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102-410: At an early date Ninlil was identified with the goddess Sud from Shuruppak , like her associated with Enlil, and eventually fully absorbed her. In the myth Enlil and Sud , Ninlil is the name Sud received after marrying Enlil. Nisaba , the goddess of writing, and her husband Haya are described as her parents. While Ninlil's mother bears a different name, Nunbaršegunu , in the myth Enlil and Ninlil ,

204-442: A linguistic substrate due to the first consonant not following the usual phonetic rules of known languages of the region(suggesting unknown language lost through time). Whether a connection existed between the theonym Wer/Mer and place names such as Mari and Warum is uncertain too. Lambert considered the similarity to be accidental in the case of Mari, though he concluded that the matter cannot be conclusively settled. Wer

306-494: A 20 foot in diameter well, constructed with plano-convex bricks, in the center of the larger mound as well as an arched sewer, similarly constructed. The latter was where tablets were found. Banks also noted that the smaller mound held a cemetery. In 1926 it was visited by Raymond P, Dougherty during his archaeological survey of the region. In March and April 1931, a joint team of the American Schools of Oriental Research and

408-512: A daughter or sister. A different theory, based on Aramaic inscriptions from the Parthian period, makes Šerua's initial position that of a daughter of Ashur, who later came to be viewed as his second wife alongside Mullissu. Mullissu also came to be conflated with Ishtar of Nineveh , who was also recast as Ashur's consort in the Neo-Assyrian period. It has been argued that especially in texts from

510-460: A deified cult emblem, specifically a lance (Akkadian: šukurrum ). The deified lance is elsewhere attested in association with the god Wer . As the wife of Enlil , Ninlil was believed to be responsible for similar spheres of life, and stood on the top of the pantheon alongside him. Like him, she was believed to be in charge of the determination of fates, and in a few inscriptions even takes precedence over him in this role. A late hymn states that she

612-523: A deity named Immeriya, it cannot be established if the latter, who is otherwise best known from an inscribed statue possibly taken as bounty by Untash-Napirisha , was related to him in any way. Worship of Wer is chiefly attested from the middle Euphrates area, northern Babylonia (though only before the Middle Babylonian period ), the Diyala area, and Assyria . While confirmed attestations go back to

714-536: A different meaning ("house, silent place"). Ekisiga and Edimgalanna appear side by side in a number of texts, for example in a lamentation describing the destruction of Shuruppak. It is also possible that Esiguz ("house of goat hair") located in Guaba was a temple of Sud, but this is uncertain, and it is better attested in association with Inanna of Zabalam . A further temple which seemingly was primarily dedicated to Sudaĝ but possibly could have been associated with Sud as well

816-495: A full magnetometer survey of the site was completed was conducted between 2016 and 2018 by a team from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich led by Adelheid Otto and Berthold Einwag. The initial work was under the regional QADIS survey. A drone was used to create a digital elevation model of the site. The researchers found thousands of robber holes left by looters which had disturbed surface in many places, with

918-536: A further location associated with Ninlil was NUN.KID from the Archaic City List , a document from the Early Dynastic Period, but this is unlikely as the orthography of the name varies between sources, and there is no basis to assume it was read as Ninlil or associated with her in some way. It is possible that a temple of Ninlil attested in inscriptions of Rim-Sîn I, Eninbišetum ("house worthy of its lady")

1020-629: A generic term referring to female deities, and therefore could be assigned the name Ninlil without any type of syncretism occurring. Ninlil's temple there was known as E-Ḫursaĝkalamma ("house, mountain of the land"). A ziggurat possibly dedicated to her, Ekurmah ("house, exalted mountain"), also existed in the same location. It has also been proposed that she was worshiped in the akitu temple of Zababa in Kish. A festival held in Babylon in honor of Gula involved Ninlil, as well as Bizilla , both of whom acted as

1122-411: A governor of Nippur, acted as a priest of both Enlil and Ninlil, though the terms used to refer to these functions are not identical ( nu-eš 3 and gudu 4 , respectively). The myth Enlil and Sud indicates that Ninlil was regarded as the daughter of Nisaba , the goddess of writing, and her husband Haya . In Enlil and Ninlil her mother is instead a goddess named Nunbaršegunu , who according to

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1224-515: A group of deities belonging to the former divine generations who resided in the underworld. Other senior Mesopotamian deities like Anu and Alalu could be listed among them too. They could be invoked as divine witnesses of treaties. From the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I onward, Ninlil started to be viewed as the wife of the Assyrian head god, Ashur . The equivalence between Ninlil understood as spouse of Enlil and Mullissu understood as spouse of Ashur

1326-422: A major drought. It is thought to have been abandoned shortly around 2000 BC. A Isin-Larsa cylinder seal and several pottery plaques which may date to early in the second millennium BC were found at the site. Surface finds are predominantly Early Dynastic. In the 2nd year of Enlil-bani ( c. 1860–1837 BC), ruler of Isin, a sage of Nippur is recorded as leaving an herbal medicine at Shurappak. The report of

