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94-450: In 1992 the pass gained its current name, which honors Narbona. The name Narbona Pass comes from the Navajo chief Narbona to celebrate his victory over a hostile Mexican invasion of traditional Navajo land. The Narbona Pass runs through the caldera of the long-extinct Narbona Pass volcano, which formed from violent explosive activity. Before being eroded to their present condition, many of

188-820: A Native American people of the Southwestern United States . With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members as of 2021 , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United States; additionally, the Navajo Nation has the largest reservation in the country. The reservation straddles the Four Corners region and covers more than 27,325 square miles (70,770 square kilometers) of land in Arizona , Utah , and New Mexico . The Navajo Reservation

282-408: A Navajo and his three wives to come in and then arrested them for having a plural marriage. A small group of Navajos used force to free the women and retreated to Beautiful Mountain with 30 or 40 sympathizers. They refused to surrender to the agent, and local law enforcement and military refused the agent's request for an armed engagement. General Scott arrived, and with the help of Henry Chee Dodge ,

376-523: A U.S. militiaman. The expedition moved on through the pass, which they named "Washington Pass" in honor of their leader. In 1864 Colonel Kit Carson began a scorched earth policy with his 1st Regiment New Mexico Volunteer Cavalry , destroying the Navajo herds and crops, followed by an invasion of Canyon de Chelly. Eight thousand Navajos were forced to walk to Fort Sumner in the east of New Mexico in 1866, where they were expected to take up farming. Many died on

470-408: A bigger burden, fertility is so highly valued that males are expected to provide economic resources (known as bridewealth ). Corn is a symbol of fertility in Navajo culture as they eat white corn in the wedding ceremonies. It is considered to be immoral and/or stealing if one does not provide for the other in that premarital or marital relationship. A hogan , the traditional Navajo home, is built as

564-454: A force of almost 1,000 Mexican troops on a slaving expedition. On 28 February 1835, Hinojo's force entered the pass. The Navajo headman Narbona had heard of Hinojos's advance, knew he had to come through the pass to reach the Canyon de Chelly, and had carefully prepared an ambush by about 250 warriors. Narbona held back his forces, who were hidden on both sides of the defile. He told them that when

658-518: A hogan. According to Kehoe, this style of housing is distinctive to the Navajos. She writes, "Even today, a solidly constructed, log-walled Hogan is preferred by many Navajo families." Most Navajo members today live in apartments and houses in urban areas. Those who practice the Navajo religion regard the hogan as sacred. The religious song " The Blessingway " ( hózhǫ́ǫ́jí ) describes the first hogan as being built by Coyote with help from Beavers to be

752-515: A house for First Man, First Woman, and Talking God. The Beaver People gave Coyote logs and instructions on how to build the first hogan. Navajos traditionally made their hogans until the 1900s, when they started to make them in hexagonal and octagonal shapes. Hogans continue to be used as dwellings, especially by older Navajos, although they tend to be made with modern construction materials and techniques. Some are maintained specifically for ceremonial purposes. Crumbled House Crumbled House

846-497: A leader among the Navajo, defused the situation. During the time on the reservation, the Navajo tribe was forced to assimilate into white society. Navajo children were sent to boarding schools within the reservation and off the reservation. The first Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school opened at Fort Defiance in 1870 and led the way for eight others to be established. Many older Navajos were against this education and would hide their children to keep them from being taken. Once

940-520: A long relationship with Pueblo people and a willingness to incorporate Puebloan ideas and linguistic variance. There were long-established trading practices between the groups. Mid-16th century Spanish records recount that the Pueblo exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, hides, and stone from Athabaskans traveling to the pueblos or living nearby. In the 18th century, the Spanish reported that

1034-484: A long, pointed "soft-hammer" such as a deer antler. The Navajo people, Southern Athabaskan nomadic hunter-gatherers, arrived in the southwest around 1400 AD and settled in the mountains between the valleys occupied by the Pueblos. The Navajo became farmers, and then herders. Through raids, trade and intermarriage, the Navajo acquired many aspects of the Pueblo culture. However, they remained warlike and in effect defined

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1128-496: A loose alliance to fight Apache and Comanche bands for the next 20 years. During this time there were relatively minor raids by Navajo bands and Spanish citizens against each other. In 1800, Governor Chacon led 500 men to the Tunicha Mountains against the Navajo. Twenty Navajo chiefs asked for peace. In 1804 and 1805, the Navajo and Spaniards mounted major expeditions against each others' settlements. In May 1805, another peace

1222-443: A non-competitive 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) fitness walk, a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) run and a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) run. The 10 km race, among the top 100 races over this distance in the United States, is held every year on the 4th of July weekend. In 2000, almost all of the 400 or more competitors in the very demanding race were local, supported by their family and friends with a relaxed outdoor barbecue environment around

1316-645: A precautionary measure to protect citizens and the Navajos from each other. However, the Spanish/Mexican-Navajo pattern of raids and expeditions continued. Over 400 New Mexican militia conducted a campaign against the Navajo, against the wishes of the Territorial Governor, in 1860–61. They killed Navajo warriors, captured women and children for slaves, and destroyed crops and dwellings. The Navajos call this period Naahondzood , "the fearing time." In 1861, Brigadier-General James H. Carleton , Commander of

1410-528: A proposal by the BIA that segregated units be created for the Indians. The Navajos gained firsthand experience with how they could assimilate into the modern world, and many did not return to the overcrowded reservation, which had few jobs. Four hundred Navajo code talkers played a famous role during World War II by relaying radio messages using their own language. The Japanese were unable to understand or decode it. In

1504-605: A relation to Mesa Verde masonry traditions. The people of this community appear to have been closer in culture to the people of the Mesa Verde than to those of Chaco Canyon. The Crumbled House Black-on-white pottery of the Chuska tradition is similar to Mesa Verde Black-on-white, which was made between 1180 and 1300 AD, although not identical. Crumbled House Black on white has been found at 35% of sites where Mesa Verde Corrugated has been found, and at 20% of sites where Mancos Black-on-white

1598-604: A result, General Vogel recommended their recruitment into the USMC code talker program. Each Navajo went through a basic boot camp at Marine Corps Recruit Depot , San Diego before being assigned to Field Signal Battalion training at Camp Pendleton . Once the code talkers completed training in the States, they were sent to the Pacific for assignment to the Marine combat divisions. With that said, there

1692-419: A shelter for either a man or a woman. Male hogans are square or conical with a distinct rectangular entrance, while a female hogan is an eight-sided house. Hogans are made of logs and covered in mud, with the door always facing east to welcome the sun each morning. Navajos also have several types of hogans for lodging and ceremonial use. Ceremonies, such as healing ceremonies or the kinaaldá , take place inside

1786-557: A time when the Dust Bowl was endangering the Great Plains, the government decided that the land of the Navajo Nation could support only a fixed number of sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. The Federal government believed that land erosion was worsening in the area and the only solution was to reduce the number of livestock. In 1933, John Collier was appointed commissioner of the BIA. In many ways, he worked to reform government relations with

1880-536: A variety of colors including white, pale blue, dark gray and pink. The Narbona Pass in the Chuska mountains holds the only known quarry for this pure, fine-grained and distinctive rock. The chert was traded throughout what is now the Four Corners region, then inhabited by the Ancestral Puebloans , often called Chaco people after their rock wall structures in Chaco Canyon to the east of Narbona Pass. Apart from

1974-526: Is a ruined great house of the Ancestral Puebloans , just east of the Chuska Mountains , in New Mexico. Based on ceramic dating, the buildings were built and occupied between 1100 and 1250 AD. Crumbled House is a Chaco Protection Site, or special management area. Crumbled House is located within the boundary of the Navajo Nation in the northwestern part of the state of New Mexico. Crumbled House lay at

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2068-401: Is a system of clans or K’é that defines relationships between individuals and families. The clan system is exogamous : people can only marry (or date) partners outside their own clans, which for this purpose include the clans of their four grandparents. Some Navajos favor their children to marry into their father's clan. While clans are associated with a geographical area, the area is not for

2162-573: Is around 2 miles (3.2 km) across, with walls 700 feet (210 m) high. Chuska Sandstone is exposed along the crest of the Chuska Mountains in the west of the Narbona Pass. It is the remains of the Chuska erg , a windswept sand field from the Oligocene era, about 34 million to 23 million years ago. The erg is thought to have covered about 125,000 square kilometres (48,000 sq mi) in

2256-450: Is closely related to the languages of the Apache ; the Navajo and Apache are believed to have migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska , where the majority of Athabaskan speakers reside. Additionally, some Navajo know Navajo Sign Language , which is either a dialect or daughter of Plains Sign Talk . Some also know Plains Sign Talk itself. Southern Athabaskan peoples, including

2350-746: Is common in the assemblages of Crumbled House , on the lower slopes of the Chuska Mountains, which was occupied after the Chaco Canyon period. In January 2009 researchers from the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center found a projectile point made of pink stone in Bluebird House, a small pueblo in the Goodman Point group of the Hovenweep National Monument , about 90 miles (140 km) to the north of Narbona pass. The material

2444-442: Is no more than 55 metres (180 ft) by 60 metres (200 ft) in size, containing about 150 rectangular rooms and sixteen round kivas. The lower house is built from dark sandstone rocks collected from the talus slope to the west. Based on ceramic and architectural criteria, the great house was occupied between 1150 and 1250, and the compound between 1250 and 1300. Crumbled House's rock masonry style and keyhole shaped kivas suggest

2538-614: Is said that the bones of some of those killed in the battle may still be found in the pass, as can some of the wooden ladders that the Navajos used to climb up the Standing Rocks where they hid before the ambush. In 1849, shortly after the United States had taken control of New Mexico from the Mexicans, Colonel John M. Washington led a strong force of soldiers and volunteers west into Navajo country. They were met by Navajo envoys who said they were willing to discuss peace, and then encountered

2632-414: Is slightly larger than the state of West Virginia . The Navajo language is spoken throughout the region, and most Navajo also speak English. The states with the largest Navajo populations are Arizona (140,263) and New Mexico (108,305). More than three quarters of the enrolled Navajo population resides in these two states. Besides being enrolled in the Navajo Nation , some Navajo people are citizens of

2726-427: Is the eastern moat. The wide moat separated the mesa from the open plateau along with a strong wall incorporated on the northeastern face completing a ribbon of defense against access from the plateau approach. The third segment and second room block of Crumbled House is about 21 metres (69 ft) to the south of the castle on a steep talus slope, stepping down about 20 metres (66 ft) in five or six terraces. It

2820-653: The Indian Rights Association denounced Collier as a 'dictator' and accused him of a "near reign of terror" on the Navajo reservation. Dippie adds that "He became an object of 'burning hatred' among the very people whose problems so preoccupied him." The long-term result was strong Navajo opposition to Collier's Indian New Deal. Many Navajo young people moved to cities to work in urban factories during World War II. Many Navajo men volunteered for military service in keeping with their warrior culture, and they served in integrated units. The War Department in 1940 rejected

2914-575: The Meriam Report was published in 1929 by the Secretary of Interior, Hubert Work . This report discussed Indian boarding schools as being inadequate in terms of diet, medical services, dormitory overcrowding, undereducated teachers, restrictive discipline, and manual labor by the students to keep the school running. This report was the precursor to education reforms initiated under President Franklin D. Roosevelt , under which two new schools were built on

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3008-725: The Tewa language , meaning a large area of cultivated lands. By the 1640s, the Spanish began using the term Navajo to refer to the Diné. During the 1670s, the Spanish wrote that the Diné lived in a region known as Dinétah , about 60 miles (97 km) west of the Rio Chama Valley region. In the 1770s, the Spanish sent military expeditions against the Navajo in the Mount Taylor and Chuska Mountain regions of New Mexico. The Spanish, Navajo and Hopi continued to trade with each other and formed

3102-544: The United States Board on Geographic Names voted unanimously in favor of the change, perhaps the first time that Native Americans initiated a place name commemorating a Native American. Narbona Pass is also one of the few Native American sites to be named after the victim in a dispute. The 33rd Annual Narbona Pass Classic, formerly the Washington Pass Classic, was held on 1 July 2012. There were three events:

3196-637: The Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian in Santa Fe . It is a repository for sound recordings, manuscripts, paintings, and sandpainting tapestries of the Navajos. It also featured exhibits to express the beauty, dignity, and logic of the Navajo religion. When Klah met Cabot in 1921, he witnessed decades of efforts by the US government and missionaries to assimilate the Navajos into mainstream society. The museum

3290-561: The federally recognized Colorado River Indian Tribes . The Navajo are speakers of a Na-Dené Southern Athabaskan language which they call Diné bizaad (lit. 'People's language'). The term Navajo comes from Spanish missionaries and historians who referred to the Pueblo Indians through this term, although they referred to themselves as the Diné, meaning '(the) people'. The language comprises two geographic, mutually intelligible dialects. It

3384-417: The 1940s, large quantities of uranium were discovered in Navajo land. From then into the early 21st century, the U.S. allowed mining without sufficient environmental protection for workers, waterways, and land. The Navajos have claimed high rates of death and illness from lung disease and cancer resulting from environmental contamination. Since the 1970s, legislation has helped to regulate the industry and reduce

3478-399: The 4,000 to 5,000 people. Large-scale crop failure and disease were also endemic during this time, as were raids by other tribes and white civilians. Some Navajos froze in the winter because they could make only poor shelters from the few materials they were given. This period is known among the Navajos as "The Fearing Time". In addition, a small group of Mescalero Apache , longtime enemies of

3572-519: The Chuska Mountains, from which the builders obtained construction timber. It lies on the Chuska Slope, sometimes called the Chuska Valley, which forms the eastern footslope of the Chuska range. Crumbled House is a fortification type structure that utilizes the natural defenses around a tabletop mesa. The site has two room blocks and three major segments that begin at the top of the mesa, and descend

3666-552: The Chuska- Shiprock volcanoes may have had similar explosive vent structures. The basal deposits in the crater are 5 metres (16 ft) to 20 metres (66 ft) thick, composed of massive lapilli tuff or tuff breccia, overlaid by layers of different deposits that indicate a series of explosive phases. These created a complex mix of sheets of volcanic ash overlaid by thick trachytic lava flows. Three basalt magma flows occurred between 27.5 and 24.3 million years ago. The crater

3760-498: The Federal District of New Mexico, initiated a series of military actions against the Navajos and Apaches. Colonel Kit Carson was at the new Fort Wingate with Army troops and volunteer New Mexico militia. Carleton ordered Carson to kill Mescalero Apache men and destroy any Mescalero property he could find. Carleton believed these harsh tactics would bring any Indian Tribe under control. The Mescalero surrendered and were sent to

3854-528: The Native American tribes, but the reduction program was devastating for the Navajo, for whom their livestock was so important. The government set land capacity in terms of "sheep units". In 1930 the Navajos grazed 1,100,000 mature sheep units. These sheep provided half the cash income for the individual Navajo. Collier's solution was to first launch a voluntary reduction program, which was made mandatory two years later in 1935. The government paid for part of

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3948-600: The Navajo maintained large herds of livestock and cultivated large crop areas. Western historians believe that the Spanish before 1600 referred to the Navajo as Apaches or Quechos . Fray Geronimo de Zarate-Salmeron, who was in Jemez in 1622, used Apachu de Nabajo in the 1620s to refer to the people in the Chama Valley region, east of the San Juan River and northwest of present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico . Navahu comes from

4042-688: The Navajo reservation. But Rough Rock Day School was run in the same militaristic style as Fort Defiance and did not implement educational reforms. Navajo accounts of the Evangelical Missionary School portray it as having a family-like atmosphere with home-cooked meals, new or gently used clothing, humane treatment, and a Navajo-based curriculum. Educators found the Evangelical Missionary School curriculum to be much more beneficial for Navajo children. In 1937, Boston heiress Mary Cabot Wheelright and Navajo singer and medicine man Hastiin Klah founded

4136-624: The Navajo were largely hunters and gatherers . Later, they adopted farming from Pueblo people , growing mainly the traditional Native American " Three Sisters " of corn , beans , and squash . They adopted herding sheep and goats from the Spaniards as a main source of trade and food. Meat became essential in the Navajo diet. Sheep became a form of currency and familial status. Women began to spin and weave wool into blankets and clothing; they created items of highly valued artistic expression, which were also traded and sold. Oral history indicates

4230-563: The Navajo, are thought to have descended from a southward migration of Athabaskan peoples from subarctic North America around 1,000 years ago. It has been suggested that the Navajo and Apaches may have migrated due to the effects of a volcanic explosion in the Saint Elias Mountains of Alaska around 803 AD. Part of the migration was along the Rocky Mountains before arriving in the present-day southwest United States. Initially,

4324-472: The Navajo. In 1849, the military governor of New Mexico, Colonel John MacRae Washington —accompanied by John S. Calhoun, an Indian agent—led 400 soldiers into the Navajo country, penetrating Canyon de Chelly . He signed a treaty with two Navajo leaders: Mariano Martinez as Head Chief and Chapitone as Second Chief. The treaty acknowledged the transfer of jurisdiction from the United Mexican States to

4418-464: The Navajo. The US government made leases for livestock grazing, took land for railroad development, and permitted mining on Navajo land without consulting the tribe. In 1883, Lt. Parker, accompanied by 10 enlisted men and two scouts, went up the San Juan River to separate the Navajos and citizens who had encroached on Navajo land. In the same year, Lt. Lockett, with the aid of 42 enlisted soldiers,

4512-561: The Navajos came in or were found. Some lived near the San Juan River, some beyond the Hopi villages, and others lived with Apache bands. Beginning in the spring of 1864, the Army forced around 9,000 Navajo men, women, and children to walk over 300 miles (480 km) to Fort Sumner , New Mexico, for internment at Bosque Redondo. The internment was disastrous for the Navajo, as the government failed to provide enough water, wood, provisions, and livestock for

4606-514: The Navajos had been relocated to the area, which resulted in conflicts. In 1868, the Treaty of Bosque Redondo was negotiated between Navajo leaders and the federal government allowing the surviving Navajos to return to a reservation on a portion of their former homeland. The United States military continued to maintain forts on the Navajo reservation in the years after the Long Walk. From 1873 to 1895,

4700-429: The United States. Moore understood what the market in the eastern United States would value, and in his catalog stressed the use of natural materials and primitive technology. Nevertheless, he introduced production-line techniques, and had no problem with using machine-produced yarns with synthetic dyes. Traders in Navajo rugs had to keep costs down to be able to offer competitive prices, therefore wages were low. Talking of

4794-496: The United States. The treaty allowed forts and trading posts to be built on Navajo land. In exchange, the United States, promised "such donations [and] such other liberal and humane measures, as [it] may deem meet and proper." While en route to sign this treaty, the prominent Navajo peace leader Narbona, was killed, causing hostility between the treaty parties. During the next 10 years, the U.S. established forts on traditional Navajo territory. Military records cite this development as

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4888-467: The arrangement led to a gradual end in Navajo raids, as the tribe was able to increase their livestock and crops. Also, the tribe gained an increase in the size of the Navajo reservation from 3.5 million acres (14,000 km ; 5,500 sq mi) to 16 million acres (65,000 km ; 25,000 sq mi) as it stands today. But economic conflicts with non-Navajos continued for many years as civilians and companies exploited resources assigned to

4982-542: The body and the Carrizo Mountains are the legs and feet. During the early nineteenth century there were frequent Navajo raids into Mexican territory and attacks on traders using the Santa Fe Trail , and counter-raids by the Mexicans, often for the purpose of slavery. In 1804 the Navajos made attacks on the Spanish military post at Cebolletta, and on nearby settlements. They were trying to recover their grazing land at

5076-450: The buildings in the Chaco Canyon, there were great houses distributed across the lands of the Chaco people, some dating from the Chaco era (900–1150 AD) and others of more recent date. Exotic materials like Narbona Pass Chert are found much more often in the Chaco Canyon assemblages of stone tools than in those of the other great houses. In Chaco Canyon between 1020 AD and 1120 AD,

5170-539: The chert accounted for more than 20% of the material used for making stone tools, apparently imported in its raw form rather than as manufactured tools. Narbona Pass chert is also present in Bluff Great House , Navajo Springs and Lake Valley from the Chaco period, but accounts for less than one part in a thousand of the total chipped stone. It is not found at all in Chimney Rock Pueblo or Raton Well. However, it

5264-653: The children arrived at the boarding school, their lives changed dramatically. European Americans taught the classes under an English-only curriculum and punished any student caught speaking Navajo. The children were under militaristic discipline, run by the Siláo . In multiple interviews, subjects recalled being captured and disciplined by the Siláo if they tried to run away. Other conditions included inadequate food, overcrowding, required manual labor in kitchens, fields, and boiler rooms; and military-style uniforms and haircuts. Change did not occur in these boarding schools until after

5358-474: The command of Captain John Reid, who journeyed deep into Navajo country and contacted him, Narbona and other Navajos negotiated a treaty of peace with Colonel Alexander Doniphan at Bear Springs, Ojo del Oso (later the site of Fort Wingate ). This agreement was not honored by some Navajo, nor by some New Mexicans. The Navajos raided New Mexican livestock, and New Mexicans took women, children, and livestock from

5452-505: The diarist of the Washington expedition said of the western entrance to the park, "I noticed towering pines and firs, also the oak, the aspen, and the willow; and bordering the stream there was a great variety of shrubbery, the hop vine, loaded with its fruit, being intertwined among them. Flowers of rich profusion and of every hue and delicacy, were also constantly before the eye–upwards of ninety varieties having been picked up since we entered

5546-515: The exclusive use of any one clan. Members of a clan may live hundreds of miles apart but still have a clan bond. Historically, the structure of the Navajo society is largely a matrilineal system, in which the family of the women owned livestock, dwellings, planting areas, and livestock grazing areas. Once married, a Navajo man would follow a matrilocal residence and live with his bride in her dwelling and near her mother's family. Daughters (or, if necessary, other female relatives) were traditionally

5640-480: The extreme west end of the Chaco Canyon influence area and 72 kilometres (45 mi) west of central Chaco Canyon proper. The site also exists in a line of sight configuration leading southeast toward Kin Kletso. The site is located about 104 kilometres (65 mi) south of Mesa Verde , at an average elevation of about 1,790 metres (5,870 ft) above sea level. The site is about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) southwest of

5734-429: The finish line. Running is part of the Navajo culture, although perhaps because that culture also de-emphasizes competition there are relatively few Navajo runners at the elite levels of the sport. The Narbona Pass Classic race is challenging, through difficult forest terrain. Nicholas Kipruto, a former Diné College runner from Kenya , set a record for the 10 km race in 2009 with a time of 34:07. The winner in 2011

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5828-456: The following years, but they seem all to have been temporary, trading from tents in the summer season. In 1896 John Bradford Moore arrived, an Irishman from Sheridan, Wyoming who had no problem with the climate. He bought the trading site, then cut timber in the mountains and hauled it down to build a log trading post, which he stocked with supplies carted from the rail head in Gallup . His post

5922-560: The foot of Mount Taylor , their sacred Turquoise Mountain. In 1805 the Spanish Lt. Col. Antonio Narbona (no relative of the Navajo leader) crossed the Narbona Pass on a retaliatory expedition from Zuni Pueblo into Canyon de Chelly. The Narbona expedition killed more than 115 Navajo and took 33 women and children as slaves. In February 1835 the Mexican Captain Blas de Hinojos left Santa Fe and headed west into Navajo country with

6016-533: The gorge [Narbona Pass] yesterday. Indeed, we are all in hopes that, yesterday and today, we have been having an earnest of what we may yet behold in this part of the world–a rich, well-timbered and sufficiently well-watered country." However, even in July, the temperature is cool, only reaching 70 °F (21 °C) at noon. Only two months of the year are free of frost. In the winter, up to 50 inches (1,300 mm) of snow may accumulate in drifts on north-facing slopes in

6110-409: The ground and then met with several hundred Navajos at Houcks Tank. Rancher Bennett, whose horse was allegedly stolen, told Kerr that his horses were stolen by the three whites to catch a horse thief. In the same year, Lt. Scott went to the San Juan River with two scouts and 21 enlisted men. The Navajos believed Scott was there to drive off the whites who had settled on the reservation and had fenced off

6204-463: The local towns surrounding the Navajo reservations contributed to residents becoming bilingual; however Navajo was still the primary language spoken at home. The Navajo Livestock Reduction was imposed upon the Navajo Nation by the federal government starting in 1933, during the Great Depression . Under various forms, it continued into the 1950s. Worried about large herds in the arid climate, at

6298-402: The main Navajo forces. The Navajos, led by Narbona and José Largo, brought gifts that included many sheep and horses. After the talks, one of the Navajos was accused of stealing a horse from a Mexican who was accompanying the troops. When the Navajos made to leave, Washington's troops shot six of them as they fled, including Narbona. The 82-year-old Narbona, with his long white hair, was scalped by

6392-577: The march or later from smallpox. The survivors were allowed to return in 1868, and were assigned reservation lands that covered 11,500,000 acres (4,700,000 ha) by 1886. The first known trader in the Washington Pass was Romulo Martinez, a Spanish-American from Fort Defiance, in 1873. On 31 March 1877 Perry H. Williams was licensed to trade at Washington Pass. Ben Hyatt traded there from 1882 to 1884, and Stephen Aldrich and Elias Clark traded for one season in 1884. The names of other traders are recorded for

6486-500: The military employed Navajos as "Indian Scouts" at Fort Wingate to help their regular units. During this period, Chief Manuelito founded the Navajo Tribal Police . It operated from 1872 to 1875 as an anti-raid task force working to maintain the peaceful terms of the 1868 Navajo treaty. By treaty, the Navajos were allowed to leave the reservation for trade, with permission from the military or local Indian agent . Eventually,

6580-550: The new reservation called Bosque Redondo . In 1863, Carleton ordered Carson to use the same tactics on the Navajo. Carson and his force swept through Navajo land, killing Navajos and destroying crops and dwellings, fouling wells, and capturing livestock. Facing starvation and death, Navajo groups came to Fort Defiance for relief. On July 20, 1863, the first of many groups departed to join the Mescalero at Bosque Redondo. Other groups continued to come in through 1864. However, not all

6674-499: The northern limit to Spanish expansion. The stronghold of the Canyon de Chelly , to the west of the Narbona Pass, became the sacred center of the Navajo people. Narbona Pass was called Beesh Lichii'ii Bigiizh , or Copper Pass, by the Navajo people . The Navajo see the Chuska range as the body of a male god. Chuska peak is its head, Narbona Pass the neck, the Tunicha and Lukachukai ranges are

6768-420: The ones who received the generational property inheritance. In cases of marital separation, women would maintain the property and children. Children are "born to" and belong to the mother's clan, and are "born for" the father's clan. The mother's eldest brother has a strong role in her children's lives. As adults, men represent their mother's clan in tribal politics. Traditionally, there are four clans said to be

6862-559: The original ones, given to the Navajo from Asdzą́ą́ Nádleehé or Changing Woman. Today there are more than 100 clans, some of which include other Native nations, such as Naashtʼézhí diné’e referring to the Zuni , of the Naashgalí diné’é , referring to the Mescalero Apache. Men and women are seen as contemporary equals as both males and females are needed to reproduce. Although women may carry

6956-486: The pass is also used for biking. With an out-and-back length of 36 miles (58 km), starting at 5,900 feet (1,800 m) and rising to 8,700 feet (2,700 m) at the top of the pass, the rider must be in good physical shape. Part of the reward is the spectacular panoramic views. There is an unserviced campground in the pass. A fee is payable, and campfires are allowed. Notes Citations Sources Navajo culture Canada : The Navajo or Diné , are

7050-531: The pass was named after George Washington , or perhaps Washington, D.C. However, in 1990 students of the Navajo Community College in Shiprock learned the true history, became indignant about having an enemy of the Navajos commemorated in the name of an important location on the Navajo Nation, and started a campaign to change the name to "Narbona Pass". They gained widespread support. On 10 December 1992

7144-532: The pass. Writing in 1884 about a proposed sheep ranch, Thomas Keam said, "The mountain plain was very pleasant in summer, but entirely impracticable in winter, as it is one of the coldest places on the reservation. [I] was told that it was one of the coldest places on the reservation ... in winter ... it is often covered with two feet of snow." Narbona Pass Chert is finely textured and has regular breakage patterns that make it an excellent material for making stone tools and weapon heads by flintknapping . The chert has

7238-410: The post, holding it until 1981. Apparently Jenson developed the current Crystal rug. The Navajo gradually became more prosperous and more autonomous, although there were periodic problems such as crises of overgrazing . In the 1950s development of coal, oil and uranium brought money into the Navajo community along with social problems and pollution. Most Navajos forgot about the past events and assumed

7332-628: The respect of all Americans. The name "Navajo" comes from the late 18th century via the Spanish (Apaches de) Navajó "(Apaches of) Navajó", which was derived from the Tewa navahū "farm fields adjoining a valley". The Navajos call themselves Diné . Like other Apacheans , the Navajos were semi-nomadic from the 16th through the 20th centuries. Their extended kinship groups had seasonal dwelling areas to accommodate livestock, agriculture, and gathering practices. As part of their traditional economy, Navajo groups may have formed trading or raiding parties, traveling relatively long distances. There

7426-510: The river from the Navajo. Scott found evidence of many non-Navajo ranches. Only three were active, and the owners wanted payment for their improvements before leaving. Scott ejected them. In 1890, a local rancher refused to pay the Navajos a fine for livestock. The Navajos tried to collect it, and whites in southern Colorado and Utah claimed that 9,000 of the Navajos were on a warpath. A small military detachment out of Fort Wingate restored white citizens to order. In 1913, an Indian agent ordered

7520-474: The southeast Colorado Plateau , and was surrounded by volcanic fields of the same era. The sandstone mostly came from the Precambrian basement of central Arizona, with uranium-lead dates peaking around 1700 million years ago and 1425 million years ago. The sandstone to the west was later eroded, with 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) being lost in the basin, but remnants remain on the mountains. On 3 September 1849

7614-404: The surrounding valley. One side is about 47 metres (154 ft) long and the other two faces about 81 metres (266 ft) long. There may have been about eighty ground floor rooms in this block, twenty-five rooms on the second story and fourteen subterranean kivas . The masonry walls are made of sandstone cobbles collected from the talus slope. The second segment and a major defensive feature

7708-453: The talus west slope and the plateau east slope via the use of stairways. The mesa top segment formed a triangular upper block. There were massive circular towers at each tip of the triangular structure; high stone walls followed the edges of the mesa. Its layout led to the upper segment being referred to as the "Castle of the Chuskas". The upper segment is 30 metres (98 ft) above the floor of

7802-433: The time was right, and not before, they would cut the long file of men into small pieces, like cutting a long tree trunk into firewood. When the owl hoot signal was given, the Navajos poured arrows into the column, those who had guns fired, and some threw stones or rolled rocks into the gorge. Taken completely by surprise, both men and horses panicked and were routed. Many of the Mexicans were killed, including their leader. It

7896-543: The toll. The Navajo Code Talkers played a significant role in USMC history. Using their own language they utilized a military code; for example, the Navajo word "turtle" represented a tank. In 1942, Marine staff officers composed several combat simulations and the Navajo translated it and transmitted it in their dialect to another Navajo on the other line. This Navajo then translated it back into English faster than any other cryptographic facility, which demonstrated their efficacy. As

7990-484: The value of each animal, but it did nothing to compensate for the loss of future yearly income for so many Navajo. In the matrilineal and matrilocal world of the Navajo, women were especially hurt, as many lost their only source of income with the reduction of livestock herds. The Navajos did not understand why their centuries-old practices of raising livestock should change. They were united in opposition but they were unable to stop it. Historian Brian Dippie notes that

8084-448: The weaver's life, Moore said, "there is no more dismal wage proposition than her remuneration for her part in the industry. Given any other paying outlet for her labor, there would very soon be no such thing as a blanket industry ... it is her one and only way of earning money." Moore was succeeded by A. J. Molohon, who continued to introduce complex non-Navajo styles that probably drew on Oriental rug designs. The Crystal Trading Post

8178-454: Was Jackson Thomas of Naschitti with a time of 39:43. That year three of the competitors in the 5 km race were women in their seventies. In 2012 Kipruto won again with a time of 34:36 followed by Jackson Thomas with a time of 39:40. There is a relatively easy cross-country ski trail in the crater from the road to Todacheene Lake . It is about 3 miles (4.8 km) long with a vertical gain of 200 feet (61 m). The road up to and through

8272-551: Was established. Similar patterns of peace-making, raiding, and trading among the Navajo, Spaniards, Apache, Comanche, and Hopi continued until the arrival of Americans in 1846. The Navajos encountered the United States Army in 1846 when General Stephen W. Kearny invaded Santa Fe with 1,600 men during the Mexican–American War . On November 21, 1846, following an invitation from a small party of American soldiers under

8366-614: Was founded to preserve the religion and traditions of the Navajo, which Klah was sure would otherwise soon be lost forever. The result of these boarding schools led to much language loss within the Navajo Nation. After the Second World War, the Meriam Report funded more children to attend these schools with six times as many children attending boarding school than before the War. English as the primary language spoken at these schools as well as

8460-521: Was identified as Narbona Pass Chert, a rare find for archaeological sites anywhere in the Mesa Verde region to the north of the San Juan River . Most likely the artifact was made during the period between 1000 AD and 1140 AD, when there was an extensive regional trading network centered on Chaco Canyon. It was probably manufactured using a pressure flaking technique in Narbona Pass before being exported to Crow Canyon. The Pueblo flintknapper would have used

8554-485: Was in the western entrance to the pass. He named it the Crystal Trading Post. During the winter months, he employed Navajo weavers to make rugs. Moore ensured that the wool and the weaving was good quality, and created designs of his own, quickly gaining a reputation as a source of good quality rugs. Moore's business flourished, and in 1903 and in 1911 he published mail-order catalogs, drawing business from across

8648-460: Was joined by Lt. Holomon at Navajo Springs . Evidently, citizens of the surnames Houck and/or Owens had murdered a Navajo chief's son, and 100 armed Navajo warriors were looking for them. In 1887, citizens Palmer, Lockhart, and King fabricated a charge of horse stealing and randomly attacked a dwelling on the reservation. Two Navajo men and all three whites died as a result, but a woman and a child survived. Capt. Kerr (with two Navajo scouts) examined

8742-479: Was never a crack in the Navajo language, it was never deciphered. It is known that many more Navajos volunteered to become code talkers than could be accepted; however, an undetermined number of other Navajos served as Marines in the war, but not as code talkers. These achievements of the Navajo Code Talkers have resulted in an honorable chapter in USMC history. Their patriotism and honor inevitably earned them

8836-748: Was owned by the C.C. Manning company from 1919 to 1922. Later Charlie Newcomb and then Jim Collyer owned the post. Until the 1930s the Crystal rugs were bordered, with a central design woven in natural colors, sometimes with some red. After this, the style changed to banded rugs with distinctive "wavy" lines made by alternating weft strands in two or three different colors. A typical new-style Crystal rug will alternate groups of two or three wavy or solid lines with broader bands decorated with patterns representing squash blossoms or geometrical motifs. The newer rugs are woven in muted colors such as rust, rich brown and grey, but may include pastel colors. In 1944 Don Jensen bought

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