of voters in the 1974 election; misappropriation of funds, and other misdeeds. Many native peoples continue to oppose policies of

3965-590: Was invalidated by the federal government in 2019 as it went against the Nooksack constitution. The tribe lost federal funding in 2017 because the Bureau of Indian Affairs said it had acted improperly by trying to disenroll the 306 and postponing an important election related to this controversy. After a supervised general election was held in December 2017, the federal government reinstated tribal funding in March 2018. The elections resulted in further legal challenges after allegations of fraud and irregularities surfaced, as Kelly supporters were returned to office. In 2018

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4030-476: Was taken into trust by the US Department of Interior, as has been much of the other lands they have acquired. Their land base has subsequently increased to 3,133.61 acres, which includes fee land, trust land, and individual trust land. Trust land is land held by the federal government in trust for a native tribe or nation. It is the area where the tribe exercises its sovereign authority. Federal court decisions in

4095-403: Was there a record that she was granted land. But her brother Louis George was listed on the 1942 tribal census. Her daughters: Elizabeth (Libby), Emma and Louisa) married Filipino migrant workers, and lived and worked in other areas of the southern Puget Sound for years. Their descendants were accepted for enrollment as Nooksack members in the early 1980s under Section H of the constitution, about

4160-424: Was to train students in the proper behavior according to prevailing standards of "civilization." That way they could assimilate into American society and not be permanently trapped in reservations. The boarding schools prohibited students from using their indigenous languages, practices, and cultures. Another force for assimilation and Euro-American control was the Bureau of Indian Affairs tribal police force. This

4225-512: Was transferred to the newly established U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs. One of the most controversial policies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was the late 19th to early 20th century decision to educate native children in separate boarding schools , such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School . The goal

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