1428-615: A major urban settlement in the Isin-Larsa period . A recently published hymn mentioning Bur-Suen indicates that Sud was regarded as responsible for granting him the right to rule. It has been proposed that the Isin dynasty's interest in Sud was based on her association with Gula , as medicine deities were particularly venerated in Isin, but there is no reference to her fulfilling such a role in this composition. One of Bur-Suen's successors, Enlil-bani, rebuilt

1530-439: A male deity, but other authors consider her to be a goddess. Her name indicates she was a divine representation of the sceptre , and she was closely associated with the deified crown, Ninmena . Another courtier of Ninlil was her throne bearer Nanibgal, who was initially synonymous with Nisaba but came to be viewed as a distinct deity later on. Her other servants, known from the god list An = Anum , were an udug (in this context

1632-509: A man named Utnapishtim , son of Ubara-Tutu, is noted to be king of Shuruppak. This portion of Gilgamesh is thought to have been taken from another literary composition, the Myth of Atrahasis . The city expanded to its greatest extent at the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600 BC to 2350 BC) when it covered about 100 hectares. Cuneiform tablets from the Early Dynastic III period show

1734-467: A myth apparently confusing her with Sudaĝ in the role of mother of Ishum . In Syrian cities such as Mari , Emar and Ugarit , Ninlil was closely associated with the local goddess Shalash , the spouse of Dagan , a god regarded as analogous to Enlil. This equivalence is also attested in Hurrian religion , in which Shalash was the spouse of Kumarbi , another god regarded as similar to Enlil. However, Ninlil

1836-444: A name of Enlil due to the long-standing association between those two gods. Ninlil was also the mother of the moon god Nanna . By extension, Inanna (Ishtar) and Utu (Shamash) could be viewed as her grandchildren. While a number of sources attest that Ninlil could be regarded as the mother of Ninazu , according to Frans Wiggermann this tradition might only be a result of the growing influence of Nergal on this god's character, which

1938-504: A review of Metcalf's publication notes that it is not impossible that it had a longer tradition. He suggests that as the god of Kuara , Asalluhi might have been associated with Sud and Shuruppak due to both of those cities being viewed as predating the mythical great flood in Mesopotamian tradition. The god list An = Anum attests that the Syrian goddess Shalash (not to be confused with

2040-502: A temple dedicated to her, Edimgalanna (Sumerian: "house, great bond of heaven"; more literally "house, mooring pole of heaven"). It is generally agreed that it was located either in Shuruppak or close to it. A further temple of Sud was Ekisiga ("house of funerary offerings"), possibly also located in this city. The name is homophonous with that of a temple of Dagan in Terqa , but the latter has

2142-532: A temple of Bizilla existed in Ḫursaĝkalama, a cult center of Ninlil. Ninĝidru (written NIN.PA; a second possible reading is Ninĝešduru) fulfills the role of a sukkal in a hymn to Sud, where she is described as responsible for receiving visitors in her mistress' temple. She is also mentioned alongside Sud in a fragment of an inscription of an unidentified ruler ( ensi ) of Shuruppak from the Sargonic period . Christopher Metcalf assumes that Ningidru should be considered

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2244-508: A thriving, military oriented economy with links to cities throughout the region. It has been proposed that Fara was part of a "hexapolis" with Lagash , Nippur , Uruk , Adab , and Umma , possibly under the leadership of Kish. In the Akkadian Period ( c. 2334–2154 BC), Shuruppak was ruled by a governor holding the title patesi . Like most cities on the Euphrates, it declined during

2346-547: A young bachelor traveling to find a wife, encounters Sud on the streets of Eresh and proposes to her. However, he also calls her shameless. She tells him to leave her sight in response, and additionally remarks that past suitors made her mother angry with their dishonest offers. Enlil consults his sukkal Nuska , and sends him to negotiate with Nisaba on his behalf. He is tasked with listing various gifts Enlil can bestow upon her daughter if she will let him marry her. Enlil also says that as his wife, Sud will be able to declare destinies

2448-563: Is also attested as a distinct deity in Hurrian texts, and could serve as a divine witness of treaties in this context. In the Neo-Assyrian Empire Ninlil was reinterpreted as the spouse of the supreme Assyrian god Ashur , and in this role developed into Mullissu , who in turn could be identified with various deities from the pantheon of Assyria, such as Šerua or local forms of Ishtar from cities such as Nineveh . Through most of

2550-657: Is finally “the Noah story,” which may possibly symbolize the survival of the Sumerian culture and the end of the Elamite Jemdet Nasr culture. The deposit is like that deposited by river avulsions , a process that was common in the Tigris–Euphrates river system . Tell Fara extends about a kilometer from north to south. The total area is about 120 hectares, with about 35 hectares of the mound being more than three meters above

2652-522: Is followed by a short description of a sexual encounter between the newlyweds, which according to Jeremiah Peterson can be compared to similar episodes in love songs. It has been suggested that the portrayal of Ninlil in Enlil and Sud was informed by her position in the state pantheon of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Sud appears in some copies of Nanna -Suen's Journey to Nippur , though more known copies mention

