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124-505: Niagara Falls ( / n aɪ ˈ æ ɡ ər ə , - ɡ r ə / ny- AGG -ər-ə, -grə ) is a group of three waterfalls at the southern end of Niagara Gorge , spanning the border between the province of Ontario in Canada and the state of New York in the United States. The largest of the three is Horseshoe Falls , which straddles the international border of the two countries. It
248-553: A NOAA gauging station above the falls. During winter, the Power Authority of New York works with Ontario Power Generation to prevent ice on the Niagara River from interfering with power production or causing flooding of shoreline property. One of their joint efforts is an 2,700-metre-long (8,800 ft) ice boom, which prevents the buildup of ice, yet allows water to continue flowing downstream. In addition to minimum water volume,
372-447: A clutch of 2–4 eggs , with most nests containing 3 eggs . The eggs are subelliptical , slightly glossy and smooth, measuring 49 mm × 34 mm (1.9 in × 1.3 in) and weighing 28.5 g (1.01 oz). They range in colour from pale to medium green, olive or buff, and may be variably marked with spots, blotches, or scrawls of brown, grey, violet, or black; these markings may be fine and evenly distributed over
496-618: A landslide . This drastically reduced power production and put tens of thousands of manufacturing jobs at stake. In 1957, Congress passed the Niagara Redevelopment Act, which granted the New York Power Authority the right to fully develop the United States' share of the Niagara River's hydroelectric potential. In 1961, when the Niagara Falls hydroelectric project went online, it was the largest hydropower facility in
620-559: A weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from Horseshoe Falls. The water flow is halved at night and during the low tourist season winter months and only attains a minimum flow of 1,400 cubic metres per second (49,000 cu ft/s). Water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The verdant green color of
744-501: A French ornithologist (and nephew to the former French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte ) who spent eight years in America, contributing to the understanding of the taxonomy and nomenclature of birds there and elsewhere. Its genus name, Chroicocephalus , is a combination of the Greek words chroikos , an adjective form of chroa meaning "colour", and kephalē meaning "head". This refers to
868-569: A barrel with only minor injuries. Soucek was fined $ 500 for performing the stunt without a license. In 1985, he was fatally injured while attempting to re-create the Niagara drop at the Houston Astrodome . His aim was to climb into a barrel hoisted to the rafters of the Astrodome and to drop 55 m (180 ft) into a water tank on the floor. After his barrel released prematurely, it hit the side of
992-711: A branch. Crouched and facing each other, with neck and crown feathers erected and wings slightly raised, they scream at each other with bills opened wide, bobbing up and down as they do so. This display can continue for several minutes before ending abruptly; afterwards, the birds may sit quietly together for some time before separating again. They raise a single brood per year, nesting singly or in loose colonies of 2–20 pairs , with nests spaced at least 30–50 m (98–164 ft) apart. Unlike most other gulls, Bonaparte's gulls typically nest in trees — almost exclusively conifers, including black spruce , Atlantic white cedar , tamarack and jack pine . Both sexes help to build
1116-574: A brief account of the experience: "When I came into its awful presence the power of discription failed me, an irrisistible power closed my lips." Being on the Canadian border, Niagara Falls was on one of the routes of the Underground Railroad . The falls were also a popular tourist attraction for Southern slaveowners, who would bring their enslaved workers on the trip. "Many a time the trusted body-servant, or slave-girl, would leave master or mistress in
1240-483: A clade with other "masked gulls", and that it and the slender-billed gull are each other's closest relatives and are basal to the rest of that grouping. Based on these studies, the American Ornithologists' Union , which had previously assigned the species to the genus Larus , moved it into its current genus in 2008. It is monotypic across its range. The species is named for Charles Lucien Bonaparte ,
1364-576: A descendant of Schoellkopf's firm, formed the Cataract Company headed by Edward Dean Adams, with the intent of expanding Niagara Falls' power capacity. In 1890, a five-member International Niagara Commission headed by Sir William Thomson among other distinguished scientists deliberated on the expansion of Niagara hydroelectric capacity based on seventeen proposals but could not select any as the best combined project for hydraulic development and distribution. In 1893, Westinghouse Electric (which had built
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#17328552576891488-549: A falls, so almost anything is possible given the right geological and hydrological setting. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After a long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed. In addition to gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by earthquakes or landslides or volcanoes can lead to
1612-411: A few shelters designed to protect the landscape while allowing large numbers of visitors to enjoy the falls. Commemorative statues, shops, restaurants, and a 1959 glass and metal observation tower were added later. Preservationists continue to strive to strike a balance between Olmsted's idyllic vision and the realities of administering a popular scenic attraction. Preservation efforts continued well into
1736-468: A focus of pleasure and honeymoon visits. After World War II, the auto industry, along with local tourism boards, began to promote Niagara honeymoons. In about 1840, the English industrial chemist Hugh Lee Pattinson traveled to Canada, stopping at Niagara Falls long enough to make the earliest known photograph of the falls, a daguerreotype in the collection of Newcastle University . It was once believed that
1860-531: A location roughly approximately 60 metres (200 ft) south of the Railway Suspension Bridge. This one was of an entirely different design; it was a cantilever bridge to provide greater strength. The Niagara Cantilever Bridge had two cantilevers which were joined by steel sections; it opened officially in December 1883, and improvements were made over the years for a stronger structure. As rail traffic
1984-547: A long tradition of daredevils trying to go over the falls. Englishman Captain Matthew Webb , the first man to swim the English Channel , drowned in 1883 trying to swim the rapids downriver from the falls. On October 24, 1901, 63-year-old Michigan school teacher Annie Edson Taylor became the first person to go over the falls in a barrel as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but otherwise unharmed. Soon after exiting
