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89-560: New England English is not a single American dialect, but a collective term for a number of dialects and varieties that are close geographic neighbors within New England, but which differ on a spectrum that broadly divides New England English into a unique north versus south (specifically, a northern merger of the LOT and THOUGHT vowels, versus a southern merger of the LOT and PALM vowels), as well as

178-638: A British dependent territory. The lack of consonant /r/ in Cantonese contributes to the phenomenon, but has rhoticity started to exist because of the handover in 1997 and influence by the US and East Asian entertainment industries. Many older and younger speakers among South and East Asians have a non-rhotic accent. Speakers of Semitic ( Arabic , Hebrew , etc.), Turkic ( Turkish , Azeri , etc.), Iranian languages ( Persian , Kurdish , etc.) in West Asia speak English with

267-441: A flexible sole, appropriate tread for the function, and ability to absorb impact. As the industry and designs have expanded, the term "athletic shoes" is based more on the design of the bottom of the shoe than the aesthetics of the top of the shoe. Today's designs include sandals, Mary Janes , and even elevated styles suitable for running, dancing, and jumping. The shoes themselves are made of flexible compounds, typically featuring

356-588: A pples," most non-rhotic speakers will preserve the /r/ in that position (the linking R ) since it is followed by a vowel in this case. The rhotic dialects of English include most of those in Scotland , Ireland , the United States , and Canada . As of the 21st century, the non-rhotic dialects include most of those in England , Wales , Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa . Among certain speakers, like some in

445-511: A rhotic pronunciation because of the inherent phonotactics of their native languages. Indian English can vary between being non-rhotic due to the traditional influence of Received Pronunciation (RP) or rhotic from the underlying phonotactics of the native Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages and the growing influence of American English. Other Asian regions with non-rhotic English are Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei. A typical Malaysian's English would be almost totally non-rhotic because of

534-433: A sole made of dense rubber. While the original design was basic, manufacturers have since tailored athletic shoes for their specific purposes. An example of this is the spiked shoe developed for track running. Some of these shoes are made up to unusually large sizes for athletes with large feet. Sneakers intended for running come in a range of shapes suited to different purposes. Generally, they are divided by running style:

623-539: A specific dialect of English, speak with a strong "r," but they are not the only ones to do so. Older Southland speakers use /ɹ/ variably after vowels, but younger speakers now use /ɹ/ only with the NURSE vowel and occasionally with the LETT ER vowel. Younger Southland speakers pronounce /ɹ/ in third term /ˌθɵːɹd ˈtɵːɹm/ (General NZE pronunciation: /ˌθɵːd ˈtɵːm/ ) but only sometimes in farm cart /ˈfɐːm ˌkɐːt/ (usually

712-460: A traditional look with increased comfort rapidly achieved wide popularity and by 2010 was displacing sales of leather shoes for adults in a parallel with the post-1950 success of sneakers among children. The shift was especially noticeable in combination with business-casual clothing. From 1970 (five models), to 1998 (285 models), to 2012 (3,371), the number of sport shoe models in the U.S. has grown exponentially. Sneakers intended for sports have

801-596: A transitional area in the middle. Western New England English is closely related to and possibly influential on, but more conservative (i.e. preserving more historical features) than, the Inland North dialect which prevails farther west along the Great Lakes, and which has altered away from Western New England English due to an entirely new chain shift of the vowels since the 20th century. Some Western New England English speakers do have some of this shift's features, though it

890-447: A unique east versus west (specifically, an eastern pronunciation of the "r" sound only before vowels, versus a western pronunciation of all "r" sounds). Regarding the former feature, all of northern New England (most famously including Boston, but going as far southeast as Cape Cod and as far north as central Maine) historically merges the open and open-mid back rounded vowels (so that, for instance, pond and pawned are pronounced

979-404: A younger pronunciation variant nationwide (also reported in places as diverse as Utah, California, and New Jersey). The extent that speakers raise the tongue in the "short a " vowel, or TRAP vowel, varies in New England; however, across the board, New Englanders demonstrate a definite "nasal" short- a system, in which the vowel is always raised the absolute strongest whenever occurring before

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1068-626: Is [kɑː] , but car owner is [ˈkɑːrəʊnə] . A final schwa usually remains short and so water in isolation is [wɔːtə] . In RP and similar accents, the vowels /iː/ and /uː/ (or /ʊ/ ), when they are followed by r , become diphthongs that end in schwa and so near is [nɪə] and poor is [pʊə] . They have other realizations as well, including monophthongal ones. Once again, the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. The same happens to diphthongs followed by r , but they may be considered to end in rhotic speech in /ər/ , which reduces to schwa, as usual, in non-rhotic speech. In isolation, tire ,

