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97-595: In the 1590s, the Friesche Compagnie (Frisian Company) was founded to exploit the peat in the area. In 1599, the raised bog around the River Pekel A was bought and subdivided in 101 lots. Houses were built along the river for the workers. In 1635, it became part of the Groninger Peat Colonies  [ nl ] , and was controlled by the city of Groningen as a colony. In 1704, the linear settlement

194-506: A form of erosion that occur at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat; they sometimes also occur in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action

291-613: A gradual decline. In 1975, Bram Westers  [ nl ] , the former Director of the Groninger Museum , bought the former residential home of Captain Kornelis Jans Boon. The building dates from 1799 and was one of the few captain's homes in original condition. In 1989, Westers, who had retired from the Groninger Museum, started to transform the house into a museum. The museum opened in 1990, and provides an overview of

388-528: A layered silhouette profile of the Queen as opposed to the more formal designs of the previous generation of coins. Production of these coins ceased after 2001. At the time of withdrawal, the following denominations of coins were circulating: All the coins carried a profile image of the Queen on the obverse and a simple grid on the other side. The 1-guilder , 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder, and five guilder coins had God zij met ons ('God be with us') inscribed on

485-408: A raise from ƒ 35 to ƒ58 per week, but also the men received a raise from ƒ45 to ƒ58, because they too had been paid less than the collective agreement for the tobacco industry. An additional result of the strike was that the unions decided that regional differences in pay were no longer considered acceptable, and that women and men should get equal pay. However, the union members who were members of

582-496: A result of peat drainage, the organic carbon—which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater—is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which is released into the atmosphere. The global CO 2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia , Malaysia and Papua New Guinea are

679-490: A small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback . Under 2 °C global warming , 0.7 million km of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions. One characteristic of peat

776-663: A small shield in the legend. Following the collapse of the Bank of Amsterdam in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars , in 1817 the United Kingdom of the Netherlands redefined the Gulden as either 9.613 g silver or 0.60561 g gold. It was decimally divided into 100 cents, and the 1-Gulden coin was permanently issued. This standard was doomed to fail due to Following Belgium's secession from

873-539: A tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm K ) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus. Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and

970-460: Is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO 2 storage than the original peat bog. Dutch guilder The guilder ( Dutch : gulden , pronounced [ˈɣʏldə(n)] ) or florin was the currency of the Netherlands from 1434 until 2002, when it was replaced by the euro . The Dutch name gulden

1067-487: Is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands. Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO 2 into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change . Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses , sedges and shrubs. As it accumulates,

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1164-472: Is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity . Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production. Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO 2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it

1261-547: Is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland , peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period. For industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed. In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most essential property of peat

1358-423: Is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed. Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis , and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat. Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil

1455-701: Is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons; 0.80 and 2.53 billion long tons) of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998. More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above

1552-413: Is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'. Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols . Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing

1649-483: Is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties—it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings. In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they say are the same) as the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 million square kilometres [1.5 million square miles] or 3% of

1746-497: Is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself—it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew , England, since 2003. While bark or coir -based peat-free potting soil mixes are on

1843-629: Is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria . It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have many other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger ; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and fishes' reproductive health. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains

1940-722: Is taken. In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for five years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations. In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on

2037-565: Is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands", which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO 2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon , which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface. Peat is not a renewable source of energy , due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year, and as it

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2134-401: Is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern. Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction (i.e. through canals ). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change. As

2231-407: Is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet , because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m [4.9 to 7.5 ft], which

2328-453: The "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making" . This publication aims to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind. In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change , summarising the currently available knowledge on

2425-576: The Bank of Amsterdam the world's first modern central bank, and made the bank-stabilized Gulden as Europe's de facto reserve currency until the end of the 18th century. In 1694, a new mint ordinance recognized the gulden as a valid coin for the entire Republic. As the bank was also an active reseller of negotiepenningen , or trade coins that happen to be undervalued in the Netherlands (e.g. older rixdollars still valued at 50 stuivers currency), Dutch trade coins like lion dollars, rixdollars and silver ducats were exported and became staple currency for