2108-465: A pioneering work on waterfalls. In 1942 Oscar von Engeln wrote of the lack of research on waterfalls: Waterfall sites more than any other geomorphic feature attract and hold the interest of the general public. Because they have such a popular approval waterfalls are not given serious attention by some students of systematic geomorphology. This attitude is not to be commended. Waterfalls are significant items for geomorphic investigation. As late as 1985
2232-562: A potential source of power. The first known effort to harness the waters was in 1750, when Daniel Joncaire built a small canal above the falls to power his sawmill. Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government, and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery. In 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Mining Company
2356-463: A proposal for international discussions on the establishment of a public park. Goat Island was one of the inspirations for the American side of the effort. William Dorsheimer , moved by the scene from the island, brought Olmsted to Buffalo in 1868 to design a city park system, which helped promote Olmsted's career. In 1879, the New York state legislature commissioned Olmsted and James T. Gardner to survey
2480-761: A role in many cultures, as religious sites and subjects of art and music. Many artists have painted waterfalls and they are referenced in many songs, such as those of the Kaluli people in Papua New Guinea . Michael Harner titled his study of the Jivaroan peoples of Ecuador The Jivaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls. Artists such as those of the Hudson River School and J. M. W. Turner and John Sell Cotman painted particularly notable pictures of waterfalls in
2604-587: A scholar felt that "waterfalls remain a very much neglected aspect of river studies". Studies of waterfalls increased dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. Numerous waterfall guidebooks exist, and the World Waterfall Database is a website cataloging thousands of waterfalls. Many explorers have visited waterfalls. European explorers recorded waterfalls they came across. In 1493, Christopher Columbus noted Carbet Falls in Guadeloupe , which
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#17328552576892728-493: A series of bridges. In 1955, the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point . In the early 1980s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers filled in more land and built diversion dams and retaining walls to force the water away from Terrapin Point. Altogether, 120 m (400 ft) of Horseshoe Falls were eliminated, including 30 m (100 ft) on the Canadian side. According to author Ginger Strand,
2852-584: A slaty black hood, which it loses in non-breeding plumage. Its short, thin bill is black, and its legs are orangish-red. First year Bonaparte's gulls have the same plumage in winter and summer, but the summer plumage is paler due to wear. Fewer than 5 percent of Bonaparte's gulls acquire a dark hood in their first summer, and on those that do, the hood is duller than on breeding adults. Bonaparte's gull breeds in boreal forest across southern Alaska and much of interior western Canada , as far east as central Quebec and south to within 320 km (200 mi) of
2976-520: A state reservation at Niagara, and the Niagara Falls Association, a private citizens group founded in 1882, mounted a great letter-writing campaign and petition drive in support of the park. Professor Charles Eliot Norton and Olmsted were among the leaders of the public campaign, while New York Governor Alonzo Cornell opposed. Preservationists' efforts were rewarded on April 30, 1885, when Governor David B. Hill signed legislation creating
3100-499: A stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, which is referred to as a hanging valley . Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. When warm and cold water meets by a gorge in the ocean, large underwater waterfalls can form as
3224-478: A supplemental report detailing plans to restore the falls. Their intent was "to restore and conserve the natural surroundings of the Falls of Niagara, rather than to attempt to add anything thereto", and the report anticipated fundamental questions, such as how to provide access without destroying the beauty of the falls, and how to restore natural landscapes damaged by man. They planned a park with scenic roadways, paths and
3348-468: A wingspan of 76–84 cm (30–33 in) and a body mass of 180–225 g (6.3–7.9 oz). There is no difference in plumage or bare part colour between the sexes, though males tend to be heavier than females. Bonaparte's gull is smaller-bodied, smaller-headed, and smaller-billed than the other common hooded gulls of North America. The adult has grey upperparts and white underparts; its wingtips are black above and pale below. In breeding plumage, it has
3472-401: Is a member of the gull family Laridae found mainly in northern North America . At 28 to 38 cm (11 to 15 in) in length, it is one of the smallest species of gull. Its plumage is mainly white with grey upperparts. During breeding season, Bonaparte's gull gains a slaty-black hood. The sexes are similar in appearance. When George Ord first described Bonaparte's gull in 1815, he gave it
3596-408: Is a type of stream pool formed at the bottom of a waterfall. A waterfall may also be referred to as a "foss" or "force". Waterfalls are commonly formed in the upper course of a river where lakes flow into valleys in steep mountains. A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line . Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a glacial trough , where
3720-458: Is about 790 m (2,590 ft) wide, while the American Falls is 320 m (1,050 ft) wide. The distance between the American extremity of Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 1,039 m (3,409 ft). The peak flow over Horseshoe Falls was recorded at 6,370 m/s (225,000 cu ft/s). The average annual flow rate is 2,400 m/s (85,000 cu ft/s). Since
3844-512: Is also an occasional non-breeding vagrant to the Hawaiian Islands . In 2017 a breeding pair was spotted on Iceland . They are migratory and most move east or west to coastal waters, also the Great Lakes . They are graceful in flight, more like terns . Like most gulls, Bonaparte's gull has a varied diet, with prey items changing over the course of the year, and from year to year. During
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3968-567: Is also known as the Canadian Falls. The smaller American Falls and Bridal Veil Falls lie within the United States. Bridal Veil Falls is separated from Horseshoe Falls by Goat Island and from American Falls by Luna Island , with both islands situated in New York. Formed by the Niagara River , which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario before flowing out to the Atlantic Ocean through