1157-429: Is schwa . For example, the idea of it becomes the idea-r-of it , Australia and New Zealand becomes Australia-r-and New Zealand , the formerly well-known India-r-Office and "Laura Norder" (Law and Order). The typical alternative used by RP speakers (and some rhotic speakers as well) is to insert an intrusive glottal stop wherever an intrusive r would otherwise have been placed. For non-rhotic speakers, what

1246-691: Is entirely rhotic except for small isolated areas in southwestern New Brunswick , parts of Newfoundland , and the Lunenburg English variety spoken in Lunenburg and Shelburne Counties, Nova Scotia , which may be non-rhotic or variably rhotic. The prestige form of English spoken in Ireland is rhotic and most regional accents are rhotic, but some regional accents, particularly in the area around counties Louth and Cavan are notably non-rhotic and many non-prestige accents have touches of non-rhoticity. In Dublin,

1335-470: Is heavily influenced by the American dialect and because of Spanish influence in the various Philippine languages. Many East Asians in mainland China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan who have a good command of English generally have rhotic accents because of the influence of American English . That excludes Hong Kong , whose English dialect is a result of its almost 150-year history as a British Crown colony and later

1424-405: Is immediately after a vowel and not followed by another vowel. For example, in isolation, a rhotic English speaker pronounces the words hard and butter as /ˈhɑːrd/ and /ˈbʌtər/ , but a non-rhotic speaker "drops" or "deletes" the /r/ sound and pronounces them as /ˈhɑːd/ and /ˈbʌtə/ . When an r is at the end of a word but the next word begins with a vowel, as in the phrase "bette r

1513-717: Is largely non-rhotic, and in some non-rhotic Southern and AAVE accents, there is no linking r ; that is, /r/ at the end of a word is deleted even when the following word starts with a vowel; thus, "Mister Adams" is pronounced [mɪstə(ʔ)ˈædəmz] . In a few such accents, intervocalic /r/ is deleted before an unstressed syllable even within a word if the following syllable begins with a vowel. In such accents, pronunciations like [kæəˈlaːnə] for Carolina , or [bɛːˈʌp] for "bear up" are heard. This pronunciation occurs in AAVE and occurred for many older non-rhotic Southern speakers. AAVE spoken in areas in which non-AAVE speakers are rhotic

1602-442: Is likelier to be rhotic. Rhoticity is generally more common among younger AAVE-speakers. Typically, even non-rhotic modern varieties of American English pronounce the /r/ in /ɜːr/ (as in "bird," "work," or "perky") and realize it, as in most rhotic varieties, as [ ɚ ] (an r-colored mid central vowel) or [əɹ] (a sequence of a mid central vowel and a postalveolar or retroflex approximant). Canadian English

1691-598: Is not clearly identified to any particular region or attributed to any defined language shift . The Māori language tends to pronounce "r" as usually an alveolar tap [ɾ] , like in the Scottish dialect. Athletic shoes Sneakers ( US ) or trainers ( UK ), also known by a wide variety of other names , are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise but which are also widely used for everyday casual wear . They were popularized by companies such as Converse , Nike and Spalding in

1780-669: Is not yet fully understood if and how New England directly influenced the Inland North dialect region. Rhoticity in English The distinction between rhoticity and non-rhoticity is one of the most prominent ways in which varieties of the English language are classified. In rhotic accents , the sound of the historical English rhotic consonant , /r/ , is preserved in all pronunciation contexts. In non-rhotic accents , speakers no longer pronounce /r/ in postvocalic environments: when it

1869-577: Is now predominantly rhotic. In the late 19th century, non-rhotic accents were common throughout much of the coastal Eastern and Southern United States, including along the Gulf Coast . Non-rhotic accents were established in all major U.S. cities along the Atlantic coast except for the Delaware Valley area, centered on Philadelphia and Baltimore , because of its early Scots-Irish rhotic influence. After

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1958-455: Is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney, who was an advertising agent for N. W. Ayer & Son . In 1917, he used the term because the rubber sole made the shoe's wearer stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, when the Boston Journal made reference to "sneakers" as "the name boys give to tennis shoes." The name "sneakers" originally referred to how quiet