2754-505: Is otherwise absent from Emar, the only other exception being an imported Mesopotamian god list, a variant of the Weidner god list . Especially in Mari, Shalash could also be identified with Ninhursag instead. A trilingual list from Ugarit attests the equivalence between Mesopotamian Ninlil, Ugaritic Athirat and a Hurrian goddess only labeled as Ašte Kumurbineve, which means "wife of Kumarbi " in

2856-457: Is possible that she is depicted as a seated enthroned goddess on at least one cylinder seal from the Ur III period. Another might depict her as a tall goddess wearing the horned headdress of divinity leading a supplicant, followed by a shorter goddess, possibly representing Nintinugga , whose devotee the owner of the seal was according to accompanying inscription. In Mesopotamian astronomy , Ninlil

2958-539: Is presumed that he was originally one of the main deities of the northern parts of these areas, but his cult declined in the second half of the second millennium BCE. The nature of the relation between him and Itūr-Mēr , the tutelary god of Mari, is disputed by researchers. In an Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh , Wer is described as the master of the monster Humbaba , though in other versions of this narrative this role instead belongs to Enlil . Two forms of

3060-459: Is well attested in Neo-Assyrian sources. It has been argued that Mullissu's newfound position might have resulted in conflation with Šerua , as in scholarship it is often assumed that this goddess was the original wife of Ashur. It has also been proposed that while originally regarded as his wife, she later came to be replaced (rather than absorbed) by Mullissu, and was demoted to the position of

3162-517: The Early Dynastic period (including the Abu Salabikh god list) is the same deity as Wer is uncertain. While multiple Sumerian etymologies have been proposed for the name (including derivation from the terms IM- mer , " north wind ;" me-er-me-er , " storm ;" and emesal me-er , "wind"), none have been conclusively proven. Wilfred G. Lambert concluded that the name might have originated in

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3264-489: The Hurrian language . Kumarbi was a god considered analogous to Dagan and due to this association Shalash also came to be viewed as his wife. As a pair, they could also be equated with Enlil and Ninlil. Ninlil was chiefly worshiped in the cult centers of her husband Enlil. Nippur was therefore also associated with her, as already attested in sources from the Early Dynastic Period . One of the oldest texts mentioning

3366-454: The Hymn to Gula composed by Bulluṭsa-rabi attests that she could be viewed as a goddess of healing, which has been identified as a possible result of Sud's association with Gula. Sud could also be associated with Sudaĝ , one of the names of the wife of sun god Shamash . Ninlil was also incorporated into Hurrian religion, where she and Enlil were regarded as two of the so-called " primeval gods ",

3468-470: The Isin dynasty , namely Bur-Suen and Enlil-bani . He also notes that it cannot be precisely established how long Shuruppak remained inhabited due to lack of archeological data, as erosion only left the oldest layers of the city to excavate. At the same time, he acknowledges the fact that Shuruppak retained a degree of religious importance does not necessarily indicate that it was still an administrative center or

3570-619: The Jemdet Nasr period (c. 2900 BC). Similar objects were also found at Tepe Gawra (levels XII-VIII). The city rose in importance and size, exceeding 40 hectares(0.4km ), during the Early Dynastic period. In the Sumerian King List is a ruler, Ubara-Tutu , the last ruler "before the flood". In some versions he is followed by a son, Ziusudra . In later versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh ,

3672-474: The Stele of Zakkur . In a section of an Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh preserved on the so-called "Yale tablet," corresponding to tablet III of the standard version, Enkidu mentions that the cedar mountain to which Gilgamesh wants to venture is under the control of the god Wer, described as "mighty" and "never sleeping," and as the one who appointed the monster Humbaba as its guardian. Adad

3774-643: The University of Pennsylvania excavated Shuruppak for a further six week season, with Erich Schmidt as director and with epigraphist Samuel Noah Kramer being prompted by reports of illicit excavations in the area. They were able to stratify the major occupation levels as Jemdat Nasr (Fara I), Early Dynastic (Fara II), and Ur III empire (Fara III). There was an "inundation event" between Fara I and Fara II. The excavation recovered 96 tablets and fragments—mostly from pre-Sargonic times—biconvex, and unbaked. The tablets included reference to Shuruppak enabling confirmation of

3876-467: The kingship was taken to Shuruppak." "1 king; he ruled for 18,600 years. In 5 cities 8 kings; they ruled for 241,200 years. Then the flood swept over. After the flood had swept over, and the kingship had descended from heaven , the kingship was in Kish ." Wer (god) Wer ( Wēr ), also known as Mer , Ber and Iluwer was a weather god worshiped in parts of Mesopotamia and ancient Syria . It

3978-573: The 1930s excavation mentions a layer of flood deposits at the end of the Jemdet Nasr period at Shuruppak. Shuruppak in Mesopotamian legend is one of the "antediluvian" cities and the home of King Utnapishtim , who survives the flood by making a boat beforehand. Schmidt wrote that the flood story of the Bible, seems to be based on a very real event or a series of such, as suggested by the existence at Ur , at Kish , and now at Fara, of inundation deposits, which accumulated on top of human inhabitation. There