4092-783: Is also no agreement how to measure the height of a waterfall, or even what constitutes one. Angel Falls in Venezuela is the tallest waterfall in the world , the Khone Phapheng Falls in Laos are the widest, and the Inga Falls on the Congo River are the biggest by flow rate , while the Dry Falls in Washington are the largest confirmed waterfalls ever. The highest known subterranean waterfall
4216-483: Is composed of hard, erosion-resistant limestone and dolomite of the Lockport Formation (Middle Silurian ). That hard layer of stone eroded more slowly than the underlying materials. Immediately below the caprock lies the weaker, softer, sloping Rochester Formation (Lower Silurian). This formation is composed mainly of shale , though it has some thin limestone layers. It also contains ancient fossils . In time,
4340-501: Is derived from the name given to a branch of the local native Neutral Confederacy , who are described as the Niagagarega people on several late-17th-century French maps of the area. According to George R. Stewart , it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Onguiaahra , meaning "point of land cut in two". In 1847, an Iroquois interpreter stated that the name came from Jaonniaka-re , meaning "noisy point or portage". To Mohawks ,
4464-488: Is diverted via four huge tunnels that arise far upstream from the waterfalls. The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines that supply power to nearby areas of Canada and the United States before returning to the river well past the falls. When electrical demand is low, the Lewiston units can operate as pumps to transport water from the lower bay back up to the plant's reservoir , allowing this water to be used again during
4588-434: Is famed for its beauty and is a valuable source of hydroelectric power . Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. Niagara Falls is 27 km (17 mi) northwest of Buffalo, New York , and 69 km (43 mi) southeast of Toronto , between the twin cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario , and Niagara Falls, New York . Niagara Falls
4712-466: Is fractured or otherwise more erodible. Hydraulic jets and hydraulic jumps at the toe of a falls can generate large forces to erode the bed, especially when forces are amplified by water-borne sediment. Horseshoe-shaped falls focus the erosion to a central point, also enhancing riverbed change below a waterfall. A process known as "potholing" involves local erosion of a potentially deep hole in bedrock due to turbulent whirlpools spinning stones around on
4836-619: Is in Vrtoglavica Cave in Slovenia . The Denmark Strait cataract is an undersea overflow which could be considered a "waterfall" under a very broad usage of that term; if so included, it is the largest known waterfall. Artificial waterfalls are water features or fountains that imitate a natural waterfall. The Cascata delle Marmore is the tallest artificially built waterfall at 541 feet (165 m). Bonaparte%27s gulls Bonaparte's gull ( Chroicocephalus philadelphia )
4960-497: Is now illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the falls. Charles Stephens , a 58-year-old barber from Bristol, England, went over the falls in a wooden barrel in July 1920 and was the first person to die in an endeavor of this type. Bobby Leach went over Horseshoe Falls in a crude steel barrel in 1911 and needed rescuing by William "Red" Hill Sr. Hill again came to the rescue of Leach following his failed attempt to swim
5084-649: Is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act . Because it occurs in Europe and Africa only as a vagrant, it is not protected by the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds . The species is known to be preyed upon by peregrine falcons . Like many birds, it hosts a number of internal and external parasites. The linguatulid species Reighardia sternae , a tiny, worm-like crustacean,
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5208-798: Is undoubtedly presented by the continent of Africa, the 'darkness' of which is almost entirely due to this cause." Waterfalls are often visited by people simply to see them. Hudson theorizes that they make good tourism sites because they are generally considered beautiful and are relatively uncommon. Activities at waterfalls can include bathing, swimming, photography, rafting , canyoning , abseiling , rock climbing , and ice climbing . Waterfalls can also be sites for generating hydroelectric power and can hold good fishing opportunities. Wealthy people were known to visit areas with features such as waterfalls at least as early as in Ancient Rome and China . However, many waterfalls were essentially inaccessible due to
5332-408: Is yellowish-buff, greyer on the flanks and belly, and somewhat pinkish on the breast, with dark brown mottling on the upperparts and head. The bill is blue-black with a pinkish base, and the legs and feet are pinkish-buff. Young birds typically leave the nest within 2–7 days of hatching, jumping out and following their parents to the nearest open water. Both parents tend the young. The time it takes
5456-470: The Gocta Cataracts were first announced to the world in 2006. Waterfalls can pose major barriers to travel. Canals are sometimes built as a method to go around them, other times things must be physically carried around or a railway built . In 1885, the geographer George Chisholm wrote that, "The most signal example of the effect of waterfalls and rapids in retarding the development of civilisation
5580-473: The Niagara Gorge in 1920. In 1928, "Smiling Jean" Lussier tried an entirely different concept, going over the falls in a large rubber ball; he was successful and survived the ordeal. In the "Miracle at Niagara", on July 9, 1960, Roger Woodward, a seven-year-old American boy, was swept over Horseshoe Falls after the boat in which he was cruising lost power; two tourists pulled his 17-year-old sister Deanne from
5704-526: The St. Lawrence River , the combined falls have the highest flow rate of any waterfall in North America that has a vertical drop of more than 50 m (160 ft). During peak daytime tourist hours, more than 168,000 m (5.9 million cu ft) of water goes over the crest of the falls every minute. Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by flow rate. Niagara Falls
5828-522: The Vanderbilts had fueled the construction of giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 75 megawatts (100,000 hp ), sent as far as Buffalo, 32 km (20 mi) away. Some of the original designs for the power transmission plants were created by the Swiss firm Faesch & Piccard, which also constructed the original 3.7 MW (5,000 hp) waterwheels. Private companies on