2522-620: The Batavian Republic issued coins in similar denominations to the earlier provincial issues. The Kingdom of Holland minted silver 10 stuivers, 1 florin and 1 guilder (equivalent), 50 stuivers and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder (also equivalent) and 1 rijksdaalder, along with gold 10 and 20 guilders. Before decimalization, the Kingdom of the Netherlands briefly issued some 1 rijksdaalder coins. The gold 1 and 2 ducat and silver ducat (rijksdaalder) are still minted today as bullion coins. In 1817,

2619-620: The British pound . In 1961, the guilder was revalued to 3.62 guilders = 1 dollar, a change approximately in line with that of the German mark . After 1967 guilders were made from nickel instead of silver. In 2002, the guilder was replaced by the euro at an exchange rate of 2.20371 guilders = 1 Euro . Coins remained exchangeable for euros at branches of the Netherlands Central Bank until 1 January 2007. Most guilder banknotes that were valid at

2716-805: The Falkland Islands and Indonesia ( Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya ( West Kalimantan ) and Sumatra ). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands. About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry . Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time. Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat

2813-649: The Lutheran church. The closest church was in Winschoterzijl which was four hours by foot. A ship was quicker, however it was not always possible during the winter. In 1762, a Lutheran church was constructed in Nieuwe Pekela. The church burned down in 1865, but was rebuilt in 1868. It was declared a monument in 2000. Since the late 20th century, attendance of the Lutheran church is in decline, and they nowadays cooperate with

2910-933: The West Siberian Lowland , the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Mackenzie River Valley. There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo). In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia / Tierra del Fuego ) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape. Peat can be found in New Zealand , Kerguelen ,

3007-580: The tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Before that, another bog body, the Elling Woman , had been discovered in 1938 in

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3104-583: The 1434 monetary reform done under Philip the Good . This table summarizes the gulden's value in terms of silver until the gold standard was introduced in 1875. Prior to 1434 the Dutch issued currency conforming to the Carolingian monetary system , with a pound divided into 20 shillings and a shilling divided into 12 pennies . Dutch versions of the penny first came out in the 9th century, followed by local versions of

3201-551: The Communist Party were disbarred from the union. The list of names was supplied by the Binnenlandse Veiligheidsdienst , the Dutch intelligence agency. The cigar factory closed in 1971. Peat Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter . It is unique to natural areas called peatlands , bogs , mires , moors , or muskegs . Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss,

3298-673: The Dutch Reformed Church and often have joint services. The river Pekel A connected Nieuwe Pekela with the Dollart and the Wadden Sea . Around 1800, the peat became exhausted, and the skippers started to make longer journeys, to Holland, and later to England, the Baltic and the Mediterranean. At first the maritime industry flourished, but the increasing popularity of the steamship resulted in

3395-684: The French livre parisis of 38.25 g silver, and the English pound sterling of 215.8 g. The following units were defined: The stuiver weighed 3.4 g of 23 ⁄ 48 silver fineness and was divided into 8 duiten or 16 penningen . As each stuiver was worth approximately 2 English pence, Dutch silver denominations of 1 duit and 1 ⁄ 4 , 1 ⁄ 2 , 1 & 2 stuivers neatly matched with English denominations of 1 ⁄ 4 , 1 ⁄ 2 , 1, 2 & 4 pence sterling. French écus , English nobles & Dutch florins comprised

3492-496: The French livre parisis becoming 20.4 g fine silver in 1549, and 1 ⁄ 6 th of a pound sterling (3 shillings and 4 pence) becoming 19.2 g fine silver in 1551. The pace of depreciation of the Gulden quickened in the second half of the 16th century amidst the huge influx of precious metals from Germany & Spanish America arriving through the Habsburg Netherlands . The loss in silver content of local Dutch coins in

3589-525: The Netherlands in 1830, a more permanent solution was implemented in 1840 by reducing the Gulden to 9.45 g fine silver and repealing its fixed equivalence in gold. As a result of the adoption of the Gold Standard by the newly established German Empire in 1873, the Netherlands in 1875 repealed the free coinage of silver into Gulden coins, substituted by the free coinage of gold into 10-Gulden coins containing 6.048 g fine gold. This arrangement continued until

3686-479: The Pekel A was extended to Stadskanaal and was no longer a dead end. The part of the river from Oude Pekela to Stadskanaal was later renamed Pekelderdiep  [ nl ] . Nieuwe Pekela was a separate municipality until 1990, when it merged with Oude Pekela to form the new municipality of Pekela . The peat industry started to attract workers from neighbouring Germany who brought their own form of Protestantism:

3783-537: The West Siberian peatland. Palsa mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat, and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see wetland , bog or fen . Around half of the area of northern peatlands is permafrost -affected, and this area represents around

3880-525: The bank, it halted incentives for provinces to tamper with the silver content of its coins. In 1626, Pieter Schaghen wrote in Dutch of the purchase of "the Island Manhattes" ( Manhattan ) "from the Indians for the value of 60 guilders." Even with the Bank of Amsterdam 's success in halting the depreciation of Dutch currency, attempts to further increase the stuiver equivalent of trade coins continued among

3977-522: The bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production. Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age . Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year. The estimated carbon content is 415 gigatonnes (457 billion short tons) (northern peatlands), 50 Gt (55 billion short tons) ( tropical peatlands ) and 15 Gt (17 billion short tons) (South America). Peat material

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4074-546: The capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket . The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010. In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes (55 million short tons; 49 million long tons) of CO 2 , which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions. The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect. Peat "hags" are

4171-705: The cessation of production of the unusual 40, 60 and 300 guilder notes during the 1920s. In 1938, silver notes were reintroduced for 1 and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilders. During World War II , the Dutch Bank continued to issue paper money, although there were some design changes, most notably, the replacement of a portrait of Queen Emma by a Rembrandt portrait on the 10-guilder note. The Allies printed state notes dated 1943 for use following liberation. These were in denominations of 1, 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 , 10, 25, 50 and 100 guilders. More state notes were issued for 1 and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilders in 1945 and 1949. Following

4268-428: The concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981. In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed

4365-563: The edge. Between 1814 and 1838, the Dutch Bank issued notes in denominations of 25, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 500 and 1000 guilders. These were followed, from 1846 by state notes ( muntbiljetten ) in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1000 guilders, with the 10 and 50 guilders issued until 1914. In 1904, the Dutch Bank recommenced the issuance of paper money. By 1911, it was issuing notes for 10, 25, 40, 60, 100, 200, 300 and 1000 guilders. In 1914, because of silver shortage for minting,

4462-627: The end of the 15th century. From 1469 to 1475 an agreement with England made the English groat (4- pence ; 2.88 g fine silver) mutually exchangeable with the Burgundian double patard (or 2- stuiver ) minted under Charles the Rash . Follow-up attempts to issue 1-gulden coins resulted in the minting of the gold Karolusgulden of 1.77 g fine gold in 1520, and the silver Karolusgulden of 19.07 grams fine silver in 1541. The bullion content of French and English currencies would eventually approach this value, with

4559-452: The fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO 2 -eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO 2 -eq./yr, the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton), the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO 2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO 2 emissions from

4656-408: The first coins of the decimal currency were issued, the copper 1 cent and silver 3 guilders. The remaining denominations were introduced in 1818. These were copper 1 ⁄ 2 cents, silver 5, 10 and 25 cents, 1 ⁄ 2 and 1 guilder, and gold 10 guilders. In 1826, gold 5-guilder coins were introduced. In 1840, the silver content of the coinage was reduced (see above) and this was marked by

4753-468: The first women in the history of the Netherlands to go on strike. The factory threatened to fire them, however the women went to Fré Meis of the Communist Party (CPN) who had previously organised successful strikes in neighbouring Oude Pekela. Meis brought in the union. The union started negotiating with the management of factory. After four weeks, the strike was called off, because the women received

4850-547: The form of stuivers , schellings (6 stuivers) and daalders ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 gulden or 30 stuivers) was the result of different provinces continually testing the market with coins of slightly reduced silver, aiming for their acceptance at par with full-bodied coins. As the Northern Dutch Republic just declared its independence from the Spanish crown, there was no central authority powerful enough to penalize

4947-556: The gold coinage was ended in 1933. The 1 ⁄ 2 guilder saw discontinuation after 1930. Throughout the Wilhelmina period, a number of infrequent changes were made to the 10 and 25 cent coins as well, with the largest changes being periodic updates of the Queen's effigy and smaller changes to designs on the reverse (back). In 1941, following the German occupation, production of all earlier coin types ceased and zinc coins were introduced by