4080-486: The Akkadian Empire. A clay cone from the Akkadian Empire period found at Shurappak read "Dada, governor of Suruppak: Hala-adda, gover[nor] of Suruppak, his son, laid the ... of the city gate of the goddess Sud". Governors: Dada; Hala-adda; During Ur III period (c. 2112-2004 BC), the city was ruled by a governors (ensi 2 ) appointed by Ur. One is known to be Ur-nigar, son of Shulgi , first rulers of Ur III. One of

4182-456: The Early Dynastic period, such as Sud-anzu and Sud-dazi. She does not appear in any offering lists from Adab predating the Sargonic period. It is commonly assumed that Sud ceased to be worshiped under own name with the decline of Shuruppak, which is typically dated to the beginning of the second millennium BCE. However, Christopher Metcalf points out that Sud was still actively worshiped by kings of

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4284-652: The Eitimaku, alternative known as Eunuzu ("house which knows no daylight"), a shrine described as her bedchamber, and the Ekurigigal ("house, mountain endowed with sight") which was a storehouse dedicated jointly to her and Enlil, mentioned as early as during the reigns of Damiq-ilishu and Rim-Sîn I . Multiple small shrines in Nippur were also dedicated to her, including the Ešutumkiagga ("house, beloved storeroom") built by Ur-Nammu ,

4386-471: The Emi-Tummal (translation of the first element uncertain), a shrine called Abzu-Ninlil (" Apsu of Ninlil"), attested in documents from the Ur III period, which according to Manfred Krebernik was a water basin, and a further sanctuary distinct from those three whose name is not fully preserved, also known from documents from the Ur III period. A further cult center of Ninlil was Tummal, attested in sources from

4488-721: The Neo-Assyrian period, he was worshiped in Assur in the temple of Ištar-Aššurītu ("the Assyrian Ishtar "), and in Nineveh in the temple of Ashur. He is also mentioned on the Antakya stele of Adad-nirari III alongside Ashur, Adad , Sin of Harran and other deities. Additionally, in the same period Iluwēr, most likely the same deity, was worshiped by Arameans in Tell Afis in Syria, as attested on

4590-808: The Old Assyrian period) and the Diyala area, Puzrish-Dagan (Puzur-Wer from the Ur III period) and Larsa (Ubār-Wēr from the Old Babylonian period). A possible seventh century BCE attestation of a theophoric name invoking him as Ber, dnbr , usually interpreted as Dannu-Ber, "Ber is strong," is known from an Aramaic papyrus found in Saqqara in Egypt , However, the restoration is not certain, and according to Daniel Schwemer caution should be maintained. References to veneration of Wer other than theophoric names are absent from

4692-490: The Ur III period already. It was located in the proximity of Nippur and Puzrish-Dagan , and might correspond to modern Tell Dalham, located 21 kilometers south of the former of those two ancient cities in modern Iraq . Piotr Steinkeller proposes that it was initially a cult center of Ninhursag , and that she was replaced at some point with Ninlil, but this view is not supported by other researchers. E-Tummal also functioned as an alternate name of Ninlil's main temple in Nippur. In

4794-461: The Ur III period, a festival taking place in Tummal was centered on Ninlil symbolically renewing the king's legitimacy by decreeing his fate. It has been suggested that it was also a celebration of her marriage to Enlil, and that various songs referring to sexual encounters between them might be related to it, though no direct evidence for the latter theory is currently available. It has been proposed that

4896-797: The banks of the Euphrates in Iraq 's Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate . Shuruppak was dedicated to Ninlil , also called Sud, the goddess of grain and the air. "Shuruppak" is sometimes also the name of a king of the city, legendary survivor of the Flood , and supposed author of the Instructions of Shuruppak ". The earliest excavated levels at Shuruppak date to the Jemdet Nasr period about 3000 BC. Several objects made of arsenical copper were found in Shuruppak/Fara dating to

4998-538: The beginning Ninlil, portrayed as inexperienced, is warned by her mother, in this composition named Nunbaršegunu , to avoid the advances of Enlil. After encountering him, Ninlil initially resists, but after consulting his advisor Nuska Enlil accomplishes his goal and seduces and impregnates her. For his transgression, he has to be judged by the "fifty great gods" and "the seven gods of destinies." According to Wilfred G. Lambert , both terms are rare in Mesopotamian religious literature, and presumably refer to major deities of

5100-574: The belief that a confrontation between the primordial deity Enmesharra and either Enlil or Ninurta took place there. A late occurrence to Sud herself as an independent figure can be found in the Canonical Temple List , which has been dated to the Kassite period . Ninlil appears in the myth Enlil and Ninlil . Most of the known copies come from Nippur, though it was apparently also known in Sippar . In

5202-566: The corpus of Mari texts, though a place named Bāb-Mēr (KÁ- me-er ) is attested in a single source from the šakkanakku period. Furthermore, later texts from the kingdom of Khana attest the existence of a house of worship dedicated to him (akīt me-er ) in nearby Terqa . He was also apparently worshiped in Nerebtum, Shaduppum and Kakkulatum. A school text from Kanesh , an Assyrian trading colony in Anatolia , mentions him alongside Ashur . In