5952-541: The black swift and white-throated dipper . These species preferentially nest in the space behind the falling water, which is thought to be a strategy to avoid predation. Some waterfalls are also distinct in that they do not flow continuously. Ephemeral waterfalls only flow after a rain or a significant snowmelt. Waterfalls can also be found underground and in oceans. The geographer Andrew Goudie wrote in 2020 that waterfalls have received "surprisingly limited research." Alexander von Humboldt wrote about them in
6076-400: The 1820s. There is no name for the specific field of researching waterfalls, and in the published literature been described as "scattered", though it is popular to describe studying waterfalls as "waterfallology". An early paper written on waterfalls was published in 1884 by William Morris Davis , a geologist known as the "father of American geography". In the 1930s Edward Rashleigh published
6200-444: The 18th century, they have received increased attention as tourist destinations, sources of hydropower , and—particularly since the mid-20th century—as subjects of research. A waterfall is generally defined as a point in a river where water flows over a steep drop that is close to or directly vertical. In 2000 Mabin specified that "The horizontal distance between the positions of the lip and plunge pool should be no more than c 25% of
6324-681: The 19th century. One of the versions of the Shinto purification ceremony of misogi involves standing underneath a waterfall in ritual clothing. In Japan the Nachi Falls are a site of pilgrimage, as are falls near Tirupati , India, and the Saut-d'Eau , Haiti. The Otavalos use Piguchi waterfall as part of the Churru ritual which serves as a coming of age ceremony. Many waterfalls in Africa were places of worship for
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#17328552576896448-590: The 20th century. J. Horace McFarland, the Sierra Club , and the Appalachian Mountain Club persuaded the United States Congress in 1906 to enact legislation to preserve the falls by regulating the waters of the Niagara River. The act sought, in cooperation with the Canadian government, to restrict diversion of water, and a treaty resulted in 1909 that limited the total amount of water diverted from
6572-413: The Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the falls. The Government of Ontario eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906, distributing Niagara's energy to various parts of the Canadian province. Other hydropower plants were being built along the Niagara River. But in 1956, disaster struck when the region's largest hydropower station was partially destroyed in
6696-484: The Falls was the wreck of the schooner Michigan in 1827. Local hotel owners acquired a former Lake Erie freighter, loaded it with animals and effigies of people, towed it to a spot above the falls and let it plunge over the brink. Admission of fifty cents was charged. In October 1829, Sam Patch , who called himself "the Yankee Leapster", jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began
6820-491: The Horseshoe Falls is now entirely in Canada. Other sources say "most of" Horseshoe Falls is in Canada. The only recorded freeze-up of the river and falls was caused by an ice jam on March 29, 1848. No water (or at best a trickle) fell for as much as 40 hours. Waterwheels stopped, and mills and factories shut down for having no power. In 1912, American Falls was completely frozen, but the other two falls kept flowing. Although
6944-416: The Niagara Falls was between present-day Queenston, Ontario , and Lewiston, New York , but erosion of the crest caused the falls to retreat approximately 10.9 kilometres (6.8 mi) southward. The shape of Horseshoe Falls has changed through the process of erosion, evolving from a small arch to a horseshoe bend to the present day V-shape. Just upstream from the falls' current location, Goat Island splits
7068-752: The Niagara Reservation, New York's first state park. New York State began to purchase land from developers, under the charter of the Niagara Reservation State Park . In the same year, the province of Ontario established the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park for the same purpose. On the Canadian side, the Niagara Parks Commission governs land usage along the entire course of the Niagara River, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. In 1887, Olmsted and Calvert Vaux issued
7192-594: The United States/Canada border. It avoids dense stands of conifers, instead choosing more open areas, such as the treed edges of bogs , fens , marshes, ponds, or islands. It typically nests within 60 m (200 ft) of open water. It winters along the coasts of North America, and in the Great Lakes. It is a rare vagrant to western Europe and the Azores , where it generally associates with black-headed gulls . It
7316-450: The Western world. Today, Niagara is still the largest electricity producer in New York state, with a generating capacity of 2.4 GW. Up to 1,420 cubic metres per second (50,000 cu ft/s) of water is diverted from the Niagara River through conduits under the city of Niagara Falls to the Lewiston and Robert Moses power plants. Currently between 50% and 75% of the Niagara River's flow
7440-509: The Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago. The retreat of the ice sheet left behind a large amount of meltwater (see Lake Algonquin , Lake Chicago , Glacial Lake Iroquois , and Champlain Sea ) that filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Scientists posit there is an old valley, St David's Buried Gorge , buried by glacial drift , at
7564-463: The approximate location of the present Welland Canal . When the ice melted, the upper Great Lakes emptied into the Niagara River, which followed the rearranged topography across the Niagara Escarpment . In time, the river cut a gorge through the north-facing cliff, or cuesta . Because of the interactions of three major rock formations, the rocky bed did not erode evenly. The caprock formation
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#17328552576897688-425: The barrel ride over the falls. They survived the fall, but their barrel became stuck at the bottom of the falls, requiring a rescue. Waterfall A waterfall is any point in a river or stream where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of a tabular iceberg or ice shelf . Waterfalls can be formed in several ways, but
7812-497: The barrel, she said, "No one ought ever do that again." Days before Taylor's attempt, her domestic cat was sent over the falls in her barrel to test its strength. The cat survived the plunge unharmed and later posed with Taylor in photographs. Since Taylor's historic ride, over a dozen people have intentionally gone over the falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors face charges and stiff fines, as it
7936-426: The base of the waterfall by abrasion , creating a deep plunge pool in the gorge downstream. Streams can become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below the waterfall because of the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. However, a study of waterfalls systematics reported that waterfalls can be wider or narrower above or below
