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39-530: The first attempt to replace the wooden fort with a stone kremlin was recorded in 1374, but construction was limited to a single tower, known as the Dmitrovskaya Tower (this has not survived). Under the rule of Ivan III , Nizhny Novgorod played the role of a guard city, having a permanent garrison; it served as a place for gathering troops for Moscow’s actions against the Khanate of Kazan . In order to strengthen

78-655: A fortress-like style similar to that of a kremlin. For a partial list, see Monasteries in Russia . Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have

117-428: A keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using a native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for

156-515: A link of fortified fortification zones cutting off the way to the central regions from Crimean Tatars . Aesthetically wooden fortresses were not inferior to stone ones—and we can regret that the towers of wooden kremlins have not survived to this day. Wooden fortresses were built quickly: in 1638 in Mtsensk fortress walls of Bolshoi Ostrog and Pletny Gorod with a total length of about 3 kilometres with 13 towers and almost one hundred meters long bridge over

195-411: A medieval settlement and cemetery on the site of the destroyed church of St. Simeon Stylites . The finds belong to the 13th century, and the most ancient cultural layer - to 1221, when Nizhny Novgorod was founded. In 2021, before the 800th anniversary of Nizhny Novgorod, a major restoration was carried out. Under its terms, the most important thing was the restoration of the historic "battle road" inside

234-430: Is dumped in a rampart, reinforcing it with planks and piles, like beaten earth, until the wall reaches the desired height. Then they measure the door at whichever side they want, and approach by a wooden bridge". In ancient times, a wooden fence was built on the crest of a rampart, a palisade or zapolot (the wall made of logs, vertically one above the other, and connected with horizontally laid timbers). The way of defending

273-689: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

312-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958

351-677: The Cyrillic Characters Using the Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard

390-575: The Golden Gate of Kievan citadel and the gate of the Vladimir Kremlin bearing the same name survived. A special type of wooden and stone Kremlins appeared under the influence of architectural traditions of Poland and Hungary . They were characterised by the juxtaposition of wooden walls and towers with vezha—high stone towers standing inside the fortress, which were used as watchtowers. Constructions, called Volyn towers, were erected, for example, in

429-580: The Kremlin wall. The city had been waiting for this event for 230 years. Since August 2021, locals and tourists can walk a full circular route along the large fortress wall while inside it. Its length is 2 km. The following 13 towers survive. Counter clockwise: The Kremlin contained many churches, but the only survivor is the Michael the Archangel Cathedral (the 'Archangel Cathedral'), built no later than

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468-644: The River Zusha were erected in 20 days. The town of Sviyazhsk was built similarly during the Kazan campaign in the spring of 1551: fortress walls about 2.5 kilometres long, many churches and houses were erected in a month. Later on, many Kremlins were rebuilt and strengthened. Thus, the Moscow Kremlin under Ivan the Third was reconstructed of bricks. In the 16th and 17th centuries, about 30 stone fortresses were built in

507-572: The Russian State. New Kremlins have regular geometric forms in plan ( Zaraisky and Tula Kremlins ). The Tula Kremlin is unique because it was built in a valley (which was possible because of undeveloped siege artillery of nomad Tatars). Construction of the Kremlin lasted until the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The last Kremlin structure was built of stone between 1699 and 1717 in the town of Tobolsk (the easternmost Kremlin in Russia). After

546-472: The Soviet Motherland with weapons in their hands in a time of terrible trials, and about those who forged weapons, who built tanks and planes, who cooked steel for shells who, with their labor exploits, were worthy of the military valor of soldiers. Pravda , June 8, 1942. ” Also, on the territory of the memorial on July 2, 2020, a monument was erected to “Gorky residents - valiant workers of the rear” and

585-599: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

624-525: The citadels of Kholmsk , Kamenets and Gorodeni. During the Mongol-Tatar invasion , many Russian wooden and stone-wooden fortresses were taken and destroyed by the Mongols. The long-lasting Mongol-Tatar yoke slowed down the development of Russian fortification architecture for a century and a half, as internecine wars stopped and the need to build fortresses disappeared. The tradition of fortress construction

663-414: The city was awarded the title “ City of Labour Valour ”. Kremlin (fortification) A kremlin ( / ˈ k r ɛ m l ɪ n / KREM-lin ; Russian: кремль , romanized : kremlj , IPA: [ˈkrʲemlʲ] ) is a major fortified central complex found in historic Russian cities. The word is often used to refer to the Moscow Kremlin and metonymically to

702-481: The defenses of the city, construction works on the walls began again. Construction of the stone Kremlin of Nizhny Novgorod began in 1500 with the building of the Ivanovskaya Tower; the main work commenced in 1508 and by 1515 a building was completed. The oak walls that formed the old fortifications were destroyed by a huge fire in 1513. The two kilometer wall was reinforced by 13 towers (one of them – Zachatskaya –