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5304-414: The divine representatives of Kish, alongside Belet Eanna (Inanna of Uruk), Belet Ninua ("Lady of Nineveh ") and the deity KAŠ.TIN.NAM, possibly to be identified as a late form of the beer goddess Ninkasi . A further temple of Ninlil, Emebišedua (house built for its me ), which was also a temple of Enlil, is known from the Canonical Temple List , but its location is not known. Sud's main cult center

5406-532: The father of gods, Ninlil could be analogously viewed as the mother of gods . In the Temple Hymns (ETCSL 4.80.1. in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature ) she is one of the four goddesses described as ama , "mother", the other three being Nintur (a goddess of birth), Ninisina and Bau . It is possible that Ninlil could also be referred to with the epithet tamkartum , a rare feminine form of

5508-498: The first encounter between them is arguably described as nonconsensual, this does not seem to apply to the remaining three ones. There is no indication that Enlil and Ninlil became husband and wife in the end, and only he receives praise in the closing lines of the composition. Ninlil's status in Enlil and Ninlil has been described as that of a "subordinate consort". It has been pointed out that this portrayal does not appear to reflect her position in Mesopotamian religion, especially in

5610-433: The first millennium BCE, according to Joan Goodnick Westenholz specifically during the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina II (721-710 BCE), Ninlil was also introduced to Ḫursaĝkalamma, a part of Kish, replacing the older deity worshiped there, Ishtar. The details of this process are presently unknown, though it is possible the goddess of Ḫursaĝkalamma was at this point understood not as a manifestation of Ishtar but as an ištaru ,

5712-459: The god list An = Anum states that it was an alternate name of Nisaba. Syncretism with Sud also resulted in Ninlil acquiring some of her unique characteristics, such as an association with healing goddesses and with Sudaĝ , a name of the wife of the sun god Shamash . References to these connections can be found in various Mesopotamian texts, such as a hymn referring to Ninlil as a healing goddess or

5814-529: The god list An = Anum , an alternate name of Ninlil was Sud, written SU.KUR.RU. It originally referred to the tutelary deity of Shuruppak , who was syncretised with Ninlil. Jeremiah Peterson proposes that the Sumerian writing of Sud's name was misunderstood as an Akkadian noun based on a single copy of the Nippur god list in which a deity named su-kur-ru-um occurs. A different interpretation has been suggested by Manfred Krebernik  [ de ] , who argues this entry has no relation to Sud and represents

5916-572: The god list An = Anum was identified with Nisaba. Eresh , the cult center of Nisaba, could be called the "beloved city of Ninlil", as attested in the composition Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana . However, it is not known if a temple dedicated to her actually existed there. As the wife of Enlil, Ninlil could be regarded as the mother of Ninurta , as attested for example in Ninurta's Return to Nippur ( Angim ), though other goddesses, such as Nintur, Ninhursag or Dingirmah are attested in this role too. She

6018-404: The goddess Bizilla . In a star list, Bizilla corresponds to the "star of abundance," ḫé-gál-a-a , which in turn is labeled as the sukkal of Ninlil in the astronomical compendium MUL.APIN . In most other contexts, Bizilla was closely associated with the love goddess Nanaya . An explanatory temple list known from Neo-Babylonian Sippar , arranged according to a geographic principle, states that

6120-477: The goddess Ninirigal in the same passage instead. Manfred Krebernik  [ de ] assumes this might indicate they were sometimes conflated. Ninirigal, "lady of the Irigal," was the wife of Girra . This goddess appears in association with healing deities such as Gula / Meme and Bau elsewhere, but contrary to conclusions in older scholarship shows no affinity with Inanna , despite also being associated with

6222-553: The goddess Sud, like her viewed as the spouse of Enlil. Her association with this god goes back to the Early Dynastic period . A mythological explanation made Ninlil a name Sud received after getting married. The syncretism between them is attested in the god list An = Anum , but in the older Weidner god list Sud appears not with Enlil and Ninlil, but rather among the medicine goddesses, next to Gula . The process of conflation meant that some associations originally exclusive to Sud could be transferred to Ninlil as well. For example,

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6324-650: The late second millennium BCE, while Wer (Wēr) was the form used in southern Mesopotamia between the beginning of the period of the Third Dynasty of Ur end of the reign of the First Dynasty of Babylon , as well as in Old Assyrian sources contemporary with the texts from Kanesh . Bēr predominates only in Middle Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian texts. Whether ME-RU, possibly to be read as Meru , attested in sources from

6426-482: The local pantheon is reflected in the number of theophoric names invoking her. At the same time, there is relatively little evidence regarding her worship outside of Shuruppak, and she is absent from earliest sources from cities such as Lagash and Ur. She is nonetheless attested in early texts from Abu Salabikh , such as the Zame Hymns , and Adab . In the latter of these two cities she appears in theophoric names from

6528-434: The name Ninlil, promised to her in the beginning of the composition. She is described as a former "no-name goddess" (Sumerian: dingir mu nu-tuku ), but after assuming her new identity she is instead a goddess who "has a great name" ( mu gal tuku ). It has also been argued that name Nintur is bestowed on her, though Jeremy Black instead presumed that the goddess who receives it should be identified as Aruru, not Sud. This event

