128-569: Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation ( Ojibwe : Mazina'iga-ziibing Misi-zaagiwininiwag , meaning: "Mississauga people at the Credit River " ) is a Mississaugas , an Ojibwe sub-group, First Nation located near Brantford in south-central Ontario , Canada. In April 2015, MCFN had an enrolled population of 2,330 people, 850 of whom lived on the MCFN Reserve. The first nation governs
256-494: A lingua franca or trade language in the circum-Great Lakes area , particularly in interactions with speakers of other Algonquian languages. Documentation of such usage dates from the 18th and 19th centuries, but earlier use is likely, with reports as early as 1703 suggesting that Ojibwe was used by different groups from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Lake Winnipeg , and from as far south as Ohio to Hudson Bay . Documentation from
384-435: A schwa and depending on the writer, may be transcribed as "i", "e" or "a". For example, anami'egiizhigad [ na · m ' e · gii · zh gad /əˌnaməˈʔɛːˌɡiːʒəˌɡad/ ] (Sunday, literally 'prayer day') may be transcribed as anama'egiizhigad in those dialects. The general grammatical characteristics of Ojibwe are shared across its dialects. The Ojibwe language is polysynthetic , exhibiting characteristics of synthesis and
512-456: A central role in Ojibwe grammar. Noun inflection and particularly verb inflection indicate a wide variety of grammatical information, realized through the use of prefixes and suffixes added to word stems . Grammatical characteristics include the following: There is a distinction between two different types of third person : the proximate (the third person deemed more important or in focus) and
640-567: A few fossils are the Belly River Group and St. Mary River Formations of the southwest and the northwestern Wapiti Formation , which contains two Pachyrhinosaurus bone beds. The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during a marine transgression . Dinosaurs are known from this formation, but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older sediments . Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward
768-567: A geographical term of convenience rather than a genetic subgroup , and its use does not indicate that the Central languages are more closely related to each other than to the other Algonquian languages. The most general Indigenous designation for the language is Anishinaabemowin 'speaking the native language' ( Anishinaabe 'native person,' verb suffix –mo 'speak a language,' suffix –win 'nominalizer'), with varying spellings and pronunciations depending upon dialect. Some speakers use
896-577: A high morpheme -to-word ratio. Ojibwe is a head-marking language in which inflectional morphology on nouns and particularly verbs carries significant amounts of grammatical information. Word classes include nouns , verbs , grammatical particles , pronouns , preverbs , and prenouns . Preferred word orders in a simple transitive sentence are verb-initial, such as verb–object–subject and verb–subject–object . While verb-final orders are dispreferred, all logically possible orders are attested. Complex inflectional and derivational morphology play
1024-466: A high rate of interprovincial migration compared to other provinces. In 2016, Alberta continued to have the youngest population among the provinces with a median age of 36.7 years, compared with the national median of 41.2 years. Also in 2016, Alberta had the smallest proportion of seniors (12.3%) among the provinces and one of the highest population shares of children (19.2%), further contributing to Alberta's young and growing population. About 81% of
1152-530: A land area of 634,658.27 km (245,042.93 sq mi), it had a population density of 6.7/km in 2021. Statistics Canada estimated the province to have a population of 4,800,768 in Q1 of 2024. Since 2000, Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of growth, mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and
1280-633: A o/ and three corresponding long vowels /iː aː oː/ in addition to a fourth long vowel /eː/ , which lacks a corresponding short vowel. The short vowel /i/ typically has phonetic values centring on [ɪ] ; /a/ typically has values centring on [ə]~[ʌ] ; and /o/ typically has values centring on [o]~[ʊ] . Long /oː/ is pronounced [uː] for many speakers, and /eː/ is often [ɛː] . Ojibwe has nasal vowels . Some arising predictably by rule in all analyses, and other long nasal vowels are of uncertain phonological status. The latter have been analysed as underlying phonemes and/or as predictable and derived by
1408-477: A semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is used by plants . The southeastern corner of Alberta, part of the Palliser Triangle , experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result, suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys
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#17328444239561536-427: A third subgroup which is further divided into (i) a subgrouping of Northwestern Ojibwe and Saulteaux , and a subgrouping consisting of Eastern Ojibwe and a further subgrouping comprising Southwestern Ojibwe and Central Ojibwe. Valentine has proposed that Ojibwe dialects are divided into three groups: a northern tier consisting of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin; a southern tier consisting of "Odawa, Chippewa, Eastern Ojibwe,
1664-634: A tributary of the Mackenzie River . Alberta's capital city, Edmonton , is at about the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly major city in Canada and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. With its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields, the region has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity. Calgary is about 280 km (170 mi) south of Edmonton and 240 km (150 mi) north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of
1792-500: A type of intense, fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and, pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream , descends over the rest of southern Canada and the northern tier of the United States. In southwestern Alberta, the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm, dry Chinook winds blowing from the mountains, which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above
1920-490: Is a significant Ojibwe influence. In locations such as Turtle Mountain, North Dakota individuals of Ojibwe ancestry now speak Michif and Ojibwe. Bungi Creole is an English-based Creole language spoken in Manitoba by the descendants of "English, Scottish, and Orkney fur traders and their Cree or Saulteaux wives ...". Bungee incorporates elements of Cree; the name may be from the Ojibwe word bangii 'a little bit' or
2048-585: Is adduced. The Central languages share a significant number of common features. These features can generally be attributed to diffusion of features through borrowing: "Extensive lexical, phonological, and perhaps grammatical borrowing—the diffusion of elements and features across language boundaries—appears to have been the major factor in giving the languages in the area of the Upper Great Lakes their generally similar cast, and it has not been possible to find any shared innovations substantial enough to require