8060-441: The bed, drilling it out. Sand and stones carried by the watercourse therefore increase erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one-and-a-half metres per year. Often,
8184-415: The breeding season, it is largely insectivorous . It is known to quickly congregate in large numbers to take advantage of termite dispersal flights, circling over the emerging swarm and hovering briefly to take the insects in flight. It also gathers in large numbers to feed on the eggs of spawning salmon , alighting on the water and, if necessary, diving to take drifting eggs. During migration and into
8308-401: The cold water rushes to the bottom. The caprock model of waterfall formation states that the river courses over resistant bedrock , erosion happens slowly and is dominated by impacts of water-borne sediment on the rock, while downstream the erosion occurs more rapidly. As the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it may pluck material from the riverbed, if the bed
8432-410: The course of the Niagara River, resulting in the separation of Horseshoe Falls to the west from the American and Bridal Veil Falls to the east. Engineering has slowed erosion and recession. The current rate of erosion is approximately 30 centimeters (0.98 feet) per year, down from a historical average of 0.9 m (3.0 ft) per year. At this rate, in about 50,000 years Niagara Falls will have eroded
8556-531: The crest of Horseshoe falls was reduced to maintain an uninterrupted "curtain of water". In August 2005, Ontario Power Generation , which is responsible for the Sir Adam Beck stations , started a major civil engineering project, called the Niagara Tunnel Project , to increase power production by building a new 12.7-metre (42 ft) diameter, 10.2-kilometre-long (6.3 mi) water diversion tunnel. It
8680-432: The dark heads that gulls of this genus show during the breeding season. The specific epithet philadelphia is a Latinized adjective meaning "from Philadelphia ", a reference to the location from which the type specimen was collected. Bonaparte's gull is among the smallest of the gull species; only little gull and Saunders's gull are smaller. Adults range from 28 to 38 cm (11 to 15 in) in length, with
8804-480: The daytime when electricity use peaks. During peak electrical demand, the same Lewiston pumps are reversed and become generators. To preserve Niagara Falls' natural beauty, a 1950 treaty signed by the U.S. and Canada limited water usage by the power plants. The treaty allows higher summertime diversion at night when tourists are fewer and during the winter months when there are even fewer tourists. This treaty, designed to ensure an "unbroken curtain of water" flowing over
8928-730: The discharge of some errand, and never come back." This sometimes led to conflict. Early town father Peter Porter assisted slavecatchers in finding runaway slaves, even leading, in the case of runaway Solomon Moseby, to a riot in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Canada. Much of this history is memorialized in the Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center . After the American Civil War , the New York Central Railroad publicized Niagara Falls as
9052-640: The entire surface of the egg, or thick and concentrated towards the egg's larger end. The eggs are incubated by both parents for 22–24 days . Studies have shown that breeding populations can be significantly impacted by bad weather. In one multi-year study in Churchill, Manitoba , for example, more than half of the eggs laid in observed nests were blown out of those nests during storms; only 42% of eggs survived to hatching. Hatchling Bonaparte's gulls are semi-precocial , emerging from their eggs covered with natal down feathers, and with eyes already opened. The down
9176-670: The environment of the waterfall itself. A 2012 study of the Agbokim Waterfalls , has suggested that they hold biodiversity to a much higher extent than previously thought. Waterfalls also affect terrestrial species. They create a small microclimate in their immediate vicinity characterized by cooler temperatures and higher humidity than the surrounding region, which may support diverse communities of mosses and liverworts . Species of these plants may have disjunct populations at waterfall zones far from their core range. Waterfalls provide nesting cover for several species of bird, such as
9300-504: The falls and to create the single most important document in the Niagara preservation movement, a "Special Report on the preservation of Niagara Falls". The report advocated for state purchase, restoration and preservation through public ownership of the scenic lands surrounding Niagara Falls. Restoring the former beauty of the falls was described in the report as a "sacred obligation to mankind". In 1883, New York Governor Grover Cleveland drafted legislation authorizing acquisition of lands for
9424-503: The falls by both nations to approximately 1,600 cubic metres per second (56,000 cu ft/s). That limitation remained in effect until 1950. Erosion control efforts have always been of importance. Underwater weirs redirect the most damaging currents, and the top of the falls has been strengthened. In June 1969, a temporary rock and earth dam was constructed, completely diverting the Niagara River from American Falls for several months. During this time, two bodies were removed from under
9548-519: The falls commonly ice up most winters, the river and the falls do not freeze completely. The years 1885, 1902, 1906, 1911, 1932, 1936, 2014, 2017 and 2019 are noted for partial freezing of the falls. A so-called ice bridge was common in certain years at the base of the falls and was used by people who wanted to cross the river before bridges had been built. During some winters, the ice sheet was as thick as 12 to 30 metres (40 to 100 ft), but that thickness has not occurred since 1954. The ice bridge of 1841
9672-470: The falls is credited to Belgian missionary, Father Louis Hennepin in 1677, after traveling with the explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle , thus bringing the falls to the attention of Europeans. French Jesuit missionary Paul Ragueneau likely visited the falls some 35 years before Hennepin's visit while working among the Huron First Nation in Canada. Jean de Brébeuf also may have visited
9796-476: The falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the falls for hydroelectric power , and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area's natural beauty. Before the late 20th century, the northeastern end of Horseshoe Falls was in the United States, flowing around the Terrapin Rocks, which were once connected to Goat Island by