2047-661: Is optional. In these dialects the probability of deleting r may vary depending on social, stylistic, and contextual factors. Variably rhotic accents comprise much of Indian English , Pakistani English , and Caribbean English , for example, as spoken in Tobago , Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, and the Bahamas. They include current-day New York City English , most modern varieties of Southern American English , New York Latino English , and some Eastern New England English , as well as some varieties of Scottish English . Non-rhotic accents in

2136-436: Is pronounced [taɪə] and sour is [saʊə] . For some speakers, some long vowels alternate with a diphthong ending in schwa and so wear may be [wɛə] but wearing [ˈwɛːrɪŋ] . The compensatory lengthening view is challenged by Wells, who stated that during the 17th century, stressed vowels followed by /r/ and another consonant or word boundary underwent a lengthening process, known as pre- r lengthening. The process

2225-534: The American Revolutionary War , which lasted from 1775 to 1783, reported surprise at the significant changes in the fashionable pronunciation that had taken place. By the early 19th century, the southern English standard had been fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, but it continued to be variable in the 1870s. The extent of rhoticity in England in the mid-19th century is summarized as widespread in

2314-595: The American South among Whites is found primarily among older speakers and only in some areas such as central and southern Alabama , Savannah, Georgia , and Norfolk, Virginia , as well as in the Yat accent of New Orleans . It is still very common all across the South and across all age groups among African American speakers. The local dialects of eastern New England , especially that of Boston, Massachusetts and extending into

2403-550: The Cape Province (typically in - er suffixes, as in writ er ). It appears that postvocalic /r/ is entering the speech of younger people under the influence of American English and perhaps of the Scottish dialect that was brought by the Scottish settlers. Standard Australian English is non-rhotic. A degree of rhoticity has been observed in a particular sublect of the Australian Aboriginal English spoken on

2492-577: The General American English of Midwestern, Western, and non-coastal Americans. The prestige of non-rhoticity thus reversed, with non-rhoticity in the 20th century up until today increasingly associated with lower-class rather than higher-class speakers, as in New York City. The biggest strongholds of non-rhoticity in the United States have always been eastern New England, New York City, and

2581-833: The NPD Group , one in four pairs of running shoes that were sold in the United States in 2016 were bought from an online retailer . As of 2020 , brands with global popularity include: Sneakers have been an important part of hip hop (primarily Pumas, Nike, and Adidas) and rock 'n roll (Converse, Vans) cultures since the 1970s. Hip hop artists sign million dollar deals with major brands such as Nike, Adidas, or Puma to promote their shoes. Sneaker collectors, called " sneakerheads ", regard sneakers as fashionable items. Sneaker companies encourage this trend by producing rare sneakers in limited numbers, often at very high retail prices. Artistically-modified sneakers can sell for upwards of $ 1000 at exclusive establishments like Saks Fifth Avenue. In 2005,

2670-516: The force vowel often remaining non-rhotic. Semi-rhotic accents have also been studied, such as Jamaican English , in which r is pronounced (as in even non-rhotic accents) before vowels, but also in stressed monosyllables or stressed syllables at the ends of words (e.g. in "car" or "dare"). It is not pronounced at the end of unstressed syllables (e.g. in "water") or before consonants (e.g. "market"). Variably rhotic accents are widely documented, in which deletion of r (when not before vowels)

2759-714: The interwar period , athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the Olympics , helping to popularise them among the general public. In 1936, a French brand, Spring Court, marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole. Adolf "Adi" Dassler began producing his own sports shoes in his mother's wash kitchen in Herzogenaurach , Bavaria , after his return from World War I , and went on to establish one of

New England English - Misplaced Pages Continue

2848-436: The national standard of mass media (like radio, film, and television) being firmly rhotic since the mid-20th century onwards. The earliest traces of a loss of /r/ in English appear in the early 15th century and occur before coronal consonants , especially /s/ , giving modern ass 'buttocks' ( Old English : ears , Middle English : ers or ars ), and bass (fish) (OE bærs , ME bars ). A second phase of

2937-595: The unstressed sequences /tɪŋ/ and /tən/ (for example, found in "sitting" /ˈsɪtɪŋ/ or "Britain" /ˈbrɪtən/ ) with a glottal [ʔn̩] . While this form of t -glottalization (especially the /tən/ form) is found throughout the country ( typical U.S. pronunciation of "mountain" as [ˈmaʊnʔn̩] ), a realization with a full schwa vowel [ʔən] is also a variant sometimes observed particularly among New Englanders, with reportings for instance in New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. It may, however, be