6630-504: The name is not certain, though a late explanatory text translates the name Ninlil as GAŠAN za-qí-qí , "lady of the breeze", which matches a common theory according to which Enlil's name should be understood as "lord wind". A variant Akkadian form of the name was Mullilu, in Neo-Assyrian sources spelled as Mullissu , in Aramaic texts as mlš , and in Mandaic as mwlyt . This form of the name

6732-460: The name, Wēr and Mēr, were originally in use. A third version, Bēr, started to be commonly used in the Middle Assyrian period . Additionally, god lists attest the form Iluwēr, "the god Wēr." The spelling Mēr was consistently employed in texts from Mari and nearby areas, with the chronologically most recent example being the theophoric name Tukulti-Mēr (a contemporary of Ashur-bel-kala ) from

6834-428: The pantheon treated as a group. They deem him ritually impure and exile him from Nippur. It is a matter of ongoing debate in scholarship if Enlil's crime was rape or merely premarital sex resulting in deflowering. Ninlil follows him during his exile, even though he refuses to see her, and eventually ends up becoming pregnant multiple times, giving birth to Nanna, Nergal, Ninazu and Enbilulu. Alhena Gadotti argues that while

6936-473: The reign of Ashurbanipal , the names are synonymous. Similar process is also attested for Ishtar of Arbela and Ishtar of Assur . At the same time Ishtar without any epithets indicating association with a specific location could appear in Assyrian texts separately from the goddesses of Nineveh and Arbela identified with Mullissu, indicating that they coexisted as separate members of the pantheon. Ninlil's husband

7038-418: The same way as he does. Nisaba is happy with the offer and with Nuska's conduct, and agrees to the proposal, declaring that she will become Enlil's mother-in-law. After Enlil keeps his promise and the gifts are delivered to Eresh, Nisaba blesses Sud. Aruru , in this myth portrayed as Enlil's sister, leads her to Nippur and helps her prepare for the wedding. Sud and Enlil subsequently get married, and she received

7140-688: The site as Suruppak came from a Ur III period clay nail which mentioned "Haladda, son of Dada, the patesi of Shuruppak (written SU.KUR.RU ) repaired the ADUS of the Great Gate of the god Shuruppak (written SU.KUR.RU-da)". Among other finds, 847 cuneiform tablets and 133 tablet fragments of Early Dynastic III period were collected, which ended up in the Berlin Museum and the Istanbul Museum. They included administrative, legal, lexical, and literary texts. Over 100 of

7242-458: The sites original name. In 1973, a three-day surface survey of the site was conducted by Harriet P. Martin. Consisting mainly of pottery shard collection, the survey confirmed that Shuruppak dates at least as early as the Jemdet Nasr period , expanded greatly in the Early Dynastic period , and was also an element of the Akkadian Empire and the Third Dynasty of Ur . A surface survey and

7344-473: The son of this couple instead. Manfred Krebernik considers the composition to be the result of confusion between the names Sud and Sudaĝ, and thus between Ninlil and Ishum's mother, rather than syncretism. Shuruppak Shuruppak ( Sumerian : 𒋢𒆳𒊒𒆠 Šuruppag , SU.KUR.RU , "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara , was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur and 30 kilometers north of ancient Uruk on

7446-473: The state pantheon of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The absence of Ninurta among the children has also been noted. Ninlil is also one of the main characters in the myth Enlil and Sud , also known as Marriage of Sud . Due to the difference in her portrayal, it is sometimes contrasted with Enlil and Ninlil in scholarship. It describes how she became Enlil's wife. Copies are known from Nippur, Susa , Nineveh , Sultantepe and possibly Sippar . Miguel Civil noted that

7548-475: The surrounding plain, with a maximum of 9 meters. The site consists of two mounds, one larger than the other, separated by an old canal bed as well as a lower town. It was visited by William Loftus in 1850. Hermann Volrath Hilprecht conducted a brief survey in 1900. He found "copper goatheads; a copper, pre-Sargonid sword; a lamp in the shape of a bird; a very archaic seal cylinder; a number of pre-Sargonid tablets, and 60 incised plates of mother of pearl". It

7650-464: The tablets dealt with the disbursement of rations to workers. About a thousand Early Dynastic clay sealings and fragments (used to secure doors and containers) were also found. Most from cylinder seals but 19 were from stamp seals. In 1903 the site was visited by Edgar James Banks who was excavating at the site of Adab , a four-hour walk to the north. Banks took photographs of the German trenches and noted

7752-462: The tablets found at the site is dated by a year name to the beginning of the reign of Shu-Sin , next to last ruler of Ur III. A few governors of Shurappak under the Ur III Empire are known from contemporary epigraphic remains, Ku-Nanna, Lugal-hedu, Ur-nigin-gar, and Ur-Ninkura. In much later literary compositions several purported rulers are mentioned. In the 2020s BC, the Ur III Empire was hit by

7854-441: The term denotes a protective spirit) of her temple Kiur named Lu-Ninlilla and a counselor named Guduga. A hymn to Sud from the reign of Bur-Suen of Isin refers to Asalluhi as her doorkeeper. Christopher Metcalf, who translated this composition, does not consider this to be an indication that he was closely associated with her otherwise, as the connection is not present in any other presently known texts, but Jeremiah Peterson in