9920-470: The falls while passing through New York en route to Cumberland House as part of his second Arctic expedition, calling them "so justly celebrated as the first in the world for grandeur". In 1843, Frederick Douglass joined the American Anti-Slavery Society 's "One Hundred Conventions" tour throughout New York and the midwest. Sometime on this tour, Douglass visited Niagara Falls and wrote
10044-614: The falls) was a two-level suspension structure that opened in January 1869; it was destroyed during a severe storm in January 1889. The replacement was built quickly and opened in May 1889. In order to handle heavy traffic, a second bridge was commissioned, slightly closer to American Falls. This one was a steel bridge and opened to traffic in June 1897; it was known as the Upper Steel Arch Bridge but
10168-554: The falls, affords the closest view of the falls and is open to non-commercial vehicle traffic and pedestrians. The Whirlpool Rapids Bridge lies 1.6 kilometres (1 mi) north of the Rainbow Bridge and is the oldest bridge over the Niagara River. Nearby Niagara Falls International Airport and Buffalo Niagara International Airport were named after the waterfall, as were Niagara University , countless local businesses, and even an asteroid . The first recorded publicity stunt using
10292-403: The falls, including a man who had been seen jumping over the falls, and the body of a woman, which was discovered once the falls dried. While Horseshoe Falls absorbed the extra flow, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the riverbed and mechanically bolted and strengthened any faults they found; faults that would, if left untreated, have hastened the retreat of American Falls. A plan to remove
10416-424: The falls, states that during daylight time during the tourist season (April 1 to October 31) there must be 2,800 cubic metres per second (100,000 cu ft/s) of water flowing over the falls, and during the night and off-tourist season there must be 1,400 cubic metres per second (50,000 cu ft/s) of water flowing over the falls. This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control, using
10540-579: The falls, while spending time with the Neutral Nation . The Finland-Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm explored the area in the early 18th century and is credited with the first scientific description of the falls. In 1762, Captain Thomas Davies , a British Army officer and artist, surveyed the area and painted the watercolor, An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara , the first eyewitness painting of
10664-415: The falls. During the 19th century, tourism became popular, and by the mid-century, it was the area's main industry. Theodosia Burr Alston (daughter of Vice President Aaron Burr ) and her husband Joseph Alston were the first recorded couple to honeymoon there in 1801. Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother Jérôme visited with his bride in the early 19th century. In 1825, British explorer John Franklin visited
10788-462: The flow is a direct function of the Lake Erie water elevation, it typically peaks in late spring or early summer. During the summer months, at least 2,800 m/s (99,000 cu ft/s) of water traverse the falls, some 90% of which goes over Horseshoe Falls, while the balance is diverted to hydroelectric facilities and then on to American Falls and Bridal Veil Falls. This is accomplished by employing
10912-415: The formation of waterfalls. Waterfalls are an important factor in determining the distribution of lotic organisms such as fish and aquatic invertebrates, as they may restrict dispersal along streams. The presence or absence of certain species can have cascading ecological effects, and thus cause differences in trophic regimes above and below waterfalls. Certain aquatic plants and insects also specialize in
11036-657: The gorge. It opened for use by the public in July 1848 and remained in use until 1855. A second bridge in the Upper Falls area was commissioned, with two levels or decks, one for use by the Great Western Railway . This Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge opened in 1855. It was used by conductors on the Underground Railroad to escort runaway slaves to Canada. In 1882, the Grand Trunk Railway took over control of
11160-432: The ground. Adults are aggressive in defending their nests, chasing away even large potential predators such as hawks , common ravens and humans. There is some evidence that human activity in the area of their nests may cause decreased productivity — they are known to travel as far as a kilometer (about a half mile) to mob people, for example — but, contrarily, some choose to nest near human habitation. The female lays
11284-502: The huge mound of talus deposited in 1954 was abandoned owing to cost, and in November 1969, the temporary dam was dynamited , restoring flow to American Falls. Even after these undertakings, Luna Island , the small piece of land between the American Falls and Bridal Veil Falls, remained off limits to the public for years owing to fears that it was unstable and could collapse into the gorge. Commercial interests have continued to encroach on
11408-513: The land surrounding the state park, including the construction of several tall buildings (most of them hotels) on the Canadian side. The result is a significant alteration and urbanisation of the landscape. One study found that the tall buildings changed the breeze patterns and increased the number of mist days from 29 per year to 68 per year, but another study disputed this idea. In 2013, New York State began an effort to renovate Three Sisters Islands located south of Goat Island. Funds were used from
11532-526: The most common method of formation is that a river courses over a top layer of resistant bedrock before falling onto softer rock, which erodes faster, leading to an increasingly high fall. Waterfalls have been studied for their impact on species living in and around them. Humans have had a distinct relationship with waterfalls since prehistory, travelling to see them, exploring and naming them. They can present formidable barriers to navigation along rivers. Waterfalls are religious sites in many cultures. Since
11656-474: The name refers to "the neck", pronounced "onyara"; the portage or neck of land between lakes Erie and Ontario onyara . Many figures have been suggested as first circulating a European eyewitness description of Niagara Falls. The Frenchman Samuel de Champlain visited the area as early as 1604 during his exploration of what is now Canada, and members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he described in his journals. The first description of
11780-593: The native peoples and got their names from gods in the local religion. "In Chinese tradition, the waterfall represents" the season of autumn , yin , and the Chinese dragon 's power over water that comes from the former two. There are thousands of waterfalls in the world, though no exact number has been calculated. The World Waterfall Database lists 7,827 as of 2013, but this is likely incomplete; as noted by Hudson, over 90% of their listings are in North America. Many guidebooks to local waterfalls have been published. There