3026-573: The 1740s to the 1770s, it was often deleted entirely, especially after low vowels . By the early 19th century, the southern British standard was fully transformed into a non-rhotic variety, but some variation persisted as late as the 1870s. In the 18th century and possibly the 17th century, the loss of postvocalic /r/ in some British English influenced southern and eastern American port cities with close connections to Britain, causing their upper-class pronunciation to become non-rhotic, while other American regions remained rhotic. Non-rhoticity then became

3115-400: The 1870s, but in general rhoticity is increasing quickly. Rhotic New Zealand English was historically restricted to Murihiku (the " Southland burr ") but rhoticity now is widely used in a region stretching from South Auckland down into the upper North Island, and elsewhere particularly among Pasifika communities. This particular rhoticism manifests itself mostly in the nurse vowel, but with

3204-445: The 1930s, in some of Lancashire (north and west of the centre of Manchester , increasingly among older and rural speakers only), in some parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire , and in the areas that border Scotland. The prestige form exerts a steady pressure toward non-rhoticity. Thus, the urban speech of Bristol or Southampton is more accurately described as variably rhotic, the degree of rhoticity being reduced as one moves up

3293-503: The 1990s, shoe companies perfected their fashion and marketing skills. Sports endorsements with famous athletes grew larger, and marketing budgets went through the roof. Sneakers became a fashion statement and were marketed as a definition of identity and personality rather than simply athletic aids. Also during the 1990s, various vendors began producing "walking shoes" for adults using the construction technology of sneakers but visually resembling traditional leather shoes. The combination of

3382-743: The American Civil War and even more intensely during the early-to-mid-20th century, presumably correlated with the Second World War, rhotic accents began to gain social prestige nationwide, even in the aforementioned areas that were traditionally non-rhotic. Thus, non-rhotic accents are increasingly perceived by Americans as sounding foreign or less educated because of an association with working-class or immigrant speakers in Eastern and Southern cities, and rhotic accents are increasingly perceived as sounding more " General American ." Today, non-rhoticity in

3471-487: The American rhotic "r", which creates a pseudo-Americanised accent. By and large, the official spoken English used in post-colonial African countries is non-rhotic. Standard Liberian English is also non-rhotic because its liquids are lost at the end of words or before consonants. South African English is mostly non-rhotic , especially in the Cultivated dialect, which is based on RP, except for some Broad varieties spoken in

3560-608: The Americas include those of the rest of the Caribbean and Belize. There are people with non-rhotic accents who are children of at least one rhotic-accented parent but grew up, or were educated, in non-rhotic countries like Australia, England, New Zealand, South Africa, or Wales. By contrast, people who have at least one non-rhotic-accented parent but were raised or started their education in Canada, any rhotic Caribbean country, Ireland, Scotland, or

3649-560: The Czech footwear company Botas , whose produce was one of the few foreign brands of sneakers available during the Soviet occupation . These shoes acquired the nickname ' plimsoll ' in the 1870s, derived according to Nicholette Jones' book The Plimsoll Sensation , from the colored horizontal band joining the upper to the sole, which resembled the Plimsoll line on a ship's hull. Alternatively, just like

New England English - Misplaced Pages Continue

3738-583: The Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, the wearer would get wet. Plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the tennis and croquet courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the surface grip of the shoe were developed, and these were ordered in bulk for the use of the British Army . Athletic shoes were increasingly used for leisure and outdoor activities at

3827-510: The United States speak with rhotic accents. Most English varieties in England are non-rhotic today, which stems from a trend in southeastern England that accelerated from the very late 18th century onwards. Rhotic accents are still found south and west of a line from near Shrewsbury to around Portsmouth (especially in the West Country ), in the Corby area because of migration from Scotland in

3916-668: The book New Zealand English: its Origins and Evolution : [T]he only areas of England... for which we have no evidence of rhoticity in the mid-nineteenth century lie in two separate corridors. The first runs south from the North Riding of Yorkshire through the Vale of York into north and central Lincolnshire, nearly all of Nottinghamshire, and adjacent areas of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, and Staffordshire. The second includes all of Norfolk, western Suffolk and Essex, eastern Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, Middlesex, and northern Surrey and Kent. In

4005-559: The class and formality scales. Most Scottish accents are rhotic. Non-rhotic speech has been reported in Edinburgh since the 1970s and Glasgow since the 1980s. Welsh English is mostly non-rhotic, but variable rhoticity is present in accents influenced by Welsh , especially in North Wales . Additionally, while Port Talbot English is largely non-rhotic, some speakers may supplant the front vowel of bird with /ɚ/ . American English