7956-417: The territory of Uruk . Ninlil is mentioned in a myth only known from a single Old Babylonian fragment detailing the origin of the god Ishum . He is described as a son of Ninlil and Shamash who was abandoned in the streets. It is assumed that this myth represents a relic of the association between Sud, identified with Ninlil, and Sudaĝ , one of the names of the wife of sun god. Ishum was usually regarded as

8058-461: The text had "wide diffusion attested not only by the relatively high number of sources preserved and their geographical distribution, but also by its long survival through Middle-Babylonian times and into the Assyrian libraries." For uncertain reasons, no reference to Shuruppak is made as any point, and Sud lives with her mother Nisaba in Eresh. In the beginning of the composition Enlil, who is portrayed as

8160-503: The third millennium BCE, Ninlil's name was written with the Sumerian cuneiform sign LÍL (KID), while Enlil's with identically pronounced É. From the Ur III period onward LÍL started to be used in both cases. The causes of these phenomena remain unknown. The pronunciation Ninlil is confirmed by a phonetic gloss rendering the name syllabically as ni-in-lil . The meaning of the second element of

8262-607: The time of the Akkadian Empire , only from the Old Babylonian period onward the god is known from sources other than theophoric names . Wer appears in nine types of masculine theophoric names from Old Babylonian Mari, with eight using the spelling Mer and one - Wer. Furthermore, the names of the local deities Itūr-Mēr and Tar’am-Mēr are both agreed to be theophoric names invoking him. Other sites where names invoking him are attested include Sippar , various locations in Assyria (in

8364-556: The top several meters of the main mound destroyed. They were able to use remains of the 900 meter long trench left by excavators in 1902 and 1903 to orient old excavation documents and aerial mapping with their geomagnetic results. Part of the site was inaccessible because of the spoil heaps from the excavations. A city wall was found (in Area A), which had been missed in the past. A harbor and quay were also found. The following list should not be considered complete: "Then Sippar fell and

8466-458: The weather goddess Shala ) was viewed as analogous to Ninlil, similar to how their respective husbands, Dagan and Enlil, were viewed as equivalents. It is possible that in Mari , Ninlil's name was used as a logographic representation of Shalash's. She is also attested alongside Dagan in an offering list from Emar , though she most likely simply represents his local spouse, presumably also Shalash. She

8568-450: The word tamkarum , "merchant". Enlil could be described as a divine merchant ( dam-gar 3 ), which according to Jeremiah Peterson might mean that ta-am-kart-tum attested in a fragment of a non-standard Old Babylonian god list from Nippur is a name of Ninlil referring to a similar role. Like many other deities, she could be compared to a cow, though this does not indicate an association with cattle or theriomorphic character in art. It

8670-497: The worship of Ninlil might be an inscription of a certain Ennail, possibly a ruler ( lugal ) of Kish , who states that he collected first fruit offerings for Enlil and Ninlil. The text is only known from copies from the Ur III period , but a fragment of a statue from Nippur indicates that a ruler named Ennail reigned at some point before the Sargonic period . In the Ekur temple complex, Ninlil

8772-527: Was Shuruppak (modern Fara). The name of the city was written the same as that of its tutelary goddess, though with a different determinative, SU.KUR.RU rather than SU.KUR.RU, similar to how the names of Enlil and Nisaba could be used to represent Nippur and Eresh, respectively. Much information about the religious life of this city has been obtained from administrative texts, and it is known that in addition to Sud, deities such as Nisaba, Ninkasi, Ninmug and Ninshubur were also worshiped there. Sud's importance in

8874-631: Was Enlil. As early as in the Early Dynastic Period , they are attested as a couple in sources from Abu Salabikh and Ur . The relationship between them is further affirmed by most of the later major god lists: the Weidner god list , the Nippur god list, the Isin god list, the Mari god list, Old Babylonian An = Anum forerunner and An = Anum itself. As Ninlil's husband, Enlil could be called "the allure of her heart" (Sumarian: ḫi-li šag 4 -ga-na ). It has been pointed out that in some cases, they functioned as unity in religious texts. A certain Enlilalša,

8976-464: Was Ešaba ("house of the heart"), whose location is presently unknown. In the Old Babylonian period, Shuruppak became a subject of antiquarian interest for Mesopotamian scholars. It continued to be referenced in literature even after abandonment. Utnapishtim , the protagonist of the flood myth which forms a part of the Epic of Gilgamesh , is described as a Shuruppakean, while the text referred to as Nippurian Taboos 3 in modern scholarship alludes to

9078-569: Was a weather god . According to Wilfred G. Lambert , available sources might indicate that he was originally one of the main gods worshiped in northern Mesopotamia , but eventually declined in the middle of the second millennium BCE due to loss of his cult sites. Wer's symbol was a lance . A single Old Babylonian text attests that not only Wer himself, but also a deification of his emblem, Šu-ku-ru-um ("lance"), could be an object of worship. While god lists, starting with An = Anum , could consider Wer analogous to Ishkur /Adad, his own name