11904-471: The nest, which is a platform of small sticks, sometimes with lichen , moss or marsh vegetation added, measuring about 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter. Most nests are placed 3–6 m (9.8–19.7 ft) above the ground, and within 60 m (200 ft) of open water, though they have been found low as 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in), as high as 15 m (49 ft), and as far as 180 m (590 ft) from open water. They are only rarely placed on
12028-662: The re-licensing of the New York Power Authority hydroelectric plant downriver in Lewiston, New York, to rebuild walking paths on the Three Sisters Islands and to plant native vegetation on the islands. The state also renovated the area around Prospect Point at the brink of American Falls in the state park. Theories differ as to the origin of the name of the falls. The Native American word Ongiara means thundering water ; The New York Times used this in 1925. According to Iroquoian scholar Bruce Trigger , Niagara
12152-687: The remaining 32 km (20 mi) to Lake Erie, and the falls will cease to exist. In the 1870s, sightseers had limited access to Niagara Falls and often had to pay for a glimpse, and industrialization threatened to carve up Goat Island to further expand commercial development. Other industrial encroachments and lack of public access led to a conservation movement in the U.S. known as Free Niagara, led by such notables as Hudson River School artist Frederic Edwin Church , landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted , and architect Henry Hobson Richardson . Church approached Lord Dufferin , governor-general of Canada, with
12276-719: The rise of Romanticism , and increased importance of hydropower with the Industrial Revolution . European explorers often preferred to give waterfalls names in their own language; for instance, David Livingstone named Victoria Falls after Queen Victoria , though it was known by local peoples as Mosi-oa-Tunya. Many waterfalls have descriptive names which can come from the river they are on, places they are near, their features, or events that happened near them. Some countries that were colonized by European nations have taken steps to return names to waterfalls previously renamed by European explorers. Exploration of waterfalls continues;
12400-587: The river eroded the soft layer that supported the hard layers, undercutting the hard caprock, which gave way in great chunks. This process repeated countless times, eventually carving out the falls. Submerged in the river in the lower valley, hidden from view, is the Queenston Formation (Upper Ordovician ), which is composed of shales and fine sandstones . All three formations were laid down in an ancient sea, their differences of character deriving from changing conditions within that sea. About 10,900 years ago,
12524-564: The river only 6 m (20 ft) from the lip of the Horseshoe Falls at Goat Island. Minutes later, Woodward was plucked from the roiling plunge pool beneath Horseshoe Falls after grabbing a life ring thrown to him by the crew of the Maid of the Mist boat. The children's uncle, Jim Honeycutt, who had been steering the boat, was swept over the edge to his death. On July 2, 1984, Canadian Karel Soucek from Hamilton, Ontario , plunged over Horseshoe Falls in
12648-504: The rock stratum just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a rock shelter under and behind the waterfall. Eventually, the outcropping , more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide with each other, and they also erode
12772-487: The rocks above the falls. The two men on the scow were rescued, but the vessel remained trapped on rocks in the river, and is still visible there in a deteriorated state, although its position shifted by 50 meters (160 ft) during a storm on October 31, 2019. Daredevil William "Red" Hill Sr. was particularly praised for his role in the rescue. After the First World War , tourism boomed as automobiles made getting to
12896-423: The scientific name Sterna philadelphia , assigning it to the genus now used for medium-sized terns . Most later taxonomists assigned it to the genus Larus , a longtime catch-all for most of the gull species. However, in 1858, George Newbold Lawrence moved the species to the genus Chroicocephalus , and some taxonomists followed suit. Recent molecular DNA studies have shown that this species fits neatly into
13020-547: The second deck after it absorbed the Great Western company. Significant structural improvements were made in the late 1870s and then in 1886; this bridge remained in use until 1897. Because of the volume of traffic, the decision was made to construct a new arch bridge nearby, under and around the existing bridge. After it opened in September 1897, a decision was made to remove and scrap the railway suspension bridge. This new bridge
13144-696: The small figure standing silhouetted with a top hat was added by an engraver working from imagination as well as the daguerreotype as his source, but the figure is clearly present in the photograph. Because of the very long exposure required, of ten minutes or more, the figure is assumed by Canada's Niagara Parks agency to be Pattinson. The image is left-right inverted and taken from the Canadian side . Pattinson made other photographs of Horseshoe Falls; these were then transferred to engravings to illustrate Noël Marie Paymal Lerebours ' Excursions Daguerriennes (Paris, 1841–1864). On August 6, 1918, an iron scow became stuck on
13268-454: The smaller-scale Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant near Ophir, Colorado , two years earlier) was hired to design a system to generate alternating current on Niagara Falls, and three years after that a large-scale AC power system was created (activated on August 26, 1895). The Adams Power Plant Transformer House remains as a landmark of the original system. By 1896, financing from moguls including J. P. Morgan , John Jacob Astor IV , and
13392-420: The tank, and he died the next day from his injuries. In August 1985, Steve Trotter , an aspiring stuntman from Rhode Island , became the youngest person ever (age 22) and the first American in 25 years to go over the falls in a barrel. Ten years later, Trotter went over the falls again, becoming the second person to go over the falls twice and survive. It was also the second "duo"; Lori Martin joined Trotter for
13516-533: The treacherous terrain surrounding them until improvements began to be made such as paths to the falls, becoming common across the United Kingdom and America in the 1800s and continuing through the 1900s and into the 21st century. Remote waterfalls are now often visited by air travel. Human development has also threatened many waterfalls. For instance, the Guaíra Falls , once one of the most powerful waterfalls in