4094-456: The coast of South Australia , especially in speakers from the Point Pearce and Raukkan settlements. These speakers realise /r/ as [ɹ] in the preconsonantal postvocalic position (after a vowel and before a consonant), though only within stems : [boːɹd] "board", [tʃɜɹtʃ] "church", [pɜɹθ] "Perth"; but [flæː] "flour", [dɒktə] "doctor", [jɪəz] "years". It has been speculated that

4183-581: The coastal areas of West Africa are primarily non-rhotic because of the underlying varieties of Niger-Congo languages that are spoken in that part of West Africa. Rhoticity may exist in the English that is spoken in the areas in which rhotic Afro-Asiatic or Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken across northern West Africa and in the Nilotic regions of East Africa. More modern trends show an increasing American influence on African English pronunciation particularly among younger urban affluent populations, which may overstress

4272-583: The distinct Rhode Island accent. All Eastern New England English is famous for non-rhoticity, meaning it drops the r sound everywhere except before a vowel: thus, in words like car , card , fear , and chowder ( listen ). The phrase Park the car in Harvard Yard —dialectally transcribed [pʰak ðə ˈkʰaɹ‿ɪn ˈhavəd ˈjad] —is commonly used as a shibboleth , or speech indicator, for the non-rhotic Eastern New England dialect running from Boston north to Maine, and as far west as Worcester , which contrasts with

4361-434: The early 19th centuries influenced the American port cities with close connections to Britain, which caused upper-class pronunciation to become non-rhotic in many Eastern and Southern port cities such as New York City , Boston , Alexandria , Charleston , and Savannah . Like regional dialects in England, however, the accents of other areas in the United States remained rhotic in a display of linguistic "lag", which preserved

4450-574: The early 20th century, by which time many speakers of the East and South were non-rhotic or variably rhotic, often even regardless of their class background. The most decisive shift of the general American population towards rhoticity (even in previously non-rhotic regions) followed the Second World War . For instance, rapidly after the 1940s, the standard broadcasting pronunciation heard in national radio and television became firmly rhotic, aligned more with

4539-517: The exact geographic quadrant in New England in which a speaker was raised. All of New England raises the tongue in the first element of the diphthong /aɪ/ before voiceless consonants , so writer has a raised vowel , with this often being its only distinguishing feature versus rider . Eastern New England, specifically, also raises the first element of /aʊ/ before voiceless consonants (commonly known as Canadian raising ). The local dialects of New England are also known for commonly pronouncing

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4628-430: The feature may derive from the fact that many of the first settlers in coastal South Australia, including Cornish tin-miners, Scottish missionaries, and American whalers, spoke rhotic varieties. New Zealand English is predominantly non-rhotic. Southland and parts of Otago in the far south of New Zealand's South Island are rhotic from apparent Scottish influence. Many Māori and Pasifika people, who tend to speak

4717-468: The first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by Spalding as early as 1907. The market for sneakers grew after World War I , when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism . The U.S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy Converse All Stars sneakers endorsed by basketball player Chuck Taylor . During

4806-465: The first two words are homophonous as [ˈlɛnɨn] , whereas the latter two words are perfect rhymes: [ˈɹæbɨt, ˈæbɨt] . Certain words have a tendency to use distinct phonemes when compared against the rest of the country: for example, aunt as / ɑː n t / , the noun route as / r uː t / , and syrup as / ˈ s iː r ə p / . The following terms originate from and are used commonly and nearly exclusively throughout New England: As in

4895-534: The following five ways. They are fully rhotic, meaning all r sounds are pronounced, /aʊ/ and /u/ have slightly fronted starting positions, and the Mary–marry–merry merger and horse–hoarse merger are fully complete. Western New England English exhibits the entire continuum of possibilities regarding the cot–caught merger : a full merger is heard in its northern reaches (namely, Vermont), a full distinction at its southern reaches (namely, coastal Connecticut), and

4984-571: The former plantation region of the South: a band from the South's Atlantic Coast west to the Mississippi River. However, non-rhoticity has been notably declining in all three of these areas since the mid-20th century. In fact, a strongly articulated /r/, alongside full rhoticity, has been dominant throughout the South since then. African-American Vernacular English , meanwhile, continues to be largely non-rhotic since most African Americans originate from