9180-410: Was a weather deity like Wer. Other deities who are most likely deified heroes or kings in origin are attested from Mari, for example Yakrub-El . A second deity worshiped in Mari whose name is structured similarly and also includes Wer as the theophoric element is Tar’am-Mēr, "beloved of Mēr (Wer)". While known copies of a single passage from the incantation series Šurpu alternate between Wer and

9282-597: Was also known to Greek authors such as Herodotus (who transcribes it as "Mylitta") and Ctesias . It is possible that it originally developed as a feminine equivalent of Enlil's dialectical Emesal name Mullil (derived from Umum-lil , umun being the Emesal form of en ). The names Mullil and Mullissu could also be connected with the Akkadian word elēlu , and therefore it is possible they were understood as "he who makes clean" and "she who makes clean", respectively. According to

9384-411: Was also practically without exception regarded as the mother of Nergal . As the mother of those two gods, she could be referred to with the epithet Kutušar. It is attested in association with the city of Tummal . It also occurs in an inscription of Shamshi-Adad V , in which Kutušar is called "the lady equal to Anu and Dagan " ( Akkadian : bēlti šinnat Anum u Dagan ), with Dagan most likely serving as

9486-431: Was also responsible for his role as a divine warrior. He points out that in other sources Ninazu was the son of Ereshkigal and a nameless male deity, presumably to be identified with Gugalanna , which reflected his own character as a god of the underworld. Ninazu is nonetheless one of the children born in the myth Enlil and Ninlil , where his brothers are Nanna, Meslamtaea (Nergal) and Enbilulu . The last of these deities

9588-413: Was associated with two constellations , the mar-gíd-da ("wagon") corresponding to Ursa Major and the ÙZ ("goat"), corresponding to Lyra , as attested in the compendium MUL.APIN and other sources. It has been argued that through the history of ancient Mesopotamian religion, the domain of Ninlil continued to expand, sometimes at the expense of other goddesses. It is agreed that Ninlil fully absorbed

9690-427: Was entrusted with the underworld by them both. In yet another composition, they are also credited with giving Ninisina "broad wisdom created by an august hand". Nuska was also believed to owe his position to a decree of both Enlil and Ninlil. It has been suggested that an entire standardized series of hymns describing how various deities were appointed to their positions this way existed. Due to Enlil's position as

9792-479: Was first excavated between 1902 and 1903 by Walter Andrae, Robert Koldewey and Friedrich Delitzsch of the German Oriental Society for eight months. They used a new "modern" system which involved excavating trenches 8 feet wide and 5 feet deep every few yards running across the entire width of the larger mound. If a building wall was found in a trench it was further explored. Preliminary identification of

9894-573: Was located in Ur . It should not be confused with a similarly named temple of Ninshubur , Eninbitum (also "house worthy of its lady"), mentioned by the same ruler and most likely located in the same city. Ninlil was also worshiped in Dur-Kurigalzu , and a temple dedicated to her, the Egašanantagal ("house of the lady on high") was built there by king Kurigalzu I from the Kassite dynasty of Babylon . In

9996-577: Was never represented by the logogram IŠKUR, unlike these of other storm gods, such as Hurrian Teshub , Hattian Taru , Hittite Tarḫunna , or Luwian Tarḫunz . The feminine form of the name, Wertum (or Mertum) likely designated the wife of Wer. She is attested in Assur in the Old Assyrian period (where one of the city gates was named after her) and in a theophoric name from Mari. A number of Assyriologists , including Dietz-Otto Edzard , Wilfred G. Lambert and Andrew R. George , assume that Wer

10098-404: Was responsible for irrigation, and in another tradition was a son of Ea , rather than Enlil and Ninlil. Ninlil could also be identified with Nintur, who was regarded as the mother of another of Enlil's sons, Pabilsaĝ . In a hymn, she is credited with bestowing various titles and abilities on Ninisina , who is well attested as Pabilsag's wife. Ninlil's sukkal (attendant deity) was most likely

10200-430: Was the ruler of both earth and heaven, and that Enlil made no decision without her. Kings from the Third Dynasty of Ur considered both of them to be the source of earthly royal authority. In literary texts, she could be described as responsible for appointing other deities to their positions alongside her husband. For example, a hymn credits the couple with bestowing Inanna 's position upon her. Another states that Nergal

10302-430: Was the same deity as Itūr-Mēr , the tutelary god of Mari, but this view is regarded as unsubstantiated by Daniel Schwemer and Ichiro Nakata, who point out that the latter deity's name is an ordinary theophoric name ("Mēr has turned [to me]" ) and that for this reason he is more likely to be a deified hero venerated as part of an ancestor cult tied to a specific location. Known texts additionally do not indicate that he

10404-525: Was worshiped in the Kiur (Sumerian: "leveled place"), which can be itself described as a "complex" in modern scholarly literature. It appears in inscriptions of Ur-Ninurta of Isin and Burnaburiash I of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon . The same name was also applied to a shrine of Ninlil which was a part of a temple of Ninimma in the same city. Further locations within the Ekur temple complex dedicated to her include

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