13640-457: The water flowing over Niagara Falls is a byproduct of the estimated 60 tonnes/minute of dissolved salts and rock flour (very finely ground rock) generated by the erosive force of the Niagara River. The Niagara River is an important bird area due to its impact on Bonaparte's gulls , ring-billed gulls , and herring gulls . Several thousand birds migrate and winter in the surrounding area. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by
13764-423: The waterfall height." There are various types and methods to classify waterfalls. Some scholars have included rapids as a subsection. What actually constitutes a waterfall continues to be debated. Waterfalls are sometimes interchangeably referred to as "cascades" and "cataracts", though some sources specify a cataract as being a larger and more powerful waterfall and a cascade as being smaller. A plunge pool
13888-668: The winter, insects are first supplemented, then replaced by other food items, including fish, small crustaceans, mollusks, euphausiids , marine worms, and other invertebrates. At least one immature bird has been recorded as having fed on walnut meat. Bonaparte's gulls are known to engage in kleptoparasitism , and have been observed stealing earthworms from foraging dunlins and black-bellied plovers . Bonaparte's gulls begin breeding at two years of age; they are thought to be monogamous . The breeding season begins in mid-June. Courting pairs perform swooping display flights, calling loudly and diving at each other, and then drop down to perch on
14012-660: The world, were submerged in 1982 by a human-made dam, as were the Ripon Falls in 1952. Conversely, other waterfalls have seen significantly lower water levels as a result of diversion for hydroelectricity , such as the Tyssestrengene in Norway. Development of the areas around falls as tourist attractions has also destroyed the natural scene around many of them. Waterfalls are included on thirty-eight World Heritage Sites and many others are protected by governments. Waterfalls play
14136-463: The young to fledge is unknown. Bonaparte's gulls may live to 18 years. Bonaparte's gull has a voice described as nasal and raspy, with calls variously transcribed as cherr or cheeer . Because of its extremely large range and its increasing population, Bonaparte's gull is listed as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . In North America, it
14260-670: Was a lengthy dispute as to which agency should build the replacement for the Niagara Railway Arch, or Lower Steel Arch Bridge in the Upper Niagara area. When that was resolved, construction of a steel bridge commenced in February 1940. Named the Rainbow Bridge , and featuring two lanes for traffic separated by a barrier, it opened in November 1941 and remains in use today. The enormous energy of Niagara Falls has long been recognized as
14384-425: Was chartered, which eventually constructed the canals that would be used to generate electricity. In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob F. Schoellkopf , the Niagara River's first hydroelectric generating station was built. The water fell 26 metres (86 ft) and generated direct current electricity, which ran the machinery of local mills and lit up some of the village streets. The Niagara Falls Power Company,
14508-569: Was formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age ), and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path over and through the Niagara Escarpment en route to the Atlantic Ocean. Horseshoe Falls is about 57 m (187 ft) high, while the height of the American Falls varies between 21 and 30 m (69 and 98 ft) because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls
14632-609: Was improved and incorporated into the Saint Lawrence Seaway in the mid-1950s. While the seaway diverted water traffic from nearby Buffalo and led to the demise of its steel and grain mills, other industries in the Niagara River valley flourished with the help of the electric power produced by the river. However, since the 1970s the region has declined economically. The cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, and Niagara Falls, New York, United States, are connected by two international bridges. The Rainbow Bridge, just downriver from
14756-717: Was increasing, the Michigan Central Railroad company decided to build a new bridge in 1923, to be located between the Lower Steel Arch Bridge and the Cantilever Bridge. The Michigan Central Railway Bridge opened in February 1925 and remained in use until the early 21st century. The Cantilever Bridge was removed and scrapped after the new rail bridge opened. Nonetheless, it was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame in 2006. There
14880-489: Was initially known as the Niagara Railway Arch, or Lower Steel Arch Bridge; it had two decks, the lower one used for carriages and the upper for trains. In 1937, it was renamed the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge and remains in use today. All of the structures built up to that time were referred to as Lower Niagara bridges and were some distance from the falls. The first bridge in the so-called Upper Niagara area (closer to
15004-537: Was likely the first waterfall Europeans recorded seeing in the Americas. In the late 1600s, Louis Hennepin visited North America, providing early descriptions of Niagara Falls and the Saint Anthony Falls . The geographer Brian J. Hudson argues that it was uncommon to specifically name waterfalls until the 1700s. The trend of Europeans specifically naming falls was in tandem with increased scientific focus on nature,
15128-502: Was officially placed into service in March 2013, helping to increase the generating complex's nameplate capacity by 150 megawatts. It did so by tapping water from farther up the Niagara River than was possible with the preexisting arrangement. The tunnel provided new hydroelectricity for approximately 160,000 homes. Ships can bypass Niagara Falls by means of the Welland Canal , which
15252-483: Was often called the Honeymoon Bridge . The single level included a track for trolleys and space for carriages and pedestrians. The design led to the bridge being very close to the surface of the river and in January 1938, an ice jam twisted the steel frame of the bridge which later collapsed on January 27, 1938. Another Lower Niagara bridge had been commissioned in 1883 by Cornelius Vanderbilt for use by railways at
15376-476: Was said to be at least 30 metres (100 ft) thick. On February 4, 1912, the ice bridge which had formed on January 15 began breaking up while people were still on it. Many escaped, but three died during the event, later named the Ice Bridge Tragedy. A number of bridges have spanned the Niagara River in the general vicinity of the falls. The first, not far from the whirlpool , was a suspension bridge above
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