5073-664: The former plantation region, where non-rhotic speech dominated in the past. In most non-rhotic accents, if a word ending in written "r" is followed immediately by a word beginning with a vowel, the /r/ is pronounced, as in water ice . That phenomenon is referred to as " linking R ." Many non-rhotic speakers also insert an epenthetic /r/ between vowels when the first vowel is one that can occur before syllable-final r ( drawring for drawing ). The so-called " intrusive R " has been stigmatized, but many speakers of Received Pronunciation (RP) now frequently "intrude" an epenthetic /r/ at word boundaries, especially if one or both vowels

5162-571: The languages of Indians in Brunei , Tamil and Punjabi . Rhoticity is used by Chinese Bruneians . The English in the neighbouring Malaysia and Singapore remains non-rhotic. In Brunei English, rhoticity is equal to Philippine dialects of English and Scottish and Irish dialects. Non-rhoticity is mostly found in older generations. The phenomenon is almost similar to the status of American English, which has greatly reduced non-rhoticity. A typical teenager's Southeast Asian English would be rhotic, mainly from

5251-664: The late 19th century, Alexander John Ellis found evidence of accents being overwhelmingly rhotic in urban areas that are now firmly non-rhotic, such as Birmingham and the Black Country , and Wakefield in West Yorkshire . The Survey of English Dialects in the 1950s and the 1960s recorded rhotic or partially-rhotic accents in almost every part of England, including in the counties of West Yorkshire , East Yorkshire , Lincolnshire and Kent , where rhoticity has since disappeared. The Atlas Linguarum Europae found that there

5340-1353: The latter term also used in Hiberno-English . Tennis shoes and kicks are other terms used in Australian and North American English . The British English equivalent of sneaker in its modern form is divided into two separate types: predominantly outdoor and fashionable trainers, training shoes or quality 'basketball shoes' and in contrast cheap rubber-soled, low cut and canvas-topped plimsolls , daps , or flats . In Geordie English , sneakers may also be called sandshoes , gym boots , or joggers . Several terms for sneakers exist in South Africa, including gym shoes , sports shoes and takkies . Other names for sneakers includes rubber shoes in Philippine English , track shoes in Singapore English , canvas shoes in Nigerian English , camboo ("camp boot") in Ghana English, and sportex in Greece. In Latvia any sneakers are still called botas after

5429-532: The leading athletic shoe manufacturers, Adidas . He also successfully marketed his shoes to athletes at the 1936 Summer Olympics , which helped cement his good reputation. Business boomed and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes each year before World War II. During the 1950s, leisure opportunities greatly expanded, and children and adolescents began to wear sneakers as school dress codes relaxed. Sneaker sales rose so high, they began to adversely affect

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5518-998: The lengthening of /ɑː/ in car was not a compensatory process caused by r -dropping. Even General American commonly drops the /r/ in non-final unstressed syllables if another syllable in the same word also contains /r/ , which may be referred to as r-dissimilation . Examples include the dropping of the first /r/ in the words surprise , governor , and caterpillar . In more careful speech, all /r/ sounds are still retained. Rhotic accents include most varieties of Scottish English , Irish or Hiberno-English , Canadian English , American English , Barbadian English and Philippine English . Non-rhotic accents include most varieties of English English , Welsh English , Australian English , South African English , Nigerian English , Trinidadian and Tobagonian English , Standard Malaysian English and Singaporean English . Non-rhotic accents have been dominant in New Zealand English since

5607-405: The loss of /r/ began during the 15th century and was characterized by sporadic and lexically variable deletion, such as monyng 'morning' and cadenall 'cardinal'. Those spellings without /r/ appeared throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, but they were uncommon and were restricted to private documents, especially those written by women. No English authorities described loss of /r/ in

5696-552: The majority are for heel-toe joggers/runners which are further subdivided into ' neutral ', ' overpronation ' and ' underpronation '. However, most evidence-based comparisons show no reduction in lower-limb running injuries from prescribing different types of shoe for different foot types. The shoes are constructed with a complex structure of "rubber" with plastic/metal stiffeners to restrict foot movement. More advanced runners tend to wear flatter and flexible shoes , which allow them to run more quickly with greater comfort. According to

5785-852: The mid 20th century. Like other parts of the global clothing industry, shoe manufacturing is heavily concentrated in Asia with nine in ten shoes produced there. Sneakers have gone by a variety of names, depending on geography and changing over the decades. The broader category inclusive of sneakers is athletic shoes . The term 'athletic shoes' is typically used for shoes utilized for jogging or road running and indoor sports such as basketball , but tends to exclude shoes for sports played on grass such as association football and rugby football , which are generally known in North America as " cleats " and in British English as "boots" or "studs". The word "sneaker"