2176-494: Is also in place at Lowell Elementary School in Duluth, Minnesota . The Algonquian language family of which Ojibwemowin is itself a member of the Algic language family, other Algic languages being Wiyot and Yurok . Ojibwe is sometimes described as a Central Algonquian language, along with Fox , Cree , Menominee , Miami-Illinois , Potawatomi , and Shawnee . Central Algonquian is
2304-627: Is an indigenous language of North America of the Algonquian language family . The language is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names and frequently local writing systems . There is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system that covers all dialects. Dialects of Ojibwemowin are spoken in Canada, from southwestern Quebec , through Ontario , Manitoba and parts of Saskatchewan , with outlying communities in Alberta ; and in
2432-613: Is an open-source app available for iOS devices. The Ojibwe People's Dictionary is an online language resource created in collaboration with the University of Minnesota. It is an accessible system that allows users to search in English or Ojibwe and includes voice recordings for many of the 17 000 entries in the collection. Despite what they have faced in the American and Canadian Governments' attempt to force Ojibwe into language death through
2560-438: Is based on hydrocarbons , petrochemical industries , livestock and agriculture. The oil and gas industry has been a pillar of Alberta's economy since 1947, when substantial oil deposits were discovered at Leduc No. 1 well. It has also become a part of the province's identity. Since Alberta is the province most rich in hydrocarbons, it provides 70% of the oil and natural gas produced on Canadian soil. In 2018, Alberta's output
2688-846: Is called makade-mashkikiwaaboo ('black liquid-medicine') by many speakers, rather than gaapii . These new words vary from region to region, and occasionally from community to community. For example, in Northwest Ontario Ojibwemowin , 'airplane' is ombaasijigan , literally 'device that gets uplifted by the wind' (from ombaasin , 'to be uplifted by the wind') as opposed to the Minnesota bemisemagak . Like any language dialects spanning vast regions, some words that may have had identical meaning at one time have evolved to have different meanings today. For example, zhooniyaans (literally 'small[-amount of] money' and used to refer to coins) specifically means 'dime' (10-cent piece) in
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#17328444239562816-504: Is home to six UNESCO -designated World Heritage Sites : the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks , Dinosaur Provincial Park , Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump , Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park , Wood Buffalo National Park and Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park . Other popular sites include Banff National Park , Elk Island National Park , Jasper National Park , Waterton Lakes National Park , and Drumheller . Alberta
2944-447: Is known that some speakers of Menominee also speak Ojibwe and that the pattern persisted into the 20th century. Similarly, bilingualism in Ojibwe is still common among Potawatomis who speak Potawatomi. Reports from traders and travellers as early as 1744 indicate that speakers of Menominee , another Algonquian language, used Ojibwe as a lingua franca. Other reports from the 18th century and the early 19th century indicate that speakers of
3072-487: Is more commonly employed in the United States and in southwestern Ontario among descendants of Ojibwe migrants from the United States. Ojibwe and Potawatomi are frequently viewed as being more closely related to each other than to other Algonquian languages. Ojibwe and Potawatomi have been proposed as likely candidates for forming a genetic subgroup within Proto-Algonquian , although the required research to ascertain
3200-798: Is not in dispute. The relatively low degrees of mutual intelligibility between some nonadjacent Ojibwe dialects led Rhodes and Todd to suggest that Ojibwe should be analyzed as a linguistic subgroup consisting of several languages. While there is some variation in the classification of Ojibwe dialects, at a minimum the following are recognized, proceeding west to east: Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux) , Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) , Northwestern Ojibwe , Severn Ojibwe (Oji-Cree) , Ottawa (Odawa) , Eastern Ojibwe , and Algonquin . Based upon contemporary field research, Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately
3328-482: Is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is a part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces . Alberta borders British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U.S. state of Montana to the south. It is one of the only two landlocked provinces in Canada, with Saskatchewan being the other. The eastern part of
3456-476: Is phonologically contrastive and so is phonemic . Although long and short vowels are phonetically distinguished by vowel quality, vowel length is phonologically relevant since the distinction between long and short vowels correlates with the occurrence of vowel syncope , which characterizes the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, as well as word stress patterns in the language. There are three short vowels /i
3584-497: Is present in phonological representations . The Ottawa and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) have /h/ in a small number of affective vocabulary items in addition to regular /ʔ/ . Some dialects may have otherwise non-occurring sounds such as /f, l, r/ in loanwords . Obstruent consonants are divided into lenis and fortis sets, with these features having varying phonological analyses and phonetic realizations cross-dialectally. In some dialects, such as Severn Ojibwe, members of
3712-403: Is the most plausible explanation for the distinctive linguistic features found in these three dialects. Many communities adjacent to these relatively sharply differentiated dialects show a mix of transitional features, reflecting overlap with other nearby dialects. While each of these dialects has undergone innovations that make them distinctive, their status as part of the Ojibwe language complex
3840-413: The 2000 United States Census and the 2006 Canadian census . The Ojibwe language is reported as spoken by a total of 8,791 people in the United States of which 7,355 are Native Americans and by as many as 47,740 in Canada, making it one of the largest Algic languages by numbers of speakers. The Red Lake , White Earth , and Leech Lake reservations are known for their tradition of singing hymns in