741-766: The disintegrations of the Kievan Rus , the Russian Empire and the USSR , some fortresses considered Kremlin-type, remained beyond the borders of modern Russia. Some are listed below: The same structure in Novgorodshina , Ukraine and other Old Russian territories is also called dytynets ( Ukrainian : дитинець , from dytyna – child). The term has been in use since the 11th century. The term kremlin first appeared in 14th century in various Russian territories, where it replaced dytynets . Many Russian monasteries have been built in

780-561: The front!” has been located on the territory of the Kremlin. It presents the military equipment that Gorky supplied the Soviet army to the Eastern Front of World War II to fight the Nazi troops . At the entrance to the memorial there is a memorial sign faced with granite slabs. On one of the plates, the text is engraved: “ From generation to generation, words will be passed on about those who defended

819-682: The government based there. Other such fortresses are called detinets , such as the Novgorod Detinets . The Russian word is of uncertain origin. Different versions include the word originating from the Turkic languages , the Greek language or from Baltic languages . The word may share the same root as kremen' (Russian: кремень , romanized : kremenj , IPA: [krʲɪˈmʲenʲ] ), meaning ' flint '. The Slavs began to build fortresses to protect their lands from enemies in

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858-492: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

897-461: The middle of the 16th century and rebuilt in 1628-1631. It is the oldest surviving building in the Kremlin. The cathedral contains the tomb of Kuzma Minin. In 1828, an obelisk in honor of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky was constructed in front of the Archangel Cathedral (architect Melnikov and Martos). The house of the military governor was built in 1837-1841; it is now the Museum of Art. The Arsenal

936-473: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

975-568: The ninth century. It is known that the Scandinavians called the Slavic lands the land of fortresses—" Gardariki ". Arabic geographer Al-Bakri wrote: "And that is how the Slavs build a large part of their fortresses: they head for meadows, rich in water and reeds, and there mark a round or rectangular place, depending on the shape they want to make a fortress, and they dig around the moat, and the dugout earth

1014-620: The number of sustained sieges. The term Kremlin (in the variant Kremnik) is first encountered in chronicles of 1317 in accounts of the construction of the Tver Kremlin, where a wooden city-fortress was erected, which was clayed and whitewashed. Wooden fortresses were erected everywhere in the Russian state—from the Far East lands to the Swedish borders. They were numerous in the South, where they served as

1053-549: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

1092-549: The romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483

1131-507: The settlement was primitive; later wooden fortress walls became more preferable. In the 8th century, the earliest known stone and wooden fortress—Lubšanská fortress near Staraya Ladoga was built. The ancient stone and wooden kremlins include a fortress on Truvorov settlement near Izborsk (9th century) and the first Stara Ladoga Kremlin (the end of the 9th century, later rebuilt). Single stone towers, gates and bends of walls appeared in other cities ( Vladimir , Kyiv , Novgorod , Pereyaslavl ):

1170-494: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

1209-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin - Misplaced Pages Continue

1248-670: The upper platforms. Thus, the fortress defended the airspace of the city from the Luftwaffe . The Luftwaffe bombed the Kanavinsky Bridge and the Fair , but the Kremlin's air defense defended these objects. The Council of Ministers of the RSFSR issued an order on January 30, 1949 for the restoration of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin. In October 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of

1287-657: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in

1326-644: Was built in 1840-1843 at the direction of Nicholas I . In 1931, the Transfiguration Cathedral was replaced by the House of Soviets; that building is now the City Council building. In 1965, a memorial complex in honor of Nizhny Novgorod citizens who died in World War II was created, near the obelisk of Minin and Pozharsky; this included an eternal flame . Since 1980, the military-patriotic memorial “Gorky for

1365-712: Was on the shore of the Volga; not preserved, but was rebuilt in 2012). This “Stone City” had a permanent garrison with solid artillery weapons. With the fall of Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin lost its military significance, and later it housed the city and provincial authorities. During the World War II , the roofs of the Taynitskaya, the Severnaya, and the Chasovaya Towers were dismantled and anti-aircraft machine guns were installed on

1404-642: Was preserved in Novgorod and Pskov lands which were not damaged by the Mongol invasion . Here are built not only kremlins ( Izborsk , Porkhov ) but—for the first time in Russia—fortresses, which were not many cities in the full sense of the word, as defensive structures (Koporie, Oreshek , Yam, Korela , Ostrov , Kobyla). The strongest of the Russian fortresses was the Pskov Kremlin , which had no equal in Russia in

1443-513: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,

1482-559: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by

1521-660: Was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by the National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of

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