5874-588: The nasal consonants /m/ and /n/ (so that, pan , for example, nearly approaches the sound of the word paean ). In all of New England except Rhode Island, the short a may also be somewhat raised in many other environments, similar to the Great Lakes region . The lack of the weak vowel merger is a feature of more traditional New England English, making Lenin /ˈlɛnɪn/ distinct from Lennon /ˈlɛnən/ , and rabbit /ˈræbɪt/ fail to rhyme with abbott /ˈæbət/ . Contrarily, in General American English ,

5963-431: The nonexistence of rhotic endings in both languages of influence. A more educated Malaysian's English may be non-rhotic because Standard Malaysian English is based on RP. The classical English spoken in Brunei is non-rhotic. A change that seems to be taking place is that Brunei English is now becoming rhotic from the influence of American English, from the influence of Standard Malay, which is rhotic, and from influence of

6052-599: The norm more widely in many eastern and southern regions of the United States, as well as generally prestigious , until the 1860s, when the American Civil War began to shift American centers of wealth and political power to rhotic areas, which had fewer cultural connections to the old colonial and British elites. Non-rhotic American speech continued to hold some level of prestige up until the mid-20th century, but rhotic speech in particular became rapidly prestigious nationwide after World War II , for example as reflected in

6141-551: The northeastern coastal and southern United States, rhoticity is a sociolinguistic variable : postvocalic /r/ is deleted depending on an array of social factors, such as being more correlated in the 21st century with lower socioeconomic status, greater age, particular ethnic identities, and informal speaking contexts. These correlations have varied through the last two centuries, and in many cases speakers of traditionally non-rhotic American dialects are now variably rhotic. Variably rhotic or semi-rhotic dialects also exist around

6230-480: The original pronunciation of /r/ . Non-rhotic pronunciation continued to influence American prestige speech until the American Civil War of the 1860s began shifting the United States centers of wealth and political power to areas with fewer cultural connections to the old colonial and British elites. Still, the non-rhotic prestige persisted in the Eastern United States and among the upper class even into

6319-608: The prominent influence by American English. Spoken English in Myanmar is non-rhotic, but there are a number of English speakers with a rhotic or partially-rhotic pronunciation. Sri Lankan English may be rhotic. The English spoken in most of Africa is based on RP and is generally non-rhotic. Pronunciation and variation in African English accents are largely affected by native African language influences, level of education, and exposure to Western influences. The English accents spoken in

6408-475: The pronunciation of /r/ appeared a century later, in 1740, when the British author of a primer for French students of English said that "in many words r before a consonant is greatly softened, almost mute, and slightly lengthens the preceding vowel." By the 1770s, postvocalic /r/ -less pronunciation was becoming common around London even in formal educated speech. The English actor and linguist John Walker used

6497-557: The rest of the Northeast, sneakers is the primary term for athletic shoes , tractor trailer for semi-trailer truck , cellar is a common alternative for basement , brook is common for stream , and soda is any sweet and bubbly non-alcoholic drink. Many Boston-originating local terms have dispersed throughout Eastern New England and, prominently, all the rest of Massachusetts. Eastern New England English encompasses Boston and Maine accents , and, according to some definitions,

6586-534: The rhotic dialects in Western New England and the vast remainder of North America. In all of Eastern New England except Rhode Island, words like caught and cot are pronounced identically (both are often rounded, thus: [kʰɒt] ), because those two vowel sounds have fully merged. A phenomenon called Canadian raising occurs throughout Eastern New England, causing writer to have a different stressed vowel sound than rider , and, particularly unique, for

6675-739: The rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole dress shoes . Someone wearing sneakers could "sneak up", while someone wearing standards could not. Earlier, the name "sneaks" had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders (guards) because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore. The term "sneakers" is most commonly used in Northeastern United States , Central and South Florida , Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Canada. However, in Australian , Canadian , and Scottish English , running shoes and runners are synonymous terms used to refer to sneakers, with

6764-530: The sales of conventional leather shoes, leading to a fierce advertising war for market share in the late '50s. In the 1970s, jogging for exercise became increasingly popular, and trainers designed specifically for comfort while jogging sold well. Companies also started to target some of their products at the casual fashion market. Soon, shoes were available for football, jogging, basketball, running , etc. Many sports had their relevant shoe, made possible by podiatrist development of athletic shoe technology. During