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5044-515: The gold currency of the Low Countries and had a variable rate against the stuiver. A denomination worth 1 Gulden did not exist until the 1464 issue of the Sint Andries florin containing 2.735 g of fine gold, but this was a mere two years before the resumption of debasements in the stuiver. The stuiver modestly depreciated between 1466 and 1475 before incurring more significant debasements up to

5141-400: The government introduced silver certificates ( zilverbonnen ) for 1, 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 and 5 guilders. Although the 5 guilder notes were only issued that year, the 1 guilder notes continued until 1920 and the 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder until 1927. In 1926, the Dutch Bank introduced 20 guilder notes, followed by 50 guilder in 1929 and 500 guilder in 1930. These introductions followed

5238-596: The ground. In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades . Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization. In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 °C (104 °F) ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering

5335-630: The guilder purchasing power would be approximately equal to 9.54 U.S. dollars or 7.78 euros in December 2017. Overall, the guilder remained a very stable currency and was also the third highest-valued currency unit in Europe in the interwar period (after the British Pound Sterling and the Irish pound , which, at this time, were pegged to each other at par). Following the German occupation , on 10 May 1940,

5432-508: The guilder was pegged to the Reichsmark at a rate of 1 guilder = 1.5 Reichsmark. This rate was reduced to 1.327 on 17 July of the same year. The liberating Allied forces set an exchange rate of 2.652 guilders = 1 U.S. dollar , which became the peg for the guilder within the Bretton Woods system . In 1949, the peg was changed to 3.8 guilders = 1 dollar, approximately matching the devaluation of

5529-463: The gulden was the establishment of the Amsterdam Wisselbank (Bank of Amsterdam) in 1609, mandated to accept & assay the bullion content of coins received from its depositors, and then to credit the equivalent of 1 Rijksdaalder ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 gulden after 1618) for each 25.40 g fine silver actually received. Combined with rules requiring payments above 600 gulden to be cleared through

5626-485: The image of Wilhelmina on the obverse (front) of all coins. In 1980, production of the 1-cent coin ceased and was demonetized three years later. Soon after, it was decided to replace the 5-guilder banknote with a coin of the same value. However, it was not until 1988 that a bronze-coated nickel 5 guilder coin was finally introduced. The 5 guilder banknote remained legal tender until 1995. The 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder coin gradually began losing widespread use shortly after

5723-414: The intention of issuing or having them issued as genuine and unaltered shall be punished with a prison sentence of no more than nine years. Eventually, the warning was replaced with a subtle message on the obverse side: "Counterfeiters or falsifiers will be punished", which first appeared inside a small square on the ƒ250 "lighthouse" note while still referencing the aforementioned Article 208. This reference

5820-452: The introduction of the 5 guilder coin, and mintage figures for the denomination declined until the discontinuation of the guilder. 1980 also saw a circulating two coin commemorative series of 1 and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder coins celebrating Queen Beatrix 's ascension to the throne. All circulating coins went through a complete redesign in 1982, a short while after Queen Beatrix's coronation. They depict abstract designs featuring grids and

5917-604: The land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from

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6014-501: The main source of water for large cities, including Dublin. Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages , being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour. Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires. Peat

6111-462: The maritime history of the region. There is a large collection of pottery and paintings collected by the skippers of the Pekelas. There is a special emphasis on the many gold and silver objects acquired during the journeys. A part of the house was still used as a residence. In 2006, the whole building became a museum. In 1920, the cigar factory Albatros was founded in Nieuwe Pekela. After World War II, it

6208-538: The obverse were issued, phasing out previous types. At the same time, new nickel 10 and 25 cent coins were introduced. In 1949, 1 and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder banknotes were introduced. Five years later, the silver 1-guilder coin was reintroduced, followed by the silver 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder coin in 1959. The silver content was replaced with nickel in 1967, although no 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder coins were minted in 1967 and 1968. The silver coins were demonetized in 1973. In 1950, Queen Juliana 's profile replaced

6305-620: The occupational government for 1 , 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 , 5 , 10 and 25 cents . Large quantities of pre-war type silver 10 and 25 cent and 1 guilder coins were minted in the United States between 1943 and 1945 for use following liberation. Afterwards, the zinc coins were quickly demonetized and melted. In 1948, all half cents and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 cents were taken out of circulation, though no further production of either denomination had continued after 1940 and 1942, respectively. New bronze 1 and 5 cent coins featuring Queen Wilhelmina on

6402-650: The old currency for euros at the central bank, is 2.20371 Dutch guilders for 1 euro. Inverted, this gives 0.453780 euros for 1 guilder. Derived from the Dutch guilder are the Netherlands Antillean guilder (still in use in Curaçao and Sint Maarten ) and the Surinamese guilder (replaced in 2004 by the Surinamese dollar ). The gulden emerged as the official currency of the Burgundian Netherlands after

6499-521: The one-shilling gros tournois in the 13th century. The most notable version of the latter, the Flemish grote , subsequently depreciated faster than its counterparts in France, from its initial fine silver content of 4.044 g, to around 2.5 g by 1350 AD, and to just 0.815 g before the reforms of 1434. Philip the Good devised a monetary system in 1434 relating the new Dutch currency to that of its neighbors:

6596-540: The peat archives. In Quaternary Palaeoecology , first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place." Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate

6693-433: The peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges and raised bogs . The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins , which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring

6790-678: The potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example. Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS), and more recently the initial penetration (IP). Naturally mummified human bodies, often called " bog bodies " have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by

6887-441: The presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer. Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering

6984-402: The provinces responsible for the deterioration of the quality of Dutch currency. The inevitable official acceptance of new, debased rates for the gulden only set the stage for the next round of depreciations. As a result, the gulden equivalent of different trade coins passing through the Low Countries also rose in value, as follows: The solution which immediately halted the downward spiral of

7081-551: The provinces. After the 1630s came moves to raise the Patagon's value from 48 to 50 stuivers (4.17% advance), followed by moves to raise the Ducaton's value from 60 to 63 stuivers (5.0% advance). Fearing damage to its Europe-wide reputation if 50-stuiver deposits in rixdollars were repaid in cheaper 50-stuiver patagons, in the 1640s the bank firmly rejected the advanced values of these coins and upheld its old values of 48 and 60 stuivers. This

7178-640: The rate of decomposition. Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity . Peatlands, particularly bogs , are the primary source of peat; although less common, other wetlands, including fens , pocosins and peat swamp forests , also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants, including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs and sedges . Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows

7275-545: The reconstruction of past environments and the study of land-use changes. Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places. By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal , particularly low-grade coal such as lignite . The peatland ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles) and

7372-611: The replacement of the 3 guilder coin by a 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 guilder piece. The gold coinage was completely suspended in 1853, five years after the suspension of the gold standard. By 1874, production of silver coins greater in value than 10 cents had ceased, to be only fully resumed in the 1890s. Gold 10 guilder coins were struck again from 1875. In 1877, bronze 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 cent coins were introduced. In 1907, silver 5-cent coins were replaced by round, cupro-nickel pieces. These were later replaced in 1913 by square shaped 5 cent pieces. In 1912, gold 5-guilder coins were reintroduced but

7469-477: The rest of Europe until the end of the 18th century. The Royal Dutch Mint still mints the famed silver ducat to this day. A silver 1-gulden denomination weighing 10.61 g, 0.91 fine, was minted by the States of Holland and West Friesland in 1680. The gulden design featured Pallas Athena standing, holding a spear topped by a hat in her right hand, resting with her left forearm on Gospels set on an ornate basis, with

7566-614: The rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term. UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume, providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume, followed only by Canada with 13% in 2022. In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by Germany with 1.5 and Canada with 1.42 million tons. Nevertheless, although first in

7663-610: The rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States. Peatland can also be an essential source of drinking water , providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs . In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are

7760-611: The same bog about 60 metres (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits. The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, whilst Siberian cranes nest in

7857-472: The same colour as the older notes, but with a mostly abstract pattern, featuring a different bird for each denomination. Persons depicted on those older banknotes were: These 1970s "face"-notes and the 1980s ƒ50 (sunflower), ƒ100 (snipe), and ƒ250 (lighthouse) banknotes were designed by Ootje Oxenaar . Eventually, these notes were progressively replaced from 1990 onwards by notes featuring intricate abstract designs made by Jaap Drupsteen , with new designs for

7954-507: The state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitats due to their ecological values, and up to 128,000 hectares, or 40% of the areas in the territory, are protected by environmental laws. The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park , Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve . The climate, geography and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat

8051-660: The time of conversion can be exchanged until the deadline of 1 January 2032. There are some exceptions to this, and furthermore no banknote received as payment for commercial goods or services after 27 January 2002 is exchangeable. Refer Banknotes of the Dutch guilder for a full list of guilder Banknotes and their last valid exchange date. In the 18th century, coins were issued by the various provinces. There were copper 1 duit, silver 1, 2, 6 and 10 stuivers, 1 and 3 guilders, 1 ⁄ 2 and 1 silver ducat rijksdaalder and 1 ⁄ 2 and 1 silver rider ducaton. Gold 1 and 2 ducat trade coins were also minted. Between 1795 and 1806,

8148-502: The topic. In 2010, IPS presented a " Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management ", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making. Peat extraction is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on

8245-410: The tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions. A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP, based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of

8342-400: The war, the Dutch Bank introduced notes for 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 and 1000 guilders. The last 20 guilder notes were dated 1955, whilst 5 guilder notes were introduced in 1966 (replaced by coins in 1988) and 250 guilder notes in 1985. At the time of withdrawal, the following denominations of banknotes were circulating: All but the 50 and 250 guilder notes had been issued in a new series that was

8439-805: The water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily , toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire. The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes (55 billion short tons; 49 billion long tons) of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040. It

8536-753: The water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins . Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids . Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries, including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds , poultices and suspension baths . Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described

8633-436: The world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind Canada . As an example, Latvia's income from exports was US$ 237 million. Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons. Latvia, as Finland due its climate has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory. More than two thirds of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to

8730-469: The world land area. In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km (199,000 sq mi). About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat. Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include

8827-466: The worldwide 500,000 km of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires), which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions. Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain. Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present. Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by

8924-492: The worldwide suspension of the gold standard in 1914 due to the First World War . The gold standard was revived in 1925 but was abandoned in 1936. In 1914 the guilder was traded at a rate of 2.46 guilders = 1 U.S. dollar . As of 1938, the rate was 1.82 guilders = 1 U.S. dollar . One Dutch guilder in 1914 could buy roughly the same amount of goods and services as 10.02 U.S. dollars or 8.17 euros in December 2017. In 1938,

9021-511: The ƒ10, ƒ25, ƒ100, and ƒ1000 introduced before the discontinuation of the guilder for the euro. An anti-counterfeit warning appeared on the reverse side of all guilder banknotes prior to the final series with the exception of the ƒ250 "lighthouse" note, repeated multiple times in microprint (a technique later used on some banknotes of the Indonesian rupiah ): Criminal Code Article 208: Anyone who counterfeits or falsifies coins or banknotes with

9118-615: Was a Middle Dutch adjective meaning 'golden', and reflects the fact that, when first introduced in 1434, its value was about equal to (i.e., it was on par with) the Italian gold florin . The Dutch guilder was a de facto reserve currency in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Between 1999 and 2002, the guilder was officially a "national subunit" of the euro. However, physical payments could only be made in guilders, as no euro coins or banknotes were available. The exact exchange rate, still relevant for old contracts and for exchange of

9215-445: Was renamed Champ Clark , after an American politician. The 18-year-old Grietje Schoonhoven was employed at the factory, and discovered that her male colleagues had been given a raise while the salary of the women had remained the same. The women twice went to the management who refused to raise their salary. On 15 December 1969, the 30 women employed at Champ Clark decided to call a wildcat strike , and demanded equal pay . They became

9312-423: Was split into Oude Pekela (Old) and Nieuwe Pekela (New), because a second Dutch Reformed Church was built. In 1801, all towns and villages had to be governed by a municipality , and the peat colony came to an end. In 1808, Nieuwe Pekela was home to 3,299 people. In 1810, after Napoleon annexed the Batavian Republic , Nieuwe Pekela became a separate commune and a mayor was appointed the next year. In 1877,

9409-539: Was the origin of a permanent Gulden Banco valued at 5% more against provincial Gulden currency valuations. In 1659 the Dutch Republic made this duality permanent by issuing its own trade coins, namely: The result was a Gulden Banco unit of 10.15 g silver & a Gulden currency unit of 9.67 g silver as determined from the ducaton. These reforms helped cement the Dutch Republic 's role as Europe's financial center, made

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