3968-512: The 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow , Elbow , Highwood and Oldman rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. In 2016,
Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation - Misplaced Pages Continue
4096-441: The 2021 Canadian Census , the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (4,109,720 or 98.37%), French (260,415 or 6.23%), Tagalog (172,625 or 4.13%), Punjabi (126,385 or 3.03%), Spanish (116,070 or 2.78%), Hindi (94,015 or 2.25%), Mandarin (82,095 or 1.97%), Arabic (76,760 or 1.84%), Cantonese (74,960 or 1.79%), and German (65,370 or 1.56%). The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. As of
4224-651: The Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Horseshoe Canyon facies . Other formations have been recorded as well, like the Milk River and Foremost Formations. The latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs, primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops. Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites. Additional geologic formations that have produced only
4352-554: The Fort McMurray wildfire resulted in the largest fire evacuation of residents in Alberta's history, as more than 80,000 people were ordered to evacuate. From 2020 until restrictions were lifted in 2022, Alberta was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic . The 2021 Canadian census reported Alberta had a population of 4,262,635 living in 1,633,220 of its 1,772,670 total dwellings, an 4.8% change from its 2016 population of 4,067,175. With
4480-527: The Government of Alberta has operated a rat-control program, which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description;
4608-589: The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 mandated the phasing-out of the Native American boarding school program, the practice of sending youth to these institutions continued into the 1960s and 1970s. Because children were forced to live away from their home communities, many never had the opportunity to hear and use their native language. This government assimilation effort caused widespread loss of language and culture among indigenous communities, including
4736-615: The North West Company (NWC) of Montreal to compete with the HBC in 1779. The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory. Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on Lac la Biche in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir Alexander Mackenzie , followed the North Saskatchewan River to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to
4864-679: The Northwest Territories . The 110th meridian west separates it from the province of Saskatchewan ; while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the 120th meridian west south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the Continental Divide at the Rocky Mountains , and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches
4992-688: The Plains Indians of southern Alberta such as those of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Plains Cree, who generally lived by hunting buffalo , and the more northerly tribes such as the Woodland Cree and Chipewyan who hunted, trapped, and fished for a living. The first Europeans to visit Alberta were French Canadians during the late 18th century, working as fur traders. French was the predominant language used in some early fur trading forts in
5120-464: The Proto-Germanic language *Aþalaberhtaz (compound of "noble" + "bright/famous"). Alberta, with an area of 661,848 square kilometres (255,541 square miles), is the fourth-largest province after Quebec , Ontario , and British Columbia . Alberta's southern border is the 49th parallel north , which separates it from the U.S. state of Montana . The 60th parallel north divides Alberta from
5248-455: The fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta, the temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from −54 °C (−65 °F) in northern Alberta to −46 °C (−51 °F) in southern Alberta, although temperatures at these extremes are rare. In the summer, continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from 32 °C (90 °F) in
Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation - Misplaced Pages Continue
5376-540: The obviative (the third person deemed less important or out of focus). Nouns can be singular or plural in number and either animate or inanimate in gender. Separate personal pronouns exist but are used mainly for emphasis; they distinguish inclusive and exclusive first-person plurals. Verbs, the most complex word class, are inflected for one of three orders ( indicative , the default; conjunct , used for participles and in subordinate clauses ; and imperative , used with commands), as negative or affirmative, and for
5504-408: The prairie crocus ( Pulsatilla nuttalliana ) anemone ; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March, though April is the usual month for the general population. Other prairie flora known to flower early are the golden bean ( Thermopsis rhombifolia ) and wild rose ( Rosa acicularis ). Members of the sunflower ( Helianthus ) family blossom on the prairie in
5632-664: The 17th century indicates that the Wyandot language (also called Huron), one of the Iroquoian languages , was also used as a trade language east of the Great Lakes by speakers of the Nipissing and Algonquin dialects of Ojibwe, and also by other groups south of the Great Lakes, including the Winnebago and by a group of unknown affiliation identified only as "Assistaeronon." The political decline of
5760-653: The 2,392.6 ha (5,912 acres) parcel of New Credit 40A Indian Reserve known as Reserve 40B near Hagersville, Ontario . This reserve is located beside the Six Nations of the Grand River , near Brantford . In the 19th century, under pressure from the rapid growth of the European-origin population, the Mississaugas wanted to move from their reserve in the present-day City of Mississauga . Unable to make an agreement with
5888-469: The 2016 census Alberta has 779,155 residents (19.2%) between the ages of 0–14, 2,787,805 residents (68.5%) between the ages of 15–64, and 500,215 residents (12.3%) aged 65 and over. Additionally, as per the 2016 census, 1,769,500 residents hold a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree, 895,885 residents have obtained a secondary (high) school diploma or equivalency certificate, and 540,665 residents do not have any certificate, diploma or degree. As of
6016-730: The Athabasca River, which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the Mackenzie River —which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca, he followed the Peace River upstream, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean, and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico. The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta
6144-607: The British during the American Revolutionary War , allowing their resettlement from their previous homeland in what had become New York State . The Six Nations is the only reserve in the Canadian system with a subsection reserve. The Mississaugas eventually purchased the land gifted as well as an additional 490 ha (1,200 acres) for a sum of $ 10,000.00 on June 15, 1903, for the all-time right of undisturbed use and occupancy of
6272-674: The Cree equivalent, but whether there is any other Ojibwe component in Bungee is not documented. Ojibwe borrowings have been noted in Menominee , a related Algonquian language . All dialects of Ojibwe generally have an inventory of 17 consonants . Most dialects have the segment glottal stop /ʔ/ in their inventory of consonant phonemes; Severn Ojibwe and the Algonquin dialect have /h/ in its place. Some dialects have both segments phonetically, but only one
6400-541: The District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of Alexander Cameron Rutherford as the first premier. Less than a decade later, the First World War presented special challenges to the new province as an extraordinary number of volunteers left relatively few workers to maintain services and production. Over 50% of Alberta's doctors volunteered for service overseas. On June 21, 2013, during
6528-597: The First Nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights. The most significant treaties for Alberta are Treaty 6 (1876), Treaty 7 (1877) and Treaty 8 (1899). The District of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905,
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#17328444239566656-564: The Hurons in the 18th century and the ascendancy of Ojibwe-speaking groups including the Ottawa led to the replacement of Huron as a lingua franca. In the area east of Georgian Bay , the Nipissing dialect was a trade language. In the Lower Peninsula of Michigan , the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula , the area between Lake Erie and Lake Huron , and along the north shore of Georgian Bay,
6784-649: The Montana border at 49°N. The province extends 1,223 kilometres (760 miles) north to south and 660 kilometres (410 miles) east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is 3,747 metres (12,293 feet) at the summit of Mount Columbia in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border while its lowest point is 152 metres (499 feet) on the Slave River in Wood Buffalo National Park in the northeast. With
6912-589: The NWT in 1870. From the late 1800s to early 1900s, many immigrants arrived to prevent the prairies from being annexed by the United States. Growing wheat and cattle ranching also became very profitable. In 1905, the Alberta Act was passed, creating the province of Alberta. Massive oil reserves were discovered in 1947. The exploitation of oil sands began in 1967. Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty, richness in fossils and for housing important nature reserves. Alberta
7040-556: The Ojibwe language is kept alive through indigenous methods of teaching, which emphasizes hands-on experiences, such as the sugar bush harvest. The language is then passed on in a similar manner in which it has been throughout history in that older members of the community—including elders/instructors and older students at the schools—relay their knowledge and experiences to the younger generation. Ojibwe communities are found in Canada from southwestern Quebec , through Ontario , southern Manitoba and parts of southern Saskatchewan ; and in
7168-510: The Ojibwe language is notable for its relative lack of borrowing from other languages. Instead, speakers far prefer to create words for new concepts from existing vocabulary. For example in Minnesota Ojibwemowin , 'airplane' is bemisemagak , literally 'thing that flies' (from bimisemagad , 'to fly'), and 'battery' is ishkode-makakoons , literally 'little fire-box' (from ishkode , 'fire', and makak , 'box'). Even 'coffee'
7296-421: The Ojibwe language may be more culturally meaningful to communities than simply educating about the culture through English. The goal, as with many other language immersion schools across the country, is to meet state-mandated standards for curriculum in the native language. This can be a challenge as public education standards are rigorous with curriculum on complex mathematic and scientific concepts occurring at
7424-583: The Ojibwe language, is a language of action." Therefore, students are encouraged to learn the language by observing and by doing. For example, each spring the students at Waadookodaading participate in a maple sugar harvest. Older students and elders instruct the younger students on the harvest process, narrating what they are doing in Ojibwemowin as the younger students observe. The younger students are then encouraged to participate as they learn, gathering wood, helping to drill trees, and hauling buckets of sap. Thus,
7552-452: The Ojibwe language. These courses mainly target adults and young adults; however, there are many resources for all age groups, including online games which provide domains for online language use. In the 1980s, The Northern Native-Languages Project was introduced in Ontario to get Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe, to be taught in schools. Years later, the first curriculum was established for
7680-420: The Ojibwe language. As of 2011, Ojibwe is the official language of Red Lake. Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is usually considered to be a single language with a number of dialects, i.e. Ojibwe is "... conventionally regarded as a single language consisting of a continuum of dialectal varieties since ... every dialect is at least partly intelligible to
7808-527: The Ojibwe of the Border Lakes region between Minnesota and Ontario, and Saulteaux; and third, a transitional zone between these two polar groups, in which there is a mixture of northern and southern features." Michif is a mixed language that primarily is based upon French and Plains Cree , with some vocabulary from Ojibwe, in addition to phonological influence in Michif-speaking communities where there
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#17328444239567936-584: The Ojibwe people. With the remaining population of native speakers declining as older generations pass away, many historians consider now an important point in the language's history that will determine if it will proliferate or become extinct. Ojibwe historian Anton Treuer estimates that there are about 1,000 speakers of Ojibwe left in the United States, most residing in Minnesota on the Red Lake Indian Reservation or in Mille Lacs region. Teacher of
8064-402: The Ottawa dialect served as a trade language. In the area south of Lake Superior and west of Lake Michigan Southwestern Ojibwe was the trade language. A widespread pattern of asymmetrical bilingualism is found in the area south of the Great Lakes in which speakers of Potawatomi or Menominee, both Algonquian languages, also spoke Ojibwe, but Ojibwe speakers did not speak the other languages. It
8192-675: The United States from northern Michigan through northern Wisconsin and northern Minnesota , with a number of communities in northern North Dakota and northern Montana . Groups of speakers of the Ottawa dialect migrated to Kansas and Oklahoma during the historical period, with a small amount of linguistic documentation of the language in Oklahoma. The presence of Ojibwe in British Columbia has been noted. Current census data indicate that all varieties of Ojibwe are spoken by approximately 56,531 people. This figure reflects census data from
8320-433: The United States, but a 'quarter' (25-cent piece) in Canada, or desabiwin (literally 'thing to sit upon') means 'couch' or 'chair' in Canada, but is used to specifically mean 'saddle' in the United States. Cases like 'battery' and 'coffee' also demonstrate the often great difference between the literal meanings of the individual morphemes in a word, and the overall meaning of the entire word. Alberta Alberta
8448-894: The United States, from Michigan to Wisconsin and Minnesota , with a number of communities in North Dakota and Montana , as well as groups that were removed to Kansas and Oklahoma during the Indian Removal period . While there is some variation in the classification of its dialects, at least the following are recognized, from east to west: Algonquin , Eastern Ojibwe , Ottawa (Odawa) , Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux) , Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) , Northwestern Ojibwe , and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) . Based upon contemporary field research, J. R. Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately
8576-628: The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School located on the Lac Courte Oreilles Reservation in northern Wisconsin. Most students come from English-speaking homes and are learning Ojibwemowin as their second language. At this school, instructors and elders teach the preschoolers to third graders entirely in the Ojibwe language, so that by the time that students complete kindergarten, they know both English and Ojibwe alphabets and writing systems. In
8704-642: The animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions. In 2009, several rats were found and captured, in small pockets in southern Alberta, putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats was subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 and again in 2014. Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of Late Cretaceous dinosaur fossils worldwide. Taxa are represented by complete fossil skeletons, isolated material, microvertebrate remains, and even mass graves . At least 38 dinosaur type specimens were collected in
8832-473: The badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape. Alberta extends for over 1,200 km (750 mi) from north to south; its climate, therefore, varies considerably. Average high temperatures in January range from 0 °C (32 °F) in the southwest to −24 °C (−11 °F) in the far north. The presence of the Rocky Mountains also influences
8960-525: The beginning of a word are frequently lost. In the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, all metrically weak vowels are deleted. For example, bemisemagak(in) (airplane(s), in the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect) is stressed as [ be · m se · m gak /ˈbɛːmɪˌseːmʌˌɡak/ ] in the singular but as [ be · m se · m ga · kin /ˌbeːmɪˈsɛːmʌˌɡaˌkin/ ] in the plural. In some other dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels, especially "a" and "i", are reduced to
9088-507: The classroom, students generally first become familiar with the language by hearing and speaking it and then advance to reading and writing it as well. They are taught mathematics, reading, social studies, music, and other typical school subjects through the medium of the Ojibwe language so as to increase student's exposure to Ojibwemowin while providing a well-rounded education. In her research study on Ojibwe immersion schools, Ojibwe scholar and educator Mary Hermes suggests that educating through
9216-403: The climate to the southwest, which disrupts the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and causes them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a rain shadow over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from
9344-446: The disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787. In 2010, Canada agreed to pay CA$ 145 million for the lands, based on the historic value of the land, extrapolated to current dollars. The money was distributed to the band government, with each of the 1,700 present day Mississaugas receiving $ 20,000, with the rest placed in trust for future generations. The Band put a controversial hold on new band membership during this time, ostensibly to preserve
9472-418: The dry prairie of the southeast. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years, although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation, sometimes resulting in flooding. In the winter, the Alberta clipper ,
9600-537: The educational system, many indigenous communities across the Great Lakes region are making efforts towards the Ojibwe language revival by similarly using the school system. Largely inspired by the success of Polynesian languages immersion schools in Hawaii and New Zealand , similar school programs have been starting throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin in recent years. One of the most notable programs—developed by Ojibwe educators Lisa LaRonge and Keller Paap —is that of
9728-515: The end of the last ice age . They are thought to have migrated from Siberia to Alaska on a land bridge across the Bering Strait and then possibly moved down the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to settle the Americas . Others may have migrated down the coast of British Columbia and then moved inland. Over time they differentiated into various First Nations peoples, including
9856-624: The exception of the semi-arid climate of the steppe in the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources . There are numerous rivers and lakes in Alberta used for swimming, fishing and a range of water sports. There are three large lakes, Lake Claire (1,436 km [554 sq mi]) in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake (1,168 km [451 sq mi]), and Lake Athabasca (7,898 km [3,049 sq mi]), which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in
9984-540: The fortis set are realized as a sequence of /h/ followed by a single segment drawn from the set of lenis consonants: /p t k tʃ s ʃ/ . Algonquin Ojibwe is reported as distinguishing fortis and lenis consonants on the basis of voicing , with fortis being voiceless and lenis being voiced. In other dialects fortis consonants are realized as having greater duration than the corresponding lenis consonant, invariably voiceless, "vigorously articulated," and aspirated in certain environments. In some practical orthographies such as
10112-494: The fourth-most populous, being home to 4,262,635 people. Alberta's capital is Edmonton , while Calgary is its largest city. The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas . More than half of Albertans live in either Edmonton or Calgary, which contributes to continuing the rivalry between the two cities . English is the official language of the province. In 2016, 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone, 1.8% were francophone and 22.2% were allophone . Alberta's economy
10240-516: The freezing point in a very short period. During one Chinook recorded at Pincher Creek , temperatures soared from −19 to 22 °C (−2 to 72 °F) in just one hour. The region around Lethbridge has the most Chinooks, averaging 30 to 35 Chinook days per year. Calgary has a 56% chance of a white Christmas , while Edmonton has an 86% chance. After Saskatchewan, Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year. Thunderstorms, some of them severe, are frequent in
10368-626: The greatest financial gain possible. The multi-million dollar settlement was only given to previously registered members despite any valid claims to membership. On January 8, 2019 the Mississaugas of the New Credit announced that they would rename as The Mississaugas of the Credit. Ojibwe language Ojibwe ( / oʊ ˈ dʒ ɪ b w eɪ / oh- JIB -way ), also known as Ojibwa ( / oʊ ˈ dʒ ɪ b w ə / oh- JIB -wə ), Ojibway , Otchipwe , Ojibwemowin , or Anishinaabemowin ,
10496-405: The hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. Eagles , hawks , owls, and crows are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other temperate regions, is home to mosquitoes , flies , wasps , and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with pike , walleye , whitefish , rainbow , speckled , brown trout , and sturgeon . Native to
10624-530: The important role language revitalization has in treating health concerns. The use of language connects a community through shared views and supports the well-being of said community. Researchers found that language and the notion of culture were intertwined together instead of being separate concepts, and the people who regularly practiced their language and culture were often associated with more positive health outcomes, particularly for psychological health and mental well-being. An "Ojibway Language and People" app
10752-555: The land. The reserve as it stands today consists of lots 1 to 12 in the first and second concessions in the Township of Tuscarora, in the County of Brant , and lots 1-12 in the first and second concessions in the Township of Oneida . In 1997, MCFN purchased an additional 24 ha (59 acres) bordering on Highway 6 , Hagersville. The First Nation made claims to land on which Toronto sits through
10880-665: The language Keller Paap approximates that most fluent speakers in the United States are over 70 years old, making exposure to spoken Ojibwemowin limited in many communities. Ojibwe educators and scholars across the region are working with the remaining elders who speak Ojibwemowin, known as the First Speakers, so as to document and learn the language in hopes to preserve it and pass it on to the next generation of speakers. In recent years, historian and Ojibwe professor Anton Treuer has been recording stories told by about 50 different Ojibwe elders in their native language so as to preserve both
11008-449: The language and language structure; however, it does not help grow the use of the language outside of a school setting. The most effective way of promoting language is being surrounded by the language, especially in a familial setting. This is difficult to replicate in schools, which is why speaking Ojibwe with family and in one's home life is important in growing language revitalization. Research has been done in Ojibwe communities to prove
11136-431: The language and pieces of knowledge and history. Alongside his current mentor, a Ponemah elder named Eugene Stillday, he writes the recorded stories in both Ojibwe and translated English. Recently, there has been more of a push toward bringing the Ojibwe language back into more common use, through language classes and programs sponsored by universities, sometimes available to non-students, which are essential to passing on
11264-542: The late 19th century, the American federal Native American boarding school initiative which forced Native American children to attend government-run boarding schools in an attempt to "acculturate" them into American society. Often far from their home communities, these schools attempted to remove any ties children had to their native culture and to limit their ability to visit home. Students were forced to speak English, cut their hair, dress in uniform, practise Christianity, and learn about European culture and history. Although
11392-438: The latter being the longest unbroken run in government at the provincial or federal level in Canadian history. Since before becoming part of Canada, Alberta has been home to several First Nations like Plains Indians and Woodland Cree . It was also a territory used by fur traders of the rival companies Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company . The Dominion of Canada bought the lands that would become Alberta as part of
11520-399: The linguistic history and status of a hypothetical "Ojibwe–Potawatomi" subgroup has not yet been undertaken. A discussion of Algonquian family subgroups indicates that "Ojibwe–Potawatomi is another possibility that awaits investigation." In a proposed consensus classification of Algonquian languages, Goddard (1996) classifies Ojibwa and Potawatomi as "Ojibwayan," although no supporting evidence
11648-415: The metrical foot defines the domain for relative prominence , in which a strong syllable is assigned stress because it is more prominent than the weak member of the foot. Typically, the strong syllable in the antepenultimate foot is assigned the primary stress. Strong syllables that do not receive main stress are assigned at least secondary stress. In some dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels at
11776-483: The mild temperatures brought by winter Chinook winds. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north. Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold Arctic weather systems from the north, which often produce cold winter conditions. As
11904-447: The mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families include coyotes , red foxes , Canada lynx , and bobcats . Wolverines can also be found in the northwestern areas of the province. Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north are the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, geese , swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of
12032-473: The mountains to over 40 °C (104 °F) in southeastern Alberta. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1,900 up to just under 2,600 hours per year. Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer. The average daytime temperatures range from around 21 °C (70 °F) in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north, up to around 28 °C (82 °F) in
12160-573: The newly formed Canadian Government purchased Rupert's Land. Northern Alberta was included in the North-Western Territory until 1870, when it and Rupert's land became Canada's North-West Territories . First Nations negotiated the Numbered Treaties with the Crown in which the Crown gained title to the land that would later become Alberta, and the Crown committed to the ongoing support of
12288-399: The ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from 300 mm (12 in) in the southeast to 450 mm (18 in) in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach 600 mm (24 in) annually. Northern Alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has a subarctic climate . The agricultural area of southern Alberta has
12416-444: The operation of phonological rules from sequences of a long vowel and /n/ and another segment, typically /j/. Placement of word stress is determined by metrical rules that define a characteristic iambic metrical foot , in which a weak syllable is followed by a strong syllable. A foot consists of a minimum of one syllable and a maximum of two syllables, with each foot containing a maximum of one strong syllable. The structure of
12544-542: The parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely deciduous , typically aspen , poplar , and willow . Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. North of the North Saskatchewan River, evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. Aspen poplar, balsam poplar ( Populus balsamifera ) or in some parts cottonwood ( Populus deltoides ), and paper birch ( Betula papyrifera ) are
12672-399: The person, number, animacy, and proximate/obviative status of both the subject and object as well as for several different modes (including the dubitative and preterit ) and tenses. Although it does contain a few loans from English (e.g. gaapii , 'coffee') and French (e.g. mooshwe , 'handkerchief' (from mouchoir ), ni-tii , 'tea' (from le thé , 'the tea'), in general,
12800-410: The population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the 2006 census . According to
12928-416: The postulation of a genetically distinct Central Algonquian subgroup." The possibility that the proposed genetic subgrouping of Ojibwa and Potawatomi can also be accounted for as diffusion has also been raised: "The putative Ojibwa–Potawatomi subgroup is similarly open to question, but cannot be evaluated without more information on Potawatomi dialects." Several different Ojibwe dialects have functioned as
13056-405: The primary large deciduous species. Conifers include jack pine ( Pinus banksiana ), Rocky Mountain pine, lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ), both white and black spruce , and the deciduous conifer tamarack ( Larix laricina ). The four climatic regions ( alpine , boreal forest , parkland , and prairie ) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie
13184-446: The program and it was known as Native Languages 1987. There has also been an increase in published children's literature. The increase in materials published in Ojibwe is essential to increasing the number of speakers. Language revitalization through Ojibwe frameworks also allows for cultural concepts to be conveyed through language. A 2014 study has indicated that learning Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe in school helps in learning
13312-401: The province is prairie , ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests, from Calgary, north to Edmonton, and then east to Lloydminster , contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of
13440-484: The province is occupied by the Great Plains , while the western part borders the Rocky Mountains . The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences quick temperature changes due to air aridity . Seasonal temperature swings are less pronounced in western Alberta due to occasional Chinook winds . Alberta is the fourth-largest province by area at 661,848 square kilometres (255,541 square miles), and
13568-574: The province is the Athabasca River , which travels 1,538 km (956 mi) from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca. The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2,100 m /s (74,000 cu ft/s). The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River,
13696-567: The province's population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor . The land grant policy to the railways served as a means to populate the province in its early years. Most of the northern half of the province is boreal forest , while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely temperate coniferous forests of the Alberta Mountain forests and Alberta–British Columbia foothills forests . The southern quarter of
13824-407: The province, the bull trout , is the provincial fish and an official symbol of Alberta . Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada — as well as one of the few places in the world — that is free from Norwegian rats . Since the early 1950s,
13952-605: The province. The Foremost Formation , Oldman Formation and Dinosaur Park Formations collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta. Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta. The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation. In Alberta's central and southern regions are intermittent Scollard Formation outcrops. In
14080-710: The provincial government of the time, the Mississaugas in 1848 accepted an offer from the Six Nations Confederacy of 1,900 ha (4,800 acres) of land inside their own property, as a compensation to the Mississaugas for their authorization for the British purchase of the land in 1784 for the establishment of the Six Nations Reserve. The reserve had been granted to the Six Nations by the Haldimand Proclamation in gratitude for their military alliance with
14208-408: The question as to whether or not they should include English instruction. Some research suggests that learning to write in one's first language is important prior to learning a second language. Therefore, many schools include some level of English education at certain grade levels. Along with using the native language, Waadookodaading uses native ways of teaching in its education system. "Ojibwemowin,
14336-592: The region, such as the first Fort Edmonton (in present-day Fort Saskatchewan). After the British arrival in Canada , approximately half of the province of Alberta, south of the Athabasca River drainage, became part of Rupert's Land which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay . This area was granted by Charles II of England to the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) in 1670, and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it. The Athabasca River and
14464-563: The rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay, and they were prime habitats for fur-bearing animals. The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond , who learned of the Methye Portage , which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert's Land. Other North American fur traders formed
14592-619: The same territory as Central Ojibwa , which he does not recognize. The aggregated dialects of Ojibwemowin comprise the second most commonly spoken First Nations language in Canada (after Cree ), and the fourth most widely spoken in the United States or Canada behind Navajo , the Inuit languages and Cree. Ojibwemowin is a relatively healthy indigenous language. The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School in Hayward, Wisconsin teaches all classes to children in Ojibwe only. A similar program
14720-596: The same territory as Central Ojibwa , which he does not recognize. Two recent analyses of the relationships between the Ojibwe dialects are in agreement on the assignment of the strongly differentiated Ottawa dialect to a separate subgroup, and the assignment of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin to another subgroup, and differ primarily with respect to the relationships between the less strongly differentiated dialects. Rhodes and Todd recognize several different dialectal subgroupings within Ojibwe: (a) Ottawa; (b) Severn and Algonquian; (c)
14848-483: The second and third grade levels. Ojibwe educators at these schools are constantly working with elders so as to design new ways to say lesser-used words in Ojibwe such as plastic or quotient . Because the Ojibwe language is traditionally oral, it is often difficult for educators to find adequate resources to develop the curriculum. Thus, through these school programs, the language is constantly evolving. Many of these Ojibwe language immersion schools are also considering
14976-482: The speakers of the neighboring dialects." The degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably; recent research has shown that there is strong differentiation between the Ottawa dialect spoken in southern Ontario and northern Michigan; the Severn Ojibwa dialect spoken in northern Ontario and Manitoba; and the Algonquin dialect spoken in southwestern Quebec. Valentine notes that isolation
15104-426: The summer months between July and September. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass, which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower ( Ratibida ), fleabane , and sage ( Artemisia ). Both yellow and white sweet clover ( Melilotus ) can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province. The trees in
15232-481: The summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in Canada, which is caused by orographic lifting from the nearby Rocky Mountains, enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail. In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of
15360-710: The term Ojibwemowin . The general term in Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) is Anihshininiimowin , although Anishinaabemowin is widely recognized by Severn speakers. Some speakers of Saulteaux Ojibwe refer to their language as Nakawemowin . The Ottawa dialect is sometimes referred to as Daawaamwin , although the general designation is Nishnaabemwin , with the latter term also applied to Jibwemwin or Eastern Ojibwe . Other local terms are listed in Ojibwe dialects . English terms include Ojibwe , with variants including Ojibwa and Ojibway . The related term Chippewa
15488-497: The unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain farming or cattle ranching, with mixed farming more common in the north and centre, while ranching and irrigated agriculture predominate in the south. The Alberta badlands are in southeastern Alberta, where the Red Deer River crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep canyons and striking landforms. Dinosaur Provincial Park , near Brooks , showcases
15616-626: The unrelated Siouan language Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) also used Ojibwe when dealing with Europeans and others. Other reports indicate that agents of the American government at Green Bay, Wisconsin , spoke Ojibwe in their interactions with Menominee, with other reports indicating that "the Chippewa, Menominee, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sac, and Fox tribes used Ojibwe in intertribal communication...." Some reports indicate that farther west, speakers of non-Algonquian languages such as Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Iowa , and Pawnee spoke Ojibwe as an "acquired language." In
15744-693: The widely-used double vowel system, fortis consonants are written with voiceless symbols: p, t, k, ch, s, sh . Lenis consonants have normal duration and are typically voiced intervocalically. Although they may be devoiced at the end or beginning of a word, they are less vigorously articulated than fortis consonants, and are invariably unaspirated. In the double vowel system, lenis consonants are written with voiced symbols: b, d, g, j, z, zh . All dialects of Ojibwe have two nasal consonants /m/ and /n/ , one labialized velar approximant /w/ , one palatal approximant /j/ , and either /ʔ/ or /h/ . All dialects of Ojibwe have seven oral vowels . Vowel length
15872-489: The wooded regions, and pronghorn can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits, porcupines , skunks , squirrels, and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one venomous snake species, the prairie rattlesnake . Alberta is home to many large carnivores such as wolves , grizzly bears , black bears , and mountain lions , which are found in
16000-447: Was CA$ 338.2 billion, 15.27% of Canada's GDP. Until the 1930s, Alberta's political landscape consisted of two major parties: the centre-left Liberals and the agrarian United Farmers of Alberta . Today, Alberta is generally perceived as a conservative province. The right-wing Social Credit Party held office continually from 1935 to 1971 before the centre-right Progressive Conservatives held office continually from 1971 to 2015,
16128-569: Was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta (1848–1939), the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria . Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne , Governor General of Canada (1878–83). Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. The name "Alberta" is a feminine Latinized form of Albert , the name of Princess Louise's father, the Prince Consort ( cf. Medieval Latin : Albertus , masculine) and its Germanic cognates, ultimately derived from
16256-636: Was part of the French (and Spanish) territory of Louisiana and was sold to the United States in 1803. In the Treaty of 1818 , the portion of Louisiana north of the Forty-Ninth Parallel was ceded to Great Britain. Fur trade expanded in the north, but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC, and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities. The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870 when
16384-465: Was the homeland of the American bison , also known as buffalo, with its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then, buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta. Herbivores are found throughout the province. Moose , mule deer , elk , and white-tailed deer are found in
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