6853-533: The same as in General NZE). Non-prevocalic /ɹ/ among non-rhotic speakers is sometimes pronounced in a few words, including Ireland /ˈɑɪəɹlənd/ , merely /ˈmiəɹli/ , err /ɵːɹ/ , and the name of the letter R /ɐːɹ/ (General NZE pronunciations: /ˈɑɪələnd, ˈmiəli, ɵː, ɐː/ ). The Māori accent varies from the European-origin New Zealand accent. Some Māori speakers are semi-rhotic. That feature

6942-552: The same, which is commonly called the cot–caught merger ), while southern coastal New England (including Rhode Island ) historically maintains a noticeable distinction between these two vowels. Regarding the second feature, all of Eastern New England is historically non-rhotic (famously pronouncing "car" like "kah"), while all of Western New England is historically rhotic (or " r -ful"). Therefore, four combinations of these two features are possible, and coincidentally all four exist among New England English speakers, largely correlated with

7031-495: The spelling ar to indicate the long vowel of aunt in his 1775 rhyming dictionary. In his influential Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (1791), Walker reported, with a strong tone of disapproval, that "the r in lard , bard ,... is pronounced so much in the throat as to be little more than the middle or Italian a , lengthened into baa , baad ...." Americans returning to England after

7120-434: The standard language before the mid-18th century, and many did not fully accept it until the 1790s. During the mid-17th century, several sources described /r/ as being weakened but still present. The English playwright Ben Jonson 's English Grammar , published posthumously in 1640, recorded that /r/ was "sounded firme in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the middle, and ends." The next major documentation of

7209-487: The states of Maine and (less so) New Hampshire , show some non-rhoticity along with the traditional Rhode Island dialect , although this feature has been receding in recent generations. The New York City dialect has traditionally been non-rhotic, but William Labov more precisely classifies its current form as variably rhotic, with many of its sub-varieties actually being fully rhotic, such as that of northeastern New Jersey . African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)

7298-480: The traditional local dialect is largely non-rhotic, but the more modern varieties, referred to by Hickey as "mainstream Dublin English" and "fashionable Dublin English", are fully rhotic. Hickey used that as an example of how English in Ireland does not follow prestige trends in England. The English spoken in Asia is predominantly rhotic. In the case of the Philippines, that may be explained because Philippine English

7387-535: The turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated Scott Antarctic expedition of 1911. Plimsolls were commonly worn by pupils in schools' physical education lessons in the UK from the 1950s until the early 1970s. British company J.W. Foster and Sons designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895; the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. The company sold its high-quality handmade running shoes to athletes around

7476-486: The verb house to have a different vowel sound than the noun house . The vowels /aʊ/ and /u/ have relatively back starting positions. The horse – hoarse distinction is still present to some extent in some areas, as well as the Mary – marry – merry distinction . Western New England English encompasses the accents of Vermont, western Massachusetts, and Connecticut. They are largely perceived as General American accents in

7565-476: The world, eventually receiving a contract for the manufacture of running shoes for the British team in the 1924 Summer Olympics. Harold Abrahams and Eric Liddell won the 100 m and 400 m events, kitted out with Foster's running gear. This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, where they were called 'sneakers'. In 1892, the U.S. Rubber Company introduced

7654-482: The world, including many English dialects of India , Pakistan , and the Caribbean . Evidence from written documents suggests that loss of postvocalic /r/ began sporadically in England during the mid-15th century, but those /r/-less spellings were uncommon and were restricted to private documents, especially those written by women. In the mid-18th century, postvocalic /r/ was still pronounced in most environments, but by

7743-402: Was not a compensatory lengthening process but an independent development, which explains modern pronunciations featuring both [ɜː] ( bird , fur ) and [ɜːr] ( stirring , stir it ) according to their positions: [ɜːr] was the regular outcome of the lengthening, which shortened to [ɜː] after r -dropping occurred in the 18th century. The lengthening involved "mid and open short vowels" and so

7832-412: Was once a vowel, followed by /r/ , is now usually realized as a long vowel . That is called compensatory lengthening , which occurs after the elision of a sound. In RP and many other non-rhotic accents card, fern, born are thus pronounced [kɑːd] , [fɜːn] , [bɔːn] or similar (actual pronunciations vary from accent to accent). That length may be retained in phrases and so car pronounced in isolation

7921-472: Was still rhoticity in the West Yorkshire site of Golcar as late as 1976. A study published in 2014 found that there is still some rhoticity amongst older residents of Berwick upon Tweed and Carlisle , both of which are close to the border with rhotic Scotland, but that this was absent from the majority of inhabitants. The loss of postvocalic /r/ in the British prestige standard in the late